UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

THE USE OF GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (GIS) IN WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT:

CASE STUDY: HAGADERA REFUGEE CAMP

BY:

OPITI CALVIN ODUOR

F19/2544/2008

A project report submitted to the department of geospatial and space technology in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of:

Bachelor of Science in Geospatial Engineering

MAY, 2013

DEDICATION

This study and its findings are dedicated to my loving and caring family, the Opiti Family.

I also want to dedicate this work to the UNHCR and refugees living in the Dadaab Camps; you all are as human as we all are, and deserve equal treatment.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to acknowledge the efforts and assistance received from Mr. Kiingi of UNHCR’s technical department, Nairobi; Mr. Evans Apindi, the Water Engineer for GIZ (Dadaab Field Office). Thank you for your assistance in the data collection and provision of study area-specific information, which proved very useful with the project.

I would also like to acknowledge the efforts of my colleagues and classmates for their inputs in terms of ideas to use and work on; their help with carrying out analysis as required for the full completion of the subject of study and of course, the project.

I would not manage to perform and successfully complete the project without the installation of the skills and knowledge necessary in the subject of GIS and Geospatial Engineering, were it not for the efforts and work done by the staff of the Department of Geospatial Engineering and Space Technology, University of Nairobi.

I definitely must acknowledge my supervisor, Prof. R. S. Rostom for his dedication and guidance throughout the project. I am grateful and I do appreciate the ideas he gave unto me to make my project not only complete but outstanding. Thank you Sir.

Last but not least, I give my thanks to the Almighty for the gift of life and will to learn and gain knowledge and wisdom for a prosperous future.

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ABSTRACT

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a system that is designed for the capture, storage, manipulation, analysis and management of all types of data and information about the features present on the surface of the earth.

Water is a very important natural resource, with a variety of applications domestically and industrially and is thus very essential for the survival of mankind, wildlife and vegetation. Unfortunately, only about 0.8% of the available water on the earth’s surface is usable, that is, is fresh and exists in a non frozen nature. Hagadera refugee camp, one of the camps in Dadaab, (Garissa County, North Eastern Province, Kenya) plays host to a massive number of refugees mainly of Ethiopian and Somali origin, fleeing their country in search of peace and tranquillity and a favourable environment for their survival and development. The camp exists in a semi arid region with virtually no vegetative cover, and thus there exist very few surface water sources in the region. The geological study of the region indicates the presence of an aquifer, the Merti Aquifer, which serves the region’s water needs on a relatively permanent basis, from which water can be obtained through sinking of boreholes.

GIS is therefore applied in this project for the mapping of the location and extent of the refugee camp and its facilities with relation to the earth’s surface. It is also used to map out the location of the boreholes and as well attach the attribute data and metadata about these boreholes serving the camp. The road network serving or used to access the various facilities and features in the camp are also mapped. All these information mapped are thus stored within a single geodatabase within the GIS system/software.

In the study of the water supply and its management, with an aim of ensuring sufficiency in its provision to the refugee population, GIS analysis techniques such as network analysis, proximity analysis, and spatial analysis are employed within the system to query the geodatabase information and thereby producing results necessary for the derivation of conclusions on whether the borehole and its yields, sufficiently and effectively serve the specified section of the camp; determination of the new locations for the new boreholes and placement locations of water tanks to serve the massive population; calculate and provide the shortest route to the facilities, especially those identified and marked for repair and replacement to avoid waste; the locations and service area for the water points and even provision and implementation of security measures for the facilities in the camp.

GIS thus proves to be a vital tool for the study and analysis of the availability and utilization of a resource. This thus helps in problem identification and finding of working and fast solutions.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION.............................................................................................................1ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.........................................................................................2ABSTRACT................................................................................................................3LIST OF FIGURES.....................................................................................................6LIST OF TABLES.......................................................................................................7ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS....................................................................8

INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................91.1. Background Information...............................................................................9

1.2. Problem Statement......................................................................................11

1.3. Project Objectives.......................................................................................12

1.4. Scope and Limitations of the Study............................................................13

1.5. Organization of the Report..........................................................................14

LITERATURE REVIEW..........................................................................................152.1. Introduction.................................................................................................15

2.2. Existence of Water in the World.................................................................15

2.3. Population and Uses of Water.....................................................................16

2.4. Population and Water Supply......................................................................17

2.5. Impact of Changes in Water Supply on Population....................................20

2.6. The Study of the Merti Aquifer...................................................................23

2.7. Water well/Borehole design........................................................................26

2.8. GIS and Remote Sensing............................................................................28

2.9. GIS and Water Supply and Management....................................................28

METHODOLOGY....................................................................................................303.1. Overview of Methodology..........................................................................30

3.2. Area of Study..............................................................................................30

3.3. Data Sources and Tools...............................................................................32

3.4. Data Manipulation.......................................................................................34

3.5. Data Visualization in ArcGIS v10.0...........................................................37

3.6. Creation of a Network Dataset....................................................................38

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ANALYSIS AND RESULTS....................................................................................404.1. Results.........................................................................................................40

