Selections from Various Assignments LIN 701 – Phonology I Nathaniel Muncie Definitions and Responses: a. Writing is a system using symbols or letters to write any one language down. Most

languages have their own writing systems. Each writing system has its own spelling, punctuation, spacing, breaking of words, and so on. The purpose behind writing is to freeze visual/spoken language, usually on paper (stone, wood, and a plethora of other materials have been and are used today, besides paper).

Example: Earlier today, I met Sally at the supermarket. b. Transcription is different from writing in that speech is written down using symbols

for each sound made. In comparison to transcription, writing does not necessarily reflect what is spoken on a phonetic level, whereas, with transcription, what is spoken is written down as to be able to know exactly what was spoken, not what was communicated. The purpose for transcription is to provide visual access to the sounds or paradigms of language production.

Example: ərliər tədeɪ aɪ mɛt sali æt ðə supərmɑrkət c. Notation is a system of symbols used by convention, usually differing from

convention to convention. Notation symbols are used for noting quantities, technical elements, or for ambiguous notes. Scientists, linguists, technologists, etc. use notation for efficient intercommunication within their respective fields. An example of a notational system is the Stokoe system, used for transcribing signs.

Example: lFe Q QGfxGt

x [Gfx QGz [Gf

x lOtx QbOnOn

1. What is a segment?

A segment is a discrete unit that we can discern from other like units in audial or visual communication. A segment is a general unit, referring to any unit, rather than a specific type of unit. For example, in ASL, in the sentence, “YOUR NAME WHAT,” I would need to examine the units of each of the signs in sequence. As I break down each of these signs in sequence (or if I approach the signs in non-sequential order), any of the units I can discern are segments, in general. 2. How can a sound be described?

A sound can be described in multiple ways from different approaches. One might describe a sound as in how it is articulated and controlled in the vocal facilities—in the mouth, neck, and nose. Another might describe sound as in different units in the speech stream by focusing on quality and quantity, ignoring the physical arrangements that help produce and modify those sounds. On another note, sounds could be described as different combinations of airflow techniques in the vocal facilities, as a person manipulates airflow and consequentially controls the sounds being produced.

3. What is a consonant? A consonant is a sound made by restricting airflow in some sort of way within the

vocal facilities. Consonants are often made with a complete/partial closure/block of some kind in order to produce the desired voiced or voiceless consonantal sound. Consonants are often used to delimitate syllables in spoken language, and are often paired with vowels and sometimes, with other consonants in syllables. 4. What is a vowel?

In contrast to consonants, vowels are sounds produced with unrestricted or partially restricted airflow that produces various sounds with various pitches. Often vowels are produced with airflow that is steadily pushed through the vocal tract. Vowels are oftentimes differentiated from each other by pairing off with consonants or consonant clusters. Vowels are the main sounds one might hear, because of their higher sound volume, and wide range of pitches. 5. How can a part of sign be described?

Traditionally and popularly, a sign is usually broken down into five parts: location, handshape, movement, orientation, and non-manuals. Taking one part, and describing that part in detail is one way “a part of sign be described”. For example, I could take the sign HUNGRY and break it down into its traditional parts. Focusing on the handshape part of this particular sign, I could describe it as a “C” handshape. Of course, I would need to describe the other parts of the sign HUNGRY in order to accurately describe the sign as a whole. 6. What is a trans-forming segment or movement?

A trans-forming segment or movement is a point in the stream of language in which a new linguistic unit is produced and differentiated from other units. A trans-forming segment or movement is one that delimitates one unit of meaning from another, as the subject communicates. One could argue that the existence of a trans-forming segment and/or movement gives support that visual language can be examined from an abstract (i.e. 3D) or sequential production perspective. In basic and simple terms, a trans-forming segment or movement is content between “holds” when describing visual language in sequence. 7. What is a postural segment or hold?

In contrast to trans-forming segments (movements), postural segments (holds) are “frozen units” in the stream of communication in which a hand configuration is displayed for any amount of time, without any trans-formation or movement taking place. It is in a postural segment/hold in which a sign can be described with a static location and orientation. An example of a hold can be found in the sign, KING. As one signs KING, there are two holds with one movement in between them. The two holds are similar: “K” handshape, location (from a right-handed person’s perspective) at either upper left torso or lower right waist, and palm orientation being toward the signer.

8. The Stokoe Notation was the first attempt to record the phonological form of signs. Do you feel that Stokoe Notation treats the ASL sign in the same way that the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) treats a spoken word? In other words, can we find parallels between the two systems? Use specific examples to support your discussion.

