definition: a strong and emotional bond between two people. attachments maintain proximity between...
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Definition: A strong and emotional bond between two people. Attachments maintain proximity between infant and caregiver because each experiences distress when separated, they serves as a basis for subsequent emotional
development.
Attachment
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The development of attachment• tom and jerry that's my mom
my - Google Videos• Maccoby (1980)
developed 4 characteristics.
1: Seeking proximity, especially at times of stress
2: Distress on separation: Separation anxiety.
3: Pleasure when reunited4: General orientation of behaviour
towards the primary caregiver.
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Lorenz and Imprinting
• Animals forms bonds in the first few moments after birth.
• In orphaned animals the baby will attach itself to another species rather than be alone.
• Conrad Lorenz carried out experiments on greylag geese (1930)
• YouTube - Konrad Lorenz - Imprinting
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Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
• Aim: Find out how old infants were when they first became attached. They also looked at individual differences
• Procedures: They studied 60 infants in Glasgow, every 4 weeks for 18 months.
• Findings: First attachments at 6 – 8 months. Stranger anxiety one month after
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• Conclusion: Infants who developed strong attachments had mothers who were quick to respond to their needs. This normally started around 7 months with multiple attachment happening soon after.
• Criticisms: Bushnell et al (1989) found that infants bonded with their mothers as young as 24hrs old
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The Different theories of Attachment
Why do
babies develop
attachment?
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Explanations of Attachment
• Learning theory: Behaviourists
explanation looks at nurture as
the main determinism for attachment.
• Bowlby’s theory: Believes that
children have an innate tendency
to form attachments to increase
chances of survival.
• Social Learning Explanationssuggests that children learn through
imitation of other’s behaviours.
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Learning Theory• Classical conditioning: Individuals can be taught to associate stimulus with a certain response. Food is good, mother gives food therefore mother is good. Take food away and mother is still Good. Pavlov’s dog
• Operant conditioning: Food is a primary reinforceras mother gives food she becomes secondary Reinforcer therefore baby seeks secondaryReinforcer. operant conditioning skinner - Google Video
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Dollard and Miller• Infant becomes hungry and this produces a drive to
reduce the discomfort.
• Mother gives food which reduces discomfort = reward
• Food becomes a • primary reinforcer
• Mother becomes a • secondary reinforcer
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Evaluation of Learning Theory
• Attachment to food giver: Schaffer and Emerson (1964) found fewer than ½ the infants were attached to the person that fed, bathed and changed them.
• attachment - Google Video• Love in infant monkeys:
Harlow and Harlow (1962) discovered that monkeys clung to a cloth covered monkey rather than a food providing metal monkey.
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Social Learning ExplanationsHay & Vespo
• This theory was originally proposedby Bandura (1977). It suggests that children learn through imitation of other’s behaviours.
social learning theory - Google Videos#
• Hay & Vespo argue that parents act as role models for children and teach them how to carry out relationships.
• Activity: Using your text book find out the meaning of the following:Role Modelling, Direct instruction, Social facilitation.
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Bowlby’s Theory of
AttachmentBowlby
believes that attachment is innate rather than learned
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Bowlby’s Theory• Natural selection: Infants and Carers are • programmed to become attached.
YouTube - Walking with Beasts - Ep 4 - Next of Kin - Part 1 of 3
• A critical Period: As attachment is a biological• process, it takes place during a critical period of• development or not at all. The first 21/2 years.
• Internal Working Model: A model that the infant will develop about themselves and what to expect from others based on their experiences with the primary care giver.
• Monotropy: Attachment plays a role in later development- monotropy and
• the continuity hypothesis.
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Support for Monotrophy Monotrophy: Bowlby (1969) argued that wedevelop from one main attachment/ special relationship.
Multiple attachments: Thomas (1998) believes it isbetter to develop a network of attachments.
Monotrophy: Tronick et al (1992) studied Pygmies where children werelooked after and breastfeed by multiple caregivers but still preferredthe company of their mothers.
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The Continuity Hypothesis• Secure attachment: Children learn from the primarycaregiver how to form positive relationship and carrythis into adulthood.• bowlby's theory of attachment - Google Videos
• Avoidant attachment:Primary caregiver rejects the infant and child develops a belief they are unacceptableand unworthy.