4.1.1. Network Dataset Results......................................................................40

4.1.2. Water Services Network......................................................................41

4.2. Analysis.......................................................................................................43

4.2.1. Route Network Analysis......................................................................43

4.2.2. Borehole yields vis-à-vis the Camp Population...................................43

4.2.3. Water Distribution within the Camp....................................................46

4.2.4. New Borehole and Water Tank Location Sites...................................47

4.2.5. Estimated Yields of Boreholes and Water Tank Capacities................51

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS....................................................535.1. Conclusions.................................................................................................53

5.2. Recommendations.......................................................................................55

REFERENCES..........................................................................................................56

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LIST OF FIGURES

Caption Page

Figure 2.1 Selected Mean Monthly and Annual Rainfalls in the Study Area in millimetres

24

Figure 3.1 Showing the QGIS ‘On the Fly CRS Transformation feature

35

Figure 3.2 Showing the configuration screen in Global mapper v13 for the rectification and re-projection functions through parameter selection for the required CRS

37

Figure 3.3 Showing the steps in creation of the Network Dataset 39

Figure 4.1 Hagadera Camp Layout showing the access roads, boreholes and the various camp facilities

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Figure 4.2 HagaderaNET network dataset showing the directions for the roads network

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Figure 4.3 Water supply Network showing the supply distribution facilities

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Figure 4.4 The route model for accessing the boreholes 43

Figure 4.5 Showing the current and estimated consumption of the water resource

46

Figure 4.6 Shows the water distribution channels and distribution point locations, for taps and water tanks

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Figure 4.7 Showing the model used to determine the optimal locations for a new borehole within the refugee camp. Created in ArcGIS 10.1

49

Figure 4.8 Showing the suitable sites for the construction of new boreholes

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Figure 4.9 Showing the Model used to determine the locations for the water tanks within the camp.

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Figure 4.10 Showing the optimal locations for the placement of water tanks within the camp with the figures 7-9 representing these suitable locations

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Caption Page No.Table 2.1 Selected Mean Monthly and Annual Rainfalls in the Study

Area24

Table 2.2 Mean Annual and Monthly flows in the Tana and Ewaso Ng'iro Rivers

25

Table 2.3 Maximum Discharge Rates for certain diameters of Standard-Weight Casing, based on an Uphole Velocity of 5ft/sec (1.5m/sec)

27

Table 3.2 Coordinate information of the towns in the area of study 30

Table 3.2 Breakdown of the population statistics of Hagadera Refugee camp as of 16th Sept, 2012

31

Table 3.3 A summary of data and their sources as collected and used in the project

33

Table 4.1 Boreholes and their various depths 42

Table 4.2 Boreholes’ attribute information table 44

Table 4.3 Borehole yields in terms of capacity pumped on a daily basis

45

Table 4.4 Showing the water yields or capacity statistics 52

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ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

UNHCR United Nations Humanitarian Commission for Refugees

GIS Geographic Information System

QGIS Quantum GIS v1.8.0 (Lisboa) – An open source GIS Software

CRS Coordinate Reference System

AOI Area of Interest

AMSL Above mean sea level

BGL Below ground level

SWL Static water level

WSL Water struck level

ooC Degrees Celsius: Unit for temperature

hr Hour

EC Electrical conductivity (µS/cm)

TD Total Depth of the borehole

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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background Information

Natural resources occur naturally within the environment. They are God given resources and are not produced by man, but instead are consumed by mankind. Some of these natural resources are essential for the survival of the human beings, while some are mainly used to satisfy our wants. Examples of these natural resources include air, water, minerals and metal ores, sunlight e.t.c.

Water is a very important resource to the growth and survival of plants or vegetation, animals, both wild and domestic and definitely, human beings. Water as a natural resource has several uses in the environment, domestic and industrial sectors. Environmentally, water is essential for the growth and sustainability of the vegetation covers of a given area, and hence contributes to the climate of the area, among other functions. In the industries, it is used as a coolant or as a solvent in production of various goods. Domestically, the water finds application in drinking, washing of clothes and utensils and as well in bathing, among other uses. For the long term survival of the living organisms on our planet, Earth, the available natural resources, with water being included among these resources, should be well managed and conserved.

In arid and semi arid areas, water is the most important resource to the livelihood of the occupants of such regions. This is mainly because of the scarcity of the resource in these arid and semi arid areas. Therefore the conservation and well management strategy set out for the longevity of this resource is important to the survival of all the living organisms, that is, all the plants and vegetation cover in these regions, the animals and the wildlife of the area, inclusive of the human beings occupying such places.

Dadaab, a town in Garissa District of North Eastern Province in Kenya, is one such place that is considered to be arid or semi arid. This town is located along Garissa Road, 80km from Garissa Town and approximately 100km from the Kenya-Somalia border. Dadaab is the world’s largest refugee camp, with camps such as IFO, Dagahaley and Hagadera as the main camps in the region. Boreholes and water pans, which result from flash floods experienced in the region, are the main water sources serving the people in this area, but due to the high temperatures and the hot climate that prevails in the region; these waters evaporate and are lost quickly to the atmosphere.

