DefiningInquiry

L isa Mart in-Hansen

Exploring the many

types of inquiry in

the science classroom

Ations generated from student expe-riences is the central strategy forteaching science” (2000, 29). Manyeducators, however, misunderstandwhat is meant by inquiry, believingthat the term applies to almost any-thing they do. Publishers of text-books also promote their wares asbeing inquiry oriented. But educa-tors should beware—because of themisuse of the word inquiry, teachersand school districts wishing to pur-chase materials from textbook pub-lishers must carefully determinehow the term is being used.

ccording to the NationalResearch Council, “in-quiry into authentic ques-

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needed for future open-inquiry investigations can betaught within context. Guided inquiry is a natural lead-into open inquiry. When students must learn about morecomplex phenomena that cannot be investigated directlyin a classroom, a teacher (or students) can provide appli-cable scientific data from a variety of sources to use inthe investigation.

An example of guided inquiry might be an Earth sci-ence teacher who provides students with various brachio-pods that are grouped in plastic bags. The labels on thebags indicate the different depths of the strata from whichthe brachiopods originated. Using brachiopod data gath-ered by students and the information about the depths ofthe strata, students generate explanations of how the envi-ronment may have changed over time. The teacher askswhat types of observations they might make to state aclaim about the environment. The students and theteacher decide to examine, draw, and identify the brachio-pods in the bags, taking note of special features, such asspikes and the general shape of the creatures in each bag.Their findings and claims are communicated to othergroups in a whole-class presentation and discussion.

Coupled inquiryCoupled inquiry combines a guided-inquiry investiga-tion with an open-inquiry investigation (Dunkhase,2000). By beginning with an invitation to inquiry alongwith the guided inquiry, the teacher chooses the firstquestion to investigate, specifically targeting a particularstandard or benchmark (Martin, 2001). After the guidedinquiry, a more student-centered approach is taken byimplementing an open-inquiry investigation. This ap-proach of guided inquiry followed by open inquiry re-sults in student-generated questions that closely relate tothe standard or benchmark from the first investigation.Specific concepts can be explored in a more didacticfashion allowing students to connect their concrete expe-riences to abstract concepts, similar to a learning-cycleapproach. The coupled-inquiry cycle is as follows: 1) aninvitation to inquiry, 2) teacher-initiated “guidedinquiry,” 3) student-initiated “open inquiry,” 4) inquiryresolution, and 5) assessment. This cycle can then leadback to more student-initiated open inquiry (Dunkhase,2000; Martin, 2001).

An example of coupled inquiry that follows this cyclewould be the following:

1. Invitation to inquiry: In a physical science classstudents make predictions based on their priorunderstandings about whether certain materialswill interfere with a magnetic field causing apaperclip suspended a few centimeters awayfrom a magnet to fall. They also explain theirreasoning as to why they think each materialwould interfere with the magnetic field.

So what exactly is inquiry? “Inquiry” refers to thework scientists do when they study the natural world,proposing explanations that include evidence gatheredfrom the world around them. The term also includes theactivities of students—such as posing questions, planninginvestigations, and reviewing what is already known inlight of experimental evidence—that mirror what scien-tists do. “Inquiry requires identifying assumptions, use ofcritical and logical thinking, and consideration of alterna-tive explanations” (National Research Council, 2000, 23).Figure 1 (page 36) further explains the National ResearchCouncil’s definition and can assist teachers in diagnosingwhether or not essential features of inquiry are includedin science lessons and the degree of the teacher-centeredor student-centered learning that takes place (2000, 29).

Types of inquiryIn addition to familiarizing themselves with Figure 1,teachers should also be knowledgeable of how the differenttypes of inquiry are referred to in teaching resources andliterature. Inquiry terms referred to in books and journalsare usually defined in the following four ways.

Open or full inquiryOpen or “full” inquiry can be defined as a student-centeredapproach that begins with a student’s question, followed bythe student (or groups of students) designing and conduct-ing an investigation or experiment and communicatingresults (National Research Council, 1996; Colburn, 2000).This approach most closely mirrors scientists’ actualwork. Open inquiry requires higher-order thinking andusually has students working directly with the conceptand materials, equipment, and so forth. Having studentsask the questions that guide their own investigations is thekey to open inquiry.