• Ambivalent attachment: Primary caregiver is inconsistent leading to negative self image with exaggerated emotional responses.
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Support for Continuity Hypothesis
• The Minnesota longitudinal study:Sroufe et al (1999) found that securelyattached infants developed self confidence, more initiative and were more popular later in life.
• Insecure attachments: Mc Carthy (1999) found women who were avoidant-insecure were likely to have romantic problems and resistant insecure were likely to have friendship problems.
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Evaluation of Bowlby’s
Theory on Attachment
There is criticism about the continuity
hypothesis, monotrophy and the
role of the father
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Criticism of Continuity Hypothesis
• Zimmerman et al (2000): Looked at children from divorced families
• They concluded that serious
life events had an impact on
the development of attachment
• Therefore continuity will only apply when serious events do not have an impact on the child
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Criticism for Bowlby’s Theory
• The Temperament Hypothesis explains that some children are born with an ability to make friends. The lack of fear at a stranger might not have anything to do with mothers inability to bond.
• Correlational: A lot of evidence is correlation therefore no statement on cause and effect can be made.
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Role of Father: Bowlby believes that the father’s role is to support the mother (financially and emotionally). Other research however has shown that fathers have a more direct role to playin the development of their children
Post-Hoc: Bowlby says attachment has an evolutionary function, “ behaviour is directed by genes” but there is no evidence to support this
Homework: Describe and evaluate the Learning Theory 12 Marks
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Criticism for Bowlby’s Theory
• Bushnell et al (1989) found infants formed bonds with mother at less than 48hr old.
• Piaget (1954): At 6 months infant show object permanence (play peek a boo) know when caregiver has left the room.
• Ainsworth (1967) found stranger anxiety coincided with motor development.
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The Stranger Situation
Mary Ainsworth found different
types of attachment
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Research into Attachment
• Separation anxiety occurs between 6-8 months with fear of strangers occurring one month later.
• First attachments: In 65% of children first attachment is to the mother by 18 months other attachments have formed.
• Quick response by mothers and ability to interact lead to high intensity of attachment.
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Secure and insecure attachments
The Strange Situation Classification Mary Ainsworth developed a method of measuring attachment; attachment - Google Videos
Three different categories: 1. Securely attached, 2. Avoidant-insecure
3. Resistant-insecure.
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'Strange Situation' (Ainsworth et al.,
1978). Type A –
Insecure-avoidant -20% Indifferent to caregiver - unconcerned if present or absent. Signs of distress when left alone but could be comforted by caregiver or stranger
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Type B• Securely attached - 70% - Stay close to
caregiver and are distressed by their departure but easily comforted on return. Stranger could give limited comfort.
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Type C – • Insecure-resistant - 10% - Ambivalent to
caregiver - both close and resistant at times. Anxious of environment and resistant to stranger.
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Secure Avoidant Resistant
Primary Carer’s Behaviour Towards Child
Child’s ‘Working Model’ of Itself
Positive & Loved Unloved & Rejected
Angry & Confused
www.
psyc
hlot
ron.
org.
uk
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Evaluation
of the Stranger Situation
The reliability and validity of the SS in attachment has been looked at
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Support for the SSC
• Internal Reliability: Wartner et al (1993) found that results on the Strange Situation Classification (SSC) were the same when children were 1 and again when they were 6.
• External Reliability• The original research was easy to replicate
and led to an increase in research on this area – many of which found similar results.
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Evaluating the Strange situation• Low Population Validity: Initial research
was on middleclass American infants and therefore has low population validity
• Low Ecological Validity: Was done in a laboratory and not in the child’s own home
• Although the validity can be questioned, the study does have similarities to being left in day care or at a nursery.
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Evaluating the Strange situation
• It may measure a particular attachment to one individual rather than a general attachment type. (Lamb 1977)
• Ethics: Is it ethical to place a child in a stressful situation.
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Cross Culture and Attachment
Do we all form similar attachments regardless of cultural influence on
upbringing
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Cross Cultural studies
• It is important to makesure that theories ofchild developmentare valid throughoutdifferent cultures.