Geo-Information Systems or Geographic Information Systems (GIS) refers to the collection, input, storage, manipulation and analysis of spatial data and the production and output of spatially referenced information. The information is mainly covering the features, both physical and manmade, that are present on the earth’s surface, below and above the surface or water bodies. This information can find

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application in various fields in the society with an aim at improving the lives of the citizens, and possibly lead to economic development of the region and the country at large.

In the management of the available water supply, GIS can be applied in various ways, which eventually will prove to be very beneficial to the society in the long run. The GIS techniques can thus be employed to collect spatial raw data relating to the available water resource sources and their supply. This data can thus be overlaid with other information like the attribute information in a GIS, and be used to map out these sources and as well, produce a geodatabase. The spatially collected data about the water sources and their quality, availability and quantity, can be overlaid with other information such as the population distribution of the area, vegetation cover of the area, economic development of the area and as well the residential, health facilities, among others. This can be used to derive a more detailed and advanced information about the water situation in the area and as well devise solutions to the issues, including the best conservation criteria for the sustainability of the resource.

Databases refer to a central storage of data and information, inclusive of attribute data. This information is very useful in the management of the utility infrastructure, plan for new developments and in the long run, caters for the needs of the current generation and that of the future generation. The information on the databases provide a fast and easier means of information derivation, through querying of the database and therefore resulting to a faster solution or decision making process and implementation.

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1.2. Problem Statement

Water is considered as a very important resource that is indeed very mandatory for the survival of all living organisms, that is, mankind, livestock, plants and even bacteria. It is a useful resource that finds application in various sectors of our daily lives, making living without the consumption of water difficult, if not painful. In arid and semi arid areas, especially in an area hosting the largest refugee camps, meaning presence of a huge number of refugees within a limited extent of space, depleted vegetation, high vaporisation, just to mention a few, water availability is at its lowest possible. This high population in such an area compounded with the need for survival results into inadequacy of the resource which is in high demand by the population.

Water being a useful natural resource for the livelihood of virtually every living organism, its availability is in scarcity. The bulk of the available water resources on the face of the earth exist in frozen form and with the effects of global warming that is being experience in the world today, the glaciers are fast melting. The high atmospheric temperatures also vaporize the useful water very fast into the atmosphere. This therefore calls for the conservation of the available water resources and the proper use of these waters to avoid wastage.

This project mainly entails the mapping and management of the available water resources, especially in an arid and semi arid region. Management in terms of ensuring that the available water resources and properly supplied and utilized; conserved and that the immediate population to which the water resource is of benefit have access to the water resource that is adequate enough for their basic needs and daily use. Such arid and semi arid places face the major scarcity in terms of water resources and for the available sources, they get depleted very fast. This therefore results in the worsening of the existing environmental conditions in the area.

The supply and management of the available resources and the conservation of the water available is such arid and semi arid regions therefore will go a long way to ensure that the population enjoys the benefits brought about by the availability of the natural resource, and for a long time or for future generations.

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1.3. Project Objectives

The project mainly entails looking at water as a natural resource, its importance and therefore its sufficient and effective supply in quality condition to the people for the sustenance of the human population, livestock and wildlife.

The main objective of this project is the supply and management of the natural supply of water to mankind (and their livestock) and especially to those living in the arid and semi arid areas, and in the case of the project, in Hagadera Refugee Camp. Geographical Information System techniques will be employed in the study for the mapping and analysis of the available water resources and therefore provide an overview of the resource availability and supply to the people and animals in the region.

Other objectives of the study and hence the project includes, but is not limited to: Map out the administrative units and the available infrastructural facilities in

the Hagadera Refugee Camp. Map out the available water sources available in the camp. Map out the access routes available in accessing these water points and

facilities in the refugee camp. Create a geospatial database of the available water sources and resources in

the camp. Demonstrate the population distribution of the area of study, in terms of the

camp blocks. Identify the NGOs and Government and Local Agencies that are present in

the area and their assistance in terms of water supply and management is concerned.

Performing analysis of the data to identify new locations for the boreholes and site locations for the new water tanks within the refugee camp.

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1.4. Scope and Limitations of the Study

Scope

This project mainly aims at providing working solutions to the extreme water shortages presently being experienced at the Hagadera Refugee Camp in Dadaab. Therefore the eventual completion of the project and meeting of the objectives will involve collection of the relevant quality, precise and accurate data and information related to the water situation on the ground, research on the basic and general knowledge and standardized information quality, rate and capacity of the supply and consumption or usage of water by human beings and animals. The various GIS analysis techniques, especially spatial analysis, will be used to query the geodatabase and thereby provide vital information necessary in ascertaining the sufficiency and quality of the water being pumped into circulation within the refugee camp, for use by the refugee population and the various agency facilities within the camp.

Limitations of the Study

The project’s areas of study, Hagadera Refugee Camp, located within the Dadaab region, which plays host to the largest refugee camp in the world, hosts refugees from the neighbouring countries like South Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda and Somalia. The refugees are mainly fleeing their countries which are faced with civil wars, droughts and insecurities from the terror groups in their countries.