No, I do not feel that Stokoe Notation treats ASL signs in the exact same way as the IPA treats a spoken word. The reason for this is that the Stokoe Notation system places elements of signs in too broad or general categories, preventing one from being able to fully produce the sign after reading the notation, while having no prior knowledge of the sign itself. An IPA transcription fully allows any person, with knowledge of the IPA symbols and how to produce the represented sounds, to actually produce the original sounds as transcribed, even without prior knowledge of the original. For example, in Stokoe notation, “lFe Q QGf

xGtx [Gf

x QGz [Gfx lOt

x QbOnOn” (In English: Earlier today, I met Sally at the supermarket) might be sufficient for an ASL user to fairly understand and produce, but as for those without any knowledge of the signs represented, they are out of luck. For example using the IPA, “ərliər tədeɪ aɪ mɛt sali æt ðə supərmɑrkət” can be reproduced exactly identical to the original (Earlier today, I met Sally at the supermarket). The parallel between the two notational systems is that they both attempt to record language at a phonetic level, one with very little success, and the other with efficiency and usefulness. 1. With examples, explain the difference between phonemes and allophones.

Phonemes are sounds that are perceived to be different from one another. Allophones are sounds that are audibly similar but are perceived to be the same basic sound (related to one phoneme). The relationship between phonemes and allophones could be likened unto a superhero or any average Joe. The way they can be likened unto superheroes is that one superhero is the superhero in certain contexts and is a normal person in other contexts. They are the same person, but are never in the same room. They have different roles. An example of this would be the English [p] (not aspirated) and [ph] (aspirated). Any normal English-speaking native would fathom any one of these two changing the meaning of a word. They are perceived to be the same sound, even though they are phonetically distinct. 2. With examples from 2 languages, explain why linguists are interested in finding minimal pairs in the phonology of a language - what do minimal pairs tell us about the phonological structure of a language?

Linguists are interested in finding minimal pairs in the phonology of a language because minimal pairs clarify and point out the phonemes and allophones of a language. The textbook defines minimal pairs as “pairs of words that differ in only a single sound in the same position within the word” (Zsiga, 2013). When two sounds, which may phonetically sound alike or different, change the meaning of a word when switched, a minimal pair is found. Knowing the minimal pairs in a language’s phonology helps linguists to understand the patterns and relationships of sounds in that

language—what works and what does not. In Icelandic, síða (side) and ríða (to ride) are minimal pairs, since exchanging just one sound in the same place in both creates two similar words with different meanings. In English, side and ride are minimal pairs, just as their Icelandic equivalents, since changing just one sound in each word in the same place changes the meaning of the similar words. 3. What is contrast? Discuss the difference between simultaneous and sequential contrast.

Contrast the label for that when a change is made in form, a change in structure or meaning follows (Hochgesang, 2013). Sequential contrast occurs when one segment is switched with a different one, thusly resulting in a difference in structure and meaning. Simultaneous contrast, or opposition, is a difference in meaning or structure that results from changing one feature of a segment with another feature, such as a feature in one segment of a phoneme in spoken language or one feature in a sign in signed languages. One example of this is in the ASL sign for TWO^WEEKS^AGO. If the handshape for TWO were changed to THREE, the meaning of the sign changes completely, now to mean “three weeks ago”.

Questions and Answers: 1. Phonotactics is the area of phonology concerned with the analysis and description of the permitted sound sequences of a language (Merriam-Webster.com n.d.). An example of phonotactics in English is the permitted vowel-consonant sequencing as shown in the following picture:

[Language files, p. 103]. Such consonant-vowel patterns are permitted in English; however, there are exceptions and rules about which sounds can be next to which. This is the sort of thing dealt with phonotactics.

Phonotactic constraints are phonological rules that define what sound combinations may or may not occur in a language (Phonology3 n.d.). An example of a phonotactic constraint in English is that consonant clusters cannot happen unless the beginning of the cluster is the /s/ sound, such as “STRep”, “SPLits”, and “SCReam.” Clusters are typically two or more consonantal sounds in sequence, uninterrupted by a vowel.

Possible words are words that follow phonotactic constraints but are not (yet) actual words in a language. An example of a possible word is “binging”. I just made up that verb (can be a noun, too), and it follows English constraint rules. Impossible words are words that do not follow phonotactic constraints and cannot become actual words in a language, unless altered to obey contraints. “Lkraskyp” is an impossible word in English, since initial consonant clusters in English that do not begin with an /s/ are in violation of English phonotactic rules. The “yp” at the end of this impossible word is not a violation of English phonotactic rules, since in this case, it would be pronounced as /ip/

or /æp/ and not, /yp/ (an impossible ending cluster). 2.