For example, a physics teacher displays a variety of materi-als, such as spheres, ramps, metersticks, tape, and woodenblocks. She asks students what questions they could deviseusing the materials provided (ideally after a prior experiencewith the materials). One small group of students wishes toinvestigate how the height of the ramp influences the distancea sphere travels before it stops. Students devise a plan using thematerials provided or approved materials that they gather ontheir own, carry out their investigation, and record their data.When the investigation is complete, the data is analyzed.With the class ready to critique, students make a claim basedon their data, sharing the processes and outcomes.

Guided inquiryIn guided inquiry the teacher helps students develop in-quiry investigations in the classroom. Usually, the teacherchooses the question for investigation. Students—in onelarge group or several small groups—may then assist theteacher with deciding how to proceed with the investiga-tion. Teachers find that this is a time when specific skills

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F I G U R E 1

Essential features of classroom inquiry and their variations.

1. Learner engages inscientifically orientedquestions

2. Learner givespriority to evidencein responding toquestions

3. Learner formulatesexplanations fromevidence

4. Learner connectsexplanations toscientific knowledge

5. Learnercommunicates andjustifies explanations

Learner poses aquestion

Learner determineswhat constitutesevidence andcollects it

Learner formulatesexplanation aftersummarizingevidence

Learnerindependentlyexamines otherresources andforms the linksto explanations

Learner formsreasonable andlogical argumentto communicateexplanations

Learner selectsamong questions,poses new questions

Learner directed tocollect certain data

Learner guided inprocess of formulatingexplanations fromevidence

Learner directedtoward areas andsources of scientificknowledge

Learner coached indevelopment ofcommunication

Learner sharpens orclarifies questionprovided by teacher,materials, or othersource

Learner given dataand asked to analyze

Learner given possibleways to use evidenceto formulateexplanation

Learner given possibleconnections

Learner providedbroad guidelines touse sharpenedcommunication

Learner engages inquestions providedby teacher, materials,or other source

Learner given dataand told how toanalyze

Learner provided withevidence

Learner given stepsand procedures forcommunication

REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION FROM INQUIRY AND THE NATIONAL SCIENCE EDUCATION STANDARDS. COPYRIGHT 2000 BY THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES OFSCIENCES . COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS , WASHINGTON, D.C.

More ——————————————— Amount of learner self-direction ——————————————— LessLess ———————————— Amount of direction from teacher or material ——————————— More

Essential feature Variations

2. Guided inquiry: Students re-create the teacher’sapparatus in which a paperclip tied to a string“hovers” over a magnet. A thread is tied to thepaperclip with the free end taped to the table,holding the thread taut. Some adjustment of thedistance between the magnet and the paperclipmay need to be made so that the paperclip is sus-pended in air (while still tied to the thread) butdoes not touch the magnet. There should be atleast 2 cm between the magnet and paperclipthrough which students pass a uniformly sizedpiece of material to see if the paperclip will fall.Materials passed through the space include card-board, tin, aluminum, granite, Styrofoam, a mir-

ror, steel, iron, and a circuit board. Studentsrecord their results.

3. Open inquiry: The class meets to discuss the resultsof the guided inquiry. They create new questionsand decide which questions are testable within class-room constraints. Students then choose a question toinvestigate, create a plan (including a way to recorddata), and record a prediction about what they thinkwill happen. After the investigation is complete, stu-dents create a claim and an explanation of the claim.

4. Inquiry resolution: Groups of students share theirclaims and findings regarding their open-inquiryinvestigations. Additional content material is pro-vided in the form of a textbook reading or Web

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search regarding magnetism. Students also searchfor information to verify whether the contentmaterial supports their claim.