Dadaab is currently facing a wave of terror attacks from the insurgent group, Al Shabaab, which are retaliating from the recent KDF and AMISOM war mission in Somalia (2012-2013). Therefore the security situation present in the region is not very conducive for site visits, reconnaissance missions and ground data collection. Therefore the data used in the project are the data that was provided by the agencies present in the area who mainly deal with water supply to the refugees and the host communities in the area of interest.

The availability of high resolution satellite imagery or detailed topographical survey maps for the area of study is also an issue. The maps available are outdated and are not detailed whereas satellite imagery is expensive to acquire.

Despite the unavailability of some of the very important and updated supporting imagery and topographical maps for the study, the data acquired is still useful in the study of the water situation in the AOI and thus assist in conservation of the available water sources in the region and as well their supply within the population in the region.

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1.5. Organization of the Report

This project report is organized into 5 chapters with each chapter containing up to depth information about the objectives of the project, the tasks carried out and the methodology, and also inclusive of the results and analysis of these results obtained.

Chapter 1, Introduction, mainly provides a brief introduction on the subject and the area of study. It also defines the problem statement warranting the project to be carried out and as well provide the scope and objectives to be met in working on the project.

Chapter 2, Literature Review, provide information on the previous research conducted and published as concerning the supply and usage of water in arid areas and the integration of GIS in the various researches conducted and literature published.

Chapter 3, Methodology, introduces the area of study providing a brief overview of the situation at the refugee camp and also covers: the criteria used in carrying out the tasks outlined, with the aim of meeting the project objectives; the data sets used and their sources and as well the software and hardware specifications for the successful completion of the project.

Chapter 4, Results and Analysis, details out the results of the various procedures, methodology and analysis talks carried out in the project and their analysis and interpretation for better understanding and eventual decision making.

Chapter 5, Conclusions and Recommendation, is the final chapter of the report and it contains the interpretations of the analyzed information and thus the derivation of the basic decision making information. It also outlines the possible solutions and recommendations for the attainment of the project objectives and the solution of the various obstacles witnessed or identified in carrying out the project.

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Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction

Water is probably the only natural resource to touch all aspects of human civilization: from agriculture and industrial development to cultural and religious values embedded in society… and … the need and demand for water have been driving forces of social, economic, and cultural development throughout human history. (Koi Chiro Matsura, Director General of UNESCO cited in Conflict Co-operation Related to International Water Resources by Castelein and Otte 2002, vii)

Water is a vital resource to sustain all forms of life. It is the key to development and sustenance of all communities and has a central place in human lives. Unfortunately, Aristotle’s predicament is very much applicable to this most important resource on the earth – Freshwater. Under conditions of increasing stress on this essential renewable but scarce natural resource, effective and efficient management of water is emerging as an urgent contemporary issue. The realisation of its limited availability in space and time has necessitated the design of globally viable water management regimes aimed at striking a balance between water used as a basis for income and its protection. Through these regimes it is hoped to ensure its sustainability through present to future generations (Agarwal et al. 2000)

2.2. Existence of Water in the World

Among all the natural resources available to mankind, water is the most essential. It is very fundamental to virtually all vital processes to mankind. Therefore it finds use in various sectors surrounding mankind, for instance in the industries and domestically.

Statistically, almost 70% of the earth’s surface is covered with water. This really seems a lot at first sight, so much that it seems that the whole human population around the world is doing okay in terms of sufficiency of water for their daily needs. But of the water resources on Earth, 97% is salty and only about 3% of the resource is fresh water, which is the most sought after and very useful to mankind including plants and animals too. Of the fresh water available, about two-thirds is locked up in ice caps and glaciers, existing in frozen form, leaving only a third of the available freshwater resources on the entire Earth usable. At present only about 0.08 per cent of all the world’s fresh water is exploited by mankind in ever increasing demand for sanitation, drinking, manufacturing, leisure and agriculture. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/water_management)

This usable water resources can be found both in still/ stagnant form, such as in Lakes, swamps e.t.c. or in flowing form as in rivers. The lakes can be categorised as either fresh water or salty water lakes, owing to the presence of a river inlet into the lake and an outlet that drains the lake waters into the oceans or the seas. These rivers

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can be either underground or surface. For instance, Lake Victoria is fed by several rivers in Kenya, such as, River Nyando, River Sondu and River Yala while River Nile is its outlet, draining the lake’s waters into The Mediterranean Sea. If there doesn’t exist an outlet for the lake waters, the lake tends to be salty due to the minerals and salts that the rivers swept along its course to the lakes and since there is not outlet, these salts and minerals are deposited in the lakes thus making these lakes salty, take for instance Lake Turkana and Lake Nakuru in Kenya among many more in the world.

Apart from the rivers, swamps and lakes being the major sources of water in Kenya and the rest of the world, water can also be found from the rain. Rainwater can be harvested and stored in tanks for use at a later date. As a matter of fact, the water flowing within the river channels originate from the high lands and forests which are good water catchment areas. These catchment areas experience heavy rainfall all yearlong thus are the origins of these rivers. Therefore, rain is the main, if not the only source of waters in lakes, rivers, swamps and even aquifers, present within the tropical regions. From the rainfall, some of the water is lost to the atmosphere while some find their way through the river channels to the lakes and to the seas and oceans. But some of the rainwater seeps into the ground and eventually collect underground to form aquifers and underground water tables from which wells and boreholes can be sunk to get the water for various uses in the society.