“Unkabogable” is a possible English word, although it is borrowed from the Filipino slang term for “untouchable.” One consonantal sound followed by one vowel sound is perfectly acceptable in English. The consonant cluster near the end, “ble”, is a possible English sound sequence, simply because a /ǝ/ is inserted between /b/ and /l/. Such a combination without a vowel between is not permitted at the end of an English word, but is possible in the beginning, such as in “bleak” and “blue.” 3. PHILOSOPHY, a borrowed sign from European signed languages, is permitted in ASL, since the handshape (“5”), location near the head temple, palm orientation downward, and movements consisting of forward and back motion while fingers fluttering, are all permitted by ASL phonotactic rules. These paradigms are used in other ASL signs such as HELLO, WAR, COLOR, WALK, among others. 4.

SIGN FIRST HANDSHAPE

SECOND HANDSHAPE

1 LAST-YEAR A G 2 SISTER A G 3 BROTHER C G 4 OUTSIDE 5 O 5 WHY-NOT (Michigan’s version) B A 6 RAN-OUT-OF C A 7 GO L O 8 STUBBORN B A 9 HOMEWORK O A

10 NOTATION O B 11 GIVE-AWAY O 5 12 FAST 5 A 13 GALLAUDET L O 14 BEAUTIFUL 5 O 15 UGLY G X 5.

I noticed that when a sign begins with a B-handshape, I could expect the A-handshape will come next. The same occurs with a 5-handshape, but that most of the time, an O-handshape is next, and less often, an A-handshape. A L-handshape is also followed by an O-handshape. Looking for patterns in reverse order, I noticed that when I see an O-handshape, I could expect a 5-handshape or a L-handshape. As for illegal sequencing in ASL signs, I noticed that in non-fingerspelling signs, two closed handshapes in sequence are rare. An open handshape needs to follow a closed handshape, or vice-versa. It is rare to find two closed or open handshapes in sequence, without having a third opposite type handshape, preceding or taking place after the pair (i.e. BROTHER).

6. A maximum of two sequential handshapes are permitted in one sign. It is not

possible in English, to include three sequential handshapes in one sign. The same is true for symmetrical and non-symmetrical simultaneous handshape signs. Such permitted sequences are evident in LAST-YEAR, HELP, STROKE, THROW-OUT, among others.

Questions and Answers:

Alternation is the process that occurs when a sound(s) changes when occurs in an illegal position, often next to or near another sound which it cannot be near. Patterns of alternations exist in every language. An example of alternation is the morpheme “in” as used in English. Before vowels, “in-” sounds normal. Before bilabials, such as [m], [b], and [p], “in-” will change into “im-” (Zsiga, 2013).

Allomorphs are to morphemes, as allophones are to phonemes. Hence, allomorphs are morpheme variants that do not produce differences in meaning. Various allomorphs of a morpheme may occur in different environments, depending on phonological constraints and rules. As an example, the allomorphs of the “in-” morpheme are [ɪn], [ɪm], and [ɪŋ], all of which occur (surface forms) in different environments, as described in the example for alternation above.

An underlining form is the basic form of a morpheme, in other words, the general representation of a morpheme. The surface form is how that morpheme may show up in a particular situation or environment (allomorph). An example of underlining and surface forms is the same as used before: the “in-” morpheme and its allomorphs, [ɪn], [ɪm], and [ɪŋ]. Alternations: a. s becomes z when followed by voiced sound local assimilation b. k is added when preceded by a nasal and followed by s epenthesis c. the vowel ɪ is inserted between two sibilants epenthesis d. i, ɪ, u and ʊ become ə in unstressed syllables lenition e. ps becomes sp at the end of the word metathesis f. t becomes p when the following sound is p local assimilation g. o becomes u when i occurs in the preceding syllable dissimilation h. r becomes l when l occurs in the next syllable long-distance assimilation i. t becomes s when followed by s local assimilation j. t and ts are both produced as tš when the following sound is i fortition k. d is not produced when it is followed by z deletion l. ə is lost when it is in unstressed word-initial position deletion m. t becomes k when following an s dissimilation? n. t and p become p when preceding an p coalescence o. word-final ə is lost when in an unstressed syllable deletion

1. Discuss distinctive features. Please use examples to support your discussion.

Distinctive features are features of sounds that make them contrastive to other sounds. When analyzing sounds and focusing on the features that are different in segments across sounds, we have a different approaches to discuss sounds and their relationships with each other. An example of distinctive features for the two English sounds, /p/ and /b/, is that they share all distinctive features except for the [vd] feature. The difference in this feature is what makes the two sounds contrastive.