This is importantwhen looking at Nature vs nurture
YouTube - attachment 2 - developmental psychology
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Research into Cross-culture
• Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg (1988)
• Collated data using the stranger situation technique to see if cross cultural differences exist.
• Meta-analysis study: They looked at the findings of various other studies to draw conclusions
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Cross Cultural StudiesSecure Avoidant Resistant
W Germany 3 57 35 8Great Britain 1 75 22 3
Netherlands 4 67 26 7Sweden 1 74 22 4Israel 2 64 7 29Japan 2 68 5 27China 1 50 25 25United states 18 65 21 14
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Evaluation of cross-cultural studies
• Ecological validity: Takahashi (1990) argues that cultural upbringing may lead to children being clasified as insecure when they are actually developing secure attachments
• In Japan children sleep, bath and are carried by their parents, therefore separation is more
• There was also a lack of avoidance behaviour. In Japan this behaviour is taught to be impolite
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Nature vs Nurture
Nature: Bee (1999) states there is consistency in cross-cultural studies and concludes that similar interactions may occur leading to an innate relationship.
Nurture: Van Ilxendoorn and Kronenberg (1988) argue that mass media leads to nurture rather than nature for explanation.
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Disruption of attachment
The loss of emotional care that
results in the breaking of
emotional bonds.
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Separation • Separation: Child is
separated from their
primary caregiver. The separation can be long or short-term.
• If there is suitable care given, i.e. a replacement primary caregiver, there are no long term effects.
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Immediate response to Separation
• Protest : The child cries, screams and protests angrily. They cling to the parent and try to escape if others pick them up.
• Despair: The child’s anger subsides, although they are still upset. The child refuses to be comforted by others.
• Detachment: They engage with other people and may reject the care provider when they return
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Research on Separation
• James and Joyce Robertson (1952) filmed children who had been left in hospital or residential nurseries.
• They found that children were deeply disturbed by the separation from their mothers.
• Hospitals changed their policies about visitation rights of parents after the Robertson’s work was publicised.
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Factors effecting Separation
• Age of child: Schaffer and Callender (1959) found children under 7 months. The most stress was children between 12-18 months.
• Type of Attachment: Securely attached children coped better
• Sex of child: Generally boys coped better than girls (Gross and McIlveen 1997)
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PrivationLoss of the primary care provider. We
look at children who have had no-one to
bond with
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The Czech Twins
• Mother died when 18 monthsChildren were given to father
• Locked in a cellar and starved and beaten they wereFound at 7 with no speech
• They were fostered and grew up to be sociable and happy
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Genie• Genie was isolated until age 13.• She experienced severe privation.• She also experienced physical abuse.
• She never recovered YouTube - Genie
• This could have been because of the late age at which she was discovered
• Rymer (1993) states it could have been the physical abuse as well as the emotional privation.
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Methodology of Case studies
• Ethical issues: Children are unable to give their fully informed consent and many have said later in life the experience was very detrimental
• Lack of control: These children have many problems (Physical abuse) as well as no opportunity to form attachments
• Case studies are retrospective: Children must look back over their lives difficult to be accurate
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Institutionalisation and Privation
• Institutionalisation: This refers to thebehaviour of children raised in orphanages or children’s homes.
• Hodges & TizardWanted to see if there was long term effects from privation, i.e. nobond developed in early childhood.
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Institutionalised Children
• Procedure: Children were • placed in an institution before • they were 4 months old.
• Staff were not allowed to form bonds with the children. There was also a high turnover of staff
• Children were assessed at ages 4, 8 and 16 years
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Findings:• Age 4: No deep relationships,they were attention seeking and were more indiscriminately affectionate.
• Age 8: Most adopted or restored children had formed close attachments. However they were still more attention seeking and over friendly. They were also less popular than their peers.
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Differences in Adopted children• Children at the age of 4 were either adopted or
restored to their natural parents.