Water in Garissa District is mainly from the River Tana and the Merti Aquifer, which provides a permanent source of water to the people around Garissa Town and its environs. Other sources of water in the district, in which Dadaab is a part of, include flash floods as a result of the rains which are experienced during the rainy season of the year and as well, from the boreholes, wells and constructed water pans in the region.

2.3. Population and Uses of Water

Water, as an important and most basic natural resource finds application in various sectors of the livelihood of mankind, wildlife and the vegetation of the region of interest, with the various purposes for the need of water requiring different and varying amounts of the resource. The various uses of water are as discussed below:

2.3.1. Water for Domestic and Municipal Usages

These refers to the most basic uses of water within a domestic setting, and mainly includes the use of water for purposes such as drinking, cooking , domestic hygiene. With the general levels of well-being and aspirations increase, so do the amounts or water levels for domestic use. Population growth and distribution are direct determinants of the increases in demand for water especially for domestic uses, such that in urban settings, the demand is more as compared to remote regions.

In terms of demands for water, most refugee emergencies call for a minimum of 15 litres of water per capita per day plus communal needs and spare capacity for new

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arrivals. In terms of quality of the water being supplied, such that public health is preserved, a large amount of reasonably safe water as opposed to a small amount of very pure water is preferred. Thus the water being supplied should be tested for both chemical and bacteriological compositions (UNHCR Water Manual for Refugee Situations, 1992 pg 5 – Water Demand/Quality.) According to WHO, however, good health and cleanliness require a total daily supply of about 30 litres per person (11 cubic meters per year) (Population and Water Resources, Population Information Network, UN) under normal conditions.

2.3.2. Agricultural Usages

Irrigation has been and remains of vital importance for the provision of food and employment for growing populations world-wide. But water requirements for irrigation are extremely high in comparison to the output: Crops require and transpire massive amounts of water thus making water a major limiting factor for world agricultural production. In the medium term, population and economic growth will exert even greater pressure on water resources than on land. Africa and Asia already suffer from diminishing per caput water supplies, and many countries already are closer to their water resource limits than to their land limits. (Population and Water Resources, Population Information Network, UN)

2.3.3. Industrial Usages

Another use for the water resources is in industries for purposes such as processing, cooling and evacuation of effluents. Most industrialised countries in the world require and use a huge amount of water, while third world countries, especially in Africa, the industrial water needs are not large, UN’s figures of Africa’s per caput water withdrawals for industrial usages are estimated as 12 cubic metres per year, compared to the worlds total of 148 cubic metres per year. (Population and Water Resources, Population Information Network, UN)

According to the forecasts, global requirements will increase by at least 50 percent, and perhaps 70 percent, between the 1980s and 2000. The fastest growth is expected to take place in Africa and South America, but the largest absolute increases by far will be in Asia. (Population and Water Resources, Population Information Network, UN)

2.4. Population and Water Supply

The population and its distribution is an area of interest has a great impact on the supply amounts of water in such a place, with the human population having a direct and indirect impact on water supply. The impact is direct in that the populations modify the water circulation and its quality by withdrawals, waste disposal and river regulations. While the indirect impact refers to the modifications of vegetation and soil cover through deforestation and compaction which reduce the absorptive capacity of the soil thereby accelerating water runoff. This may result in floods and cause a deficit in aquifer recharge. The various impacts of population on water supply include:

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2.4.1. Impact on surface water

Human activities affect levels of river runoff principally by the direct withdrawal of water, the regulation of rivers, and land uses that change the surrounding environment and affect watershed dynamics. Disturbances of water flows in turn affect the wetting of the soil, the recharge of aquifers and rivers, the quality of freshwater and the per caput availability of water.

Deforestation is a major factor of changes in watershed dynamics. Forest areas tend to have more stable patterns of river runoff, because the catchment capabilities of the forest ecosystem enable a higher amount of groundwater discharge. Deforestation therefore causes significant changes in river flow patterns, with accelerated runoff and lost storage, which in turn causes a higher occurrence of flooding in wet seasons and a greater likelihood of dried-up rivers in dry seasons. Population growth is an important factor (often overshadowing logging operations) in deforestation, through the needs for more cropland and wood. Other actions leading to land degradation (such as overexploitation or overgrazing) have analogous effects on water regimes. Urbanization, which is a major demographic trend all over the world, also has distinct effects of surface water. When streets and other impermeable surfaces replace permeable soils and vegetation, the volume, velocity and temperature of local runoff are increased, reducing the base flow of rivers during dry periods.

2.4.2. Impact on groundwater

Because of the climatic and human-induced instability of surface water, groundwater is important for water supply security. It also is a primary resource when surface water is scarce. During the recent decades it has supplied much of the water needed for burgeoning cities as well as for irrigation development.