5. Assessment: The teacher poses a problem that stu-dents solve by applying their understanding ofmagnetism. An example would be: Students mustdesign and build a compass using magnets, plastic-coated wire, and Styrofoam. Students demonstratethat the compass can locate true north. Studentsdetermine what safety precautions must be takenregarding the use of materials and the compass.

After the assessment is complete, another inquiry cyclecan begin. This is usually a coupled inquiry or perhapsanother open inquiry.

Structured inquiryStructured inquiry, sometimes referred to as directed in-quiry, is a guided inquiry mainly directed by the teacher.Typically, this results in a cookbook lesson in which studentsfollow teacher directions to come up with a specific end pointor product. Sometimes this approach is appropriate to use inthe classroom; however, student engagement in the task islimited to following teacher instructions. Simply followingdirections in a cookbook manner does not actively engage

students’ minds. Therefore, one could argue that structuredinquiry does not include much true inquiry. More studentthinking takes place when the teacher allows students tomake choices and decisions in classroom investigations(Clough and Clark, 1994). Ways to create a more student-centered approach include asking students to help devisethe procedure necessary for an investigation; taking away aprepared data table so that students must consider how tocreate their own table, asking students to determine whichdata should or could be gathered instead of prescribing themethod, and asking students to explain how an experimentcould be improved for a better investigation.

For example, in a biology class students create a modelshowing what happens if a person has cirrhosis of the liver.The students have a sheet of paper with step-by-step directionsand procedure. First, they fold the filter paper and properlyplace each paper into a cup, creating two funnels with tworeceptacles. Next, they put a specific amount of crushed carboninto one funnel and a specific amount of carbon pieces intoanother funnel. The students then pour 8 mL of blue water(food coloring and water) into each funnel. They record theresults and answer the questions at the end. The teacher mayask the class to discuss the results when the model is complete.

Meeting students’ needsDifferent types of lessons, and therefore different typesof inquiry, are used for specific needs in the scienceclassroom. The continuum in Figure 1 shows that in-quiry spans from more student-centered types of in-quiry to more teacher-centered types. Understandingthe different aspects of inquiry can help educators varythe types of teaching and learning experiences to bettermeet the needs of all science students.�

Lisa Martin-Hansen is an assistant professor in the SchoolLisa Martin-Hansen is an assistant professor in the SchoolLisa Martin-Hansen is an assistant professor in the SchoolLisa Martin-Hansen is an assistant professor in the SchoolLisa Martin-Hansen is an assistant professor in the Schoolof Education at Drake University, Department of Teach-of Education at Drake University, Department of Teach-of Education at Drake University, Department of Teach-of Education at Drake University, Department of Teach-of Education at Drake University, Department of Teach-ing and Learning, 3206 University Avenue, Des Moines,ing and Learning, 3206 University Avenue, Des Moines,ing and Learning, 3206 University Avenue, Des Moines,ing and Learning, 3206 University Avenue, Des Moines,ing and Learning, 3206 University Avenue, Des Moines,IA 50311–4505; e-mail: lisa.martin@drake.edu.IA 50311–4505; e-mail: lisa.martin@drake.edu.IA 50311–4505; e-mail: lisa.martin@drake.edu.IA 50311–4505; e-mail: lisa.martin@drake.edu.IA 50311–4505; e-mail: lisa.martin@drake.edu.

References

Clough, M., and R. Clark. 1994. Cookbooks and constructivism. TheScience Teacher 61(2): 34–37.

Colburn, A. 2000. An inquiry primer. Science Scope 23(6): 42–44.Dunkhase, J. 2000. Coupled inquiry: An effective strategy for stu-

dent investigations. Paper presented at the Iowa Science Teach-ers Section Conference, October, Des Moines, Iowa.

Martin, L. 2001. Coupled-inquiry diagram. The changes in openinquiry understandings and teaching among preservice second-ary science teachers during their preservice school practica andstudent teaching. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Iowa City,The University of Iowa.

National Research Council. 2000. Inquiry and the National ScienceEducation Standards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

National Research Council. 1996. National Science Education Stan-dards. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.

Different types of lessons,

and therefore different

types of inquiry, are used

for specific needs in the

science classroom