2. (From Zsiga 2013) What makes a hypothesis falsifiable?

The ability to prove a hypothesis as true or false from the analysis of data makes it falsifiable. When a hypothesis is falsifiable, it becomes interesting. Also, the use of a higher register of language and the use of specific terminology helps to make a hypothesis precise.

3. (From Zsiga 2013) Why is it better for a hypothesis to be more constrained? It is better for a hypothesis to be more constrained because if it were an overly generalized hypothesis, it would waste time and energy to prove true or false. Also, experiments must be replicable, meaning that anyone else can conduct the experiment in the exact same way to test the results. This helps to keep error at bay and makes studies more realistic, honest, and specific. The process of eliminating as many scenarios as possible, honing down the hypothesis to be as precise as possible. 5. Consider the following handshapes from ASL. Propose three binary features that can capture the differences between all the eight handshapes (replace ‘feature1’, ‘feature2’ and ‘feature3’), and fill in the chart below with values for each handshape (replace + or - with the appropriate value depending on the feature you’ve proposed).

Exposed Palm - + - - - + - - Curved Finger(s) - + + + - - + - Outstretched Thumb + - - - - + - -

Problem Solving: [Language Files, #28] Standard Spanish Standard Spanish is an Indo-European language of the Romance family. Examine the phones [d] and [ð]. Determine whether they are allophones of one phoneme or of separate phonemes. If they are allophones of one phoneme, identify the type of distribution. If they are in complementary distribution, state a rule that describes the distribution. If [d] and [ð] are allophones of separate phonemes, give minimal pairs that prove this.

[d] and [ð] are allophones of the same phoneme. Evidence for this is the distribution of these two sounds. [d] is used when word-initial or when preceded by a consonant. [ð] is used when between two vowels. They are in complementary distribution. Other evidence that these two sounds are allophones of the same phoneme and are not separate phonemes is the lack of minimal pairs in this data set.

Rule: [d] → [ð] / V_V Clearly describe and provide an example for each.

a) What is a surface representation? Surface representation is the form of a phoneme or morpheme that is actually pronounced in communication. This is the form of the schema of a phoneme that

is stored in one’s lexicon, which will be expressed in various ways (allophones/allomorphs) depending on the environment (Zsiga, 2013, p. 215). One classic example of a surface representation is the [in-] suffix in English. This is actually the underlying representation. The surface forms of [in-] are [in-], [im-], and [iŋ-] depending on the following sound.

b) What is an underlying representation? An underlying representation is the schematic form of a phoneme/morpheme that is stored in one’s mental lexicon, before it is retrieved and expressed in spoken/signed language communication (surface representations are manifested in actual communication) (Zsiga, 2013, p. 215). In English, the past tense suffix for verbs can surface as [t], [d], or [ɨd], depending on the previous sound. The underlying representation is [d] (Zsiga, 2013, pp. 226-227)

c) What is a phonological rule? A phonological rule is an indication of what happens when one unit (phonological) comes into contact with another unit for a given language (Wolfram & Johnson, 1982, p. 88). An example of a phonological rule in Spanish: [d] → [ð] / V__V This indicates that when [d] falls between two vowels, the [d] becomes [ð] (Language Files, 2011, p 141).

d) What is a derivation? Derivation is the process of applying phonological rules as a unit arises from its underlying form to appear as its surface form depending on the environment (Wolfram & Johnson, 1982, p. 114). An example of derivation: English past tense suffix (Zsiga, 2013, p. 227)

a. The underlying form of the past tense suffix is /d/. b. If the suffix is added to a word that ends with an alveolar stop, a vowel is

inserted to derive the surface form [ɨd], otherwise c. If the suffix is added to a word that ends with a voiceless consonant, the

surface form is [t], otherwise d. The surface form is [d].

(From Lab, Wolfram and Johnson Chapter 8) Do exercises 1 and 2 here. Please type out the full problem first.

EXERCISE 1 Convert the following prose descriptions to the formal conventions presented above. Be sure to read carefully.

1. Z becomes W when preceded by D and followed by F. 2. W is rewritten as Y preceding A. 3. R optionally becomes S when following C, preceding A and simultaneous with

D. 4. t sometimes becomes č when followed by y and preceded by a vowel

(symbolized as V). 5. I is rewritten as ɛ preceding m, n, or ŋ. 6. T and d become a flap ɾ when preceded by a stressed vowel (symbolized as

V′). My Answers:

1. Z → W / D __ F 2. W → Y / __ A 3. R → (S) / C __ A

D 4. t → (č) / V __ y 5. I → ɛ / ___ m, n, ŋ 6. t, d → ɾ / V′ __ V

(From Lab, Writing Phonological Rules, page 95) Do exercises 1 and 2 here. Please type out the full problem first.