But groundwater aquifers are replenished only slowly, and human demands often exceed the natural recharge. In Tamil Nadu, heavy pumping for irrigation has caused drops in water table levels of 25-30 meters in a decade. Pumping in Beijing exceeds the annual sustainable supply by 25 percent; in northern China, with heavy agricultural, domestic and industrial demand, water tables are dropping by 1 to 4 meters per year. In the Bangladesh lowlands, the mining of groundwater for irrigation has brought about seasonal declines of the water tables; in the dry season, most village hand pumps (the essential source of domestic water) go dry.

Over pumping of underground aquifers can cause soil subsidence. Third world urban areas such as Bangkok, Beijing or Mexico City are affected: buildings, streets, railroads and sewage systems can be damaged. The phenomenon also occurs in rural areas (as in various areas across the southern USA). Over pumping also causes a particular type of pollution in coastal urban areas where the depletion of the aquifers fosters the intrusion of saltwater: the problem has been noted in Dakar, Jakarta, Lima, Manila and parts of Israel, Syria, the Arabian Gulf, Great Britain and western USA. (Population and Water Resources, Population Information Network, UN)

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2.4.2. Water pollution

Most human activities contribute to pollute surface and ground water, either directly (by returning dissolved effluents to water bodies) or indirectly (because waste deposited on solid ground finds its way to water bodies). Freshwater is increasingly polluted by organic nutrients, toxic metals, and agricultural and industrial chemicals, carried by industrial effluents, land use runoff, and domestic wastewater. Secondary but growing sources are the leaching from mine tailings and solid waste dumps, and atmospheric deposition of pollutants into water bodies. To the traditional concerns of pollution from organic wastes and the salinization of irrigated areas, have gradually been added those of suspended solids, heavy metals, nitrates, radioactive wastes, organic micro-pollutants and the acidification of lakes and streams. Too often, industrial liquid wastes are dumped in contravention of regulations, toxic and hazardous industrial and commercial wastes are disposed off in water bodies or land sites, and systems to dispose of waste water and control flooding are inadequate.

It is estimated that 42 percent of the water in domestic and municipal usages is returned to the water cycle, accounting for 11 percent of total waste water. Rapid urban expansion of the recent decades has increased the pressures on the urban environment and on surrounding regions and their natural resources. It has created immense and growing problems of air and water pollution. In some countries, as little as 2 percent of sewage is treated. From 30 to 50 percent of urban solid waste is left uncollected. The implications of all the above for the globe's shrinking supply of freshwater, the health of urban residents and the integrity of the globe's atmosphere are obvious.

Much of the pollution arises from the rapid growth of squatter settlements on the periphery of cities--many of them springing up on low-lying land and along waterways, and their wastes flowing into urban water sources. The poor are the most affected by the deterioration of the physical and natural environment, both the victims and unwilling agents of environmental damage.

Most of the water used by industry is eventually returned to the water cycle, making up 47 percent of total waste water. It is often polluted by chemicals and heavy metals; often, also, its temperature is increased to the detriment of life support systems downstream. In most developing countries pollution controls, when they exist, cannot keep pace with urbanization and industrialization. Risks from hazardous waste, even if local, are acute. In some large cities, the daily outpouring of industrial wastes into water bodies reaches millions of cubic metres. Things are better in developed countries, but even there problems exist.

While industries and domestic sewage are the main sources of pollution in developed countries, agriculture plays a bigger role in developing countries due to the clearing of land, the use of fertilizers and pesticides, and irrigation. The demand for range and farmland is a major factor in deforestation. The resulting accelerated runoff in turn accelerates erosion: in fact, water erosion globally is the main source of soil degradation (accounting for 62 percent of severely or moderately degraded areas world-wide and 70 percent in Asia), and deforestation is the main cause of

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water erosion in 43 percent of the areas affected. Soil erosion in deforested watersheds increases water turbidity and accelerates the leaching of soil nutrients. These effects are particularly severe in tropical regions, especially during the rainy season; but other regions are not immune.

Irrigation returns only a quarter of its withdrawals to the water cycle but this return flow accounts for 42 percent of total waste water. The combined increases in irrigated areas and related use of fertilizers and pesticides in developing countries have heavily polluted irrigation return flows, with significant threats to the aquatic environment as chemicals run off into streams or percolate into groundwater. Damming itself affects the quality of water downstream by reducing its nutrient contents and increasing salinity. Another typical change in land use is the destruction of wetlands, which removes natural filter mechanisms and thus allows more pollutants to reach water supplies.

Overall, the greater part of water pollution is due to growing populations: the direct effect of the search for protein and livelihoods, and the indirect side effects of agriculture and urbanization. Population growth (especially when compounded by urban concentration) is the source of increasing amounts of sewage that overload streams and effluent evacuation systems; third world cities cumulate the problems of industrial and domestic pollution. The increase in the use of chemicals in agriculture, as well as land clearing and irrigation, are driven by the need to increase production under the pressure of population growth.

2.5. Impact of Changes in Water Supply on Population

2.5.1. Water scarcity

Given the essential role of water in human activities, the impacts of water scarcity are potentially devastating. Those at the household level may be the most preoccupying as they regard the most essential aspects of well-being: shortages of drinking water affect nutrition and health through limited hydration and cooking as well as constraints on hygiene. They also affect workloads, as they entail longer or more frequent trips for fetching water. Women and children typically are the most affected on both counts. At the same time water pollution has a worsening, aggravating effect on human health: "Water shortages usually lead to problems of water quality since sewage, industrial effluents and agricultural and urban run-off overload the capacity of water-bodies to break down biodegradable wastes and dilute non-biodegradable ones". Unfortunately such shortages are increasingly common.

Water scarcity also limits economic performance, first of all in respect of agriculture and food production. Agriculture, being a major water user, is a major victim of water scarcity when prospects for further development of the production depend on irrigation techniques.

Overall economic impacts vary, depending in particular on which sectors are most affected when competition for water becomes too intense. In certain situations urban

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and industrial demand, being backed by greater purchasing power has deprived agricultural users. In others, on the contrary, agricultural withdrawals have left human settlements and industries downstream short of water. The impacts can be multiple, as in the famous case of the Aral Sea: reduced river flows induced by large-scale irrigation development in the region have severely damaged all the economic activities of what once was the shores of that great water body, including the destruction of fisheries and declining agricultural yields.

Population growth is at the heart of the problem of semi- arid development. The fundamental importance of water both for habitability and for rural access to biomass for food, fodder, wood as fuel and timber makes water scarcity a crucial problem in the struggle for a higher quality of life of poor rural populations. Migration out of the area will inevitably occur if habitability is reduced by water shortages.

Admittedly, scarcity-related concepts are indicative, in view of the varying adaptive capacities of countries. In particular, the water barrier concept should not be taken literally; even if water shortage is indeed a medium-term barrier to development, especially in developing countries, there is no indication that solutions for the long term cannot be found. Rather than impending absolute physical limits, the indicator warns of steeply increasing costs of supply on account of increased investment and recurrent expenditure for water supply, treatment and/or re-use.(Population and Water Resources, Population Information Network, UN)

2.5.2. Water pollution

Water pollution can render the water unfit for various usages, from nutrition to agriculture and industry. It also can affect natural biological systems, as in the eutrophication of lakes and coastal waters or the accumulation of unsafe levels of metals and organic residues in aquatic life. The quantitative supply of water certainly can be a local issue, but in many regions the most serious problem hindering the utilization of water resources is the deterioration of water caused by pollution.

Health impacts probably are the most preoccupying: the use of polluted waters for drinking and bathing is one of the principal pathways for infection by diseases that kill millions and sicken more than a billion people each year. Because of their effect on human welfare and economic growth, deficient water supplies and sanitation pose the most serious environmental problems that face developing countries today. Overall, an estimated 25,000 people die every day as a result of water-related sicknesses".

Water pollution problems are most serious in the urban agglomerations of developing countries, where controls on industrial emissions are not enforced and sewers, drains, let alone sewage treatment plants usually are lacking. WHO estimates that at least 600 million urban dwellers in the developing countries live in what it terms "life- and health-threatening homes and neighbourhoods". (It is worth

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remembering at this juncture that the urban population of developing countries, now 1.7 billion strong, is expected to grow to 4.0 billion by 2025.)

Environmental health problems common to many neighbourhoods include: "pools of dirty water, which accumulate around the home because there are no drains or sewers, and house sites are contaminated with excreta; pools of waste water [which can] become a breeding ground for disease vectors; lack of drains will often mean that floods are common occurrences and these bring additional health problems".

The impacts of pollution carried by water streams also include the damage done to fisheries, which are a major source of proteins in many countries. This concerns inland as well as marine fisheries, including fish nurseries in estuaries and coastal mangrove swamps. Such impacts are enhanced by the already large, and still growing, concentration of populations along sea shores and rivers around the world.

The capacity of rivers to support aquatic life "is decreased when the decomposition of pollutants lowers the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water. The effect on fisheries may be economically important. A sampling of monitoring sites in the mid-1980s found that 12 percent had dissolved oxygen levels low enough to endanger fish populations. The problem was worst where rivers passed through large cities or industrial centres. In China, only five of fifteen river stretches sampled near large cities were capable of supporting fish. High-income countries have seen some improvement over the past decade. Middle-income countries have, on average, shown no change and low-income ones show continued deterioration".

The pollution of coastal waters is a factor in declining catches in many areas of the developed and developing worlds. Silt loads carried by rivers, aggravated by land development and forest destruction, alter and reduce breeding grounds, and fish are contaminated by sewage and toxic substances. In fact, pollution from industry, farms and households that drains daily into the sea imperils not only fish but the diversity of marine life. Contrary to the popular view, oil spills and other effects of shipping play a minor role in ocean pollution compared to the impacts of human activities on land; sewage contributes about half the polluting nutrients that enter the oceans worldwide, and pollution from households also causes major harm.Another widespread type of health problem is represented by the impacts of water development through vector-borne diseases. Hydrological changes brought about by dam construction and irrigation development (larger, shallower or slower water bodies) may cause significant increases in the extent and seasonal duration of the breeding sites of mosquitoes and other vectors, thereby increasing the transmission of malaria and other diseases. Similar effects derive from the random creation of water pools in third world cities, slums and industrial sites.

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2.6. The Study of the Merti Aquifer

A study was conducted by the Earth Water Limited, commissioned by the UNHCR with a goal to determine the parameters that will provide long term planning, development, utilization and management of groundwater supplies in a sustainable manner to sufficiently meet the needs of Dadaab refugee camps.

The objectives of the study were to monitoring the aquifer, thus evaluate the effects of and to quantify abstraction from boreholes tapping the Merti Aquifer; and to develop an aquifer model and/or software that accurately reflects recharge and discharge conditions and other relevant aquifer characteristics such as transmissiveness and that can be used for management of the water resources.

The aquifer is located eastern Kenya, approximately between 37° 30' and 41° 00' E longitude, and 1° S to 2° N latitude. This comprises an area of nearly 130,000 km2. Land in the study area slopes down towards sea level from the west and northwest: (the high points of Mt. Kenya / Nyambene Mountains astride the equator at 37° 30' E, and Marsabit Mountain at 38° E, 2° 20' N). The western part of the study area rises to elevations greater than 1500 metres above mean sea level (m amsl) and falls away rapidly to 400m amsl at 39° E at gradients of up to 10m/km From the 39th parallel to the Kenya-Somalia border the gradient is a much gentler 0.8m per km, and through much of the area is less than this (Lester, 1985)

With the ever increasing population of the refugee camps and the host communities in the area, there is high demand for water in the region. The high and fast population increase has resulted into higher abstractions from the already existing boreholes at the refugee camps.

Rainfall in the region occurs when the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) crosses the equator in April-May (the 'long rains') and October-November (the 'short rains') other things being equal. A factor, which particularly affects rainfall, is orographic enhancement brought about by vertical displacement of air against the land, so temperature falls and precipitation occurs. Although this is of minimal importance in the central and eastern parts of the study area, the elevated rainfalls in the Nyambene Hills north east of Mt. Kenya and on Marsabit Mountain are examples of the orographic effect.

Data from 74 stations presented by Lane (1995) were used in assessing rainfall distribution. Eight examples, drawn from across the project area, are tabulated below. Stations shown fall into three groups that reflect elevation and distance from the coast and the equator:

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West Centre Coastal / SouthName Nan. Lais. Mars. Gar. Hab. Wajir Lamu KiungaLat. 0°3'N 1°36'N 2°19'

N0° 29'S 1°01'N 1°45'N 2°16'S 1°44'S

Long. 37° 02'E 37° 48E 37° 59'E

39° 38'E

39° 28'E 40° 04'E 40° 54'E 41°29'EElev. 2,034 625 1,447 138 213 262 3 10

Jan 20 8 38 11 8 7 25 0Feb 26 19 24 6 7 6 10 0Mar 58 33 74 35 23 34 36 8Apr 117 73 230 68 101 77 133 78May 82 13 101 17 11 35 296 204Jun 42 8 8 5 0 2 147 90Jul 54 0 15 2 0 3 85 56Aug 67 0 16 6 0 2 55 18Sep 83 1 11 7 1 5 39 32Oct 79 16 123 25 18 29 57 46Nov 94 43 142 78 63 61 95 23Dec 43 21 64 60 29 22 98 11Total 765 234 845 320 261 281 1,075 566Table 2.1: Selected Mean Monthly and Annual Rainfalls in the Study Area in millimetres.(Source: WRAP 1991) Nan. Nanyuki, Lais. Laisamis, Mars. Marsabit, Gar. Garissa, Hab. Habaswein

This is further represented in a graph as below:

Precipitation

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Jan Mar May Jul Sep NovDuration (months)

Rain

fall

(mm

)

Coastal / southKiunga

Coastal / southLamu

Centre Wajir

Centre Hab.

Centre Gar.

West Mars.

West Lais.

Figure 2.1 Selected Mean Monthly and Annual Rainfalls in the Study Area

Evaporation far exceeds rainfall throughout the project area except on the east flank of Mt. Kenya, with rainfall >2000 mm/yr. In the central part of the area the ratio of

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rain to evaporation is as low as 10%. Evaporation decreases with increased elevation to the west. Evaporation variation across the area is unknown. The important point is that loss of terrestrial water by evaporation is a particularly significant component in the hydrological cycle.

In terms drainage, the project’s area of study is mainly served with two perennial water courses, the Tana River and Ewaso Ng’iro. The Ewaso Ng'iro rises on the northern flanks of Mount Kenya and the Aberdares and flows north then east. At Archer's Post (north of Isiolo) mean annual flow was approximately 708 million cubic metres per year (MCM/yr) for the period 1949-72 (Swarzenski & Mundorff 1977); but 633 MCM/yr for the period 1949-90 (WRAP 1991).

The perennial Tana River lies 5 km west of the western boundary of North Eastern Province except at Garissa, and flows into the Indian Ocean north of Malindi. Flow is considerably larger than in the Ewaso Ng'iro. It is an important source of water during the dry season for the people and livestock of Garissa and Tana River Districts, and is the source of potable water for Garissa Town. The mean monthly flows in these rivers are given in the table below.

River Tana Ewaso Ng'iroGauge RGS 4G01 RGS 