• Adopted children settled better than restored
Close attachment at age 8
Rejecting or hostile
Close attachment at age 16
Rejecting or hostile
Adopted mothers
20/21 1/21 17/21 4/21
Restored mothers
6/13 7/13 5/9 4/9
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Conclusion• Family relationships: • It can be stated that the long term effects of
privation can be overcome when good substitution care is give and that close relationships can form within the home
• Peer relationships: However. Long term effects can be seen were children have difficulty in fitting in to society and developing close relationships with their peers.
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Methodology of Research
• Attrition: As the study was over a long period some children ‘drop out’. It is often the more disturbed children and this can bias results
• Sample bias: Children who are adopted would have been chosen for their pleasant temperaments. Those of the restored children would have been a mixture of pleasant and unpleasant temperaments.
• Parental input: Adopted parent put more energy into their children than those that went back to their parents.
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Effects of Instituationaliation
• Rutter et al (2007) looked at children orphaned in Romania.
No disinhibition
Mild disinhibition
Markeddisinhibition
Uk adoptees 21 (40.4%) 29 (55.8%) 2 (3.8%)Romanian >6 months
24 (53.3%) 17 (37.8%) 4 (8.9%)
Romanian 6-24 months
26 (29.5%) 39 (44.3%) 23 (26.1%)
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Homework
• Discuss the effects of institutionalisation on attachment 12 Marks
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Day Care
Care for infants and children outside the home. This can either be for part of
the day or the whole day. Children then return home in the evening.
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Social Development
• Social development: a child’s ability to interact and build relationships with others.
• Secure attachment
is necessary for the
development of relationships
• However, Day Care centres give the opportunity for children to develop relationships with each other
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Positive effects of Day Care
• Clarke-Stewart discoveredthat children who attended day care socialised better at school.
• They also found that children in day care were equally distressed when separated from their mothers in the Atkinson’s Strange Situation
• Schweinhart et al (1993) found enrichment programmes (headstart) reduced the level of delinquency and criminal activities in adolescence.
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The negative effects
• Belsky and Rovine (1988) state children were more insecurely attached if they were at day care for more that 20hrs per week.
• National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD)
• found that children who spent morethat 10hrs per week in day care were more aggressive at school.
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Assessing the effects of day care
There are many factors influencing a child’s social development1.Different temperaments• Pennebaker et al (1981) found that shy children
do not gain as much from day care as they are scared.
• Egeland and Hiester (1995) discovered that securely attached children lost out at day care while insecurely attached children did better.
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Assessing the effects of day care
Different attachment experiencesTime: how can you compare children who start
attending day care at different ages. Another factor is how long they spend there each day.
Quality: Campbell et al showed that quality affects the child’s experience of the setting.
Different kinds of day care facilities Nursery versus relatives: Melhuish et al (1991)
compared 255 women at work who used day care. The mothers developed different attitudes to maternal care showing a qualitative difference in the family dynamic.
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Cognitive Development
• Cognitive development: growth of a child’s mental abilities.
• Secure base for explorationAttachment leads to security. Children need to feel secure before they explore their environment.
• Hazen and Durret (1982): Secure children more innovative and better at problem-solving.
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Stimulation
• Stimulation is necessary for cognitive development
• Greenough et al (1987) found that rats in an enriched environment had larger brains with more neuron activities.
• Bryant et al (1980) discovered that childminders rewarded quiet behaviour while day care centres provided more stimulating environment.
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Positive effects of Day Care
• Campbell et al (2001) discovered children scored high on maths and reading tests if they had attended a good quality day care centre (i.e. It was a stimulating environment)
• Anderson (1992) found that Swedish children who attended day care before 1, were top of the class at ages 8 – 13. Those at the bottom had not attended day care before school.
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National Institute of Child Health and Human Development
• Good care: Interaction and vocal responsiveness from adults.
• Higher quality of care in first 3 years 1. Child’s language at 15, 24, & 36 months
is better2. Child’s scores on Bayley Scales of Infant
development are higher.
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Negative effects of Day Care
Ruhm (2000) discovered that children who went
to day care before the age of three had lower
reading and maths skills
Russell ( 1999) did a meta-analysis
research on over 100 studies
conducted between 1957 – 1995
stated that day care had a negative
effect on cognitive development.