1) State what the following rules do in plain English: a) [+nas] → ∅ / [+syl] ___ #

Nasals are deleted when word-final and preceded by a vowel.

b) ⎣⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎤+syl

+high → [-syl] / ___ [+syl] High vowels lose their syllabic quality when following a syllabic vowel, becoming glides y or w.

c) ∅ → ⎣⎢⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎥⎤+syl

+high-back

/ ⎣⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎤+strident

+coronal + ___ ⎣⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎤-sonorant

+coronal

An high front (or middle) vowel is inserted when preceded by a s, z, š, ž, č, or ǰ-ending prefix and followed by any of the following: ɵ, đ, t, d, s, z, š, ž, č, or ǰ.

d) ⎣⎢⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎥⎤-sonorant

-continuant-labial

→ [-back] / ___ ⎣⎢⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎥⎤+syl

-back+high

When preceding a high back vowel, k and g become one of the following: t, d, č, ǰ.

e) V → [+stress] / ___ C0 V C0 V C0 # A vowel becomes stressed when followed by two syllables with unstressed vowels.

Restate the following rules in formal notation:

a) The glide [y] is inserted between a high front vowel and any following vowel.

∅ → ⎣⎢⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎥⎤-syl

+son-cons

/ ⎣⎢⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎥⎤+syl

+hi-bk

___ V

b) A voiced consonant becomes nasal after a nasal stop.

⎣⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎤-syl

+vd → [+nas] /

⎣⎢⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎥⎤+cons

-cont-str-d.r.+nas

___

c) Obstruents are devoiced word-finally or when they precede voiceless obstruents.

⎣⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎤-syl

-son+cons+vd

→ [-vd] / ___ ⎣⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎤-syl

-son+cons

-vd or #

d) A stressed vowel is lengthened if the following vowel is unstressed.

⎣⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎤+syl

+stress → [+lengthened] / ___ ⎣⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎤+syl

-stress e) The vowels [ʌ, a] are rounded if the preceding syllable contains a stressed

rounded vowel.

⎣⎢⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎥⎤+syl

+son-cons+bk-rd

→ [+rd] / C0 ⎣⎢⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎥⎤+syl

+rd+stress

C0 ___

f) Voiced stops become the corresponding fricatives intervocalically.

⎣⎢⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎥⎤+cons

-cont-str-d.r.+vd

→

⎣⎢⎢⎡

⎦⎥⎥⎤+cons

+cont-str

+d.r.+vd

/ V ___ V

Look at the following and identify the type of alternation for each.

(Possibilities here are: assimilation, dissimilation, epenthesis, deletion, metathesis) a. C[+nasal] → αplace / ___ C[αplace] assimilation b. ɪ → ∅ / C[+nasal] ___ V[+nasal] deletion c. C[-cont] → [+cont] / ___ C[-cont] dissimilation d. V[-back] V[+back] → V[+back] V[-back] / ___ C[-ant] metathesis e. ∅ →n / V ___V epenthesis f. V[+high] → [-high] / V[+high] ___ dissimilation g. C[+cont] C[-cont] → C[-cont] C[+cont] / ___# metathesis h. ∅ → i / C[αplace] ___ C[αplace] epenthesis i. V[+high] → [+mid] / ___ C(C)V[+mid] assimilation j. y → ∅ / ___ i deletion

Resources

Hochgesang, J. A. (2013). LIN701: Phonology 1: topic: minimal pairs, contrast,

allophones [PowerPoint slides]. Retrieved from

https://my.gallaudet.edu/bbcswebdav/pid-1392070-dt-content-rid-

2167786_2/courses/Fall2013-LIN701-01/130923_LIN701_phonemes.FULL.pdf

Language Files: Materials for an Introduction to Language and Linguistics (11th ed.).

(2011). OH: The Ohio State University.

Phonology3. (n.d.). http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu. Retrieved October 11, 2013, from

http://pandora.cii.wwu.edu/vajda/ling201/test2materials/Phonology3.htm

Phonotactics. (n.d.). Merriam-Webster.com. Retrieved October 11, 2013, from

http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/phonotactics

Wolfram, W. & Johnson, R. (1982). Phonological Analysis: Focus on American English.

Washington, DC: Center for Applied Linguistics.

Zsiga, E. (2013). The Sounds of Language: An Introduction to Phonetics and

Phonology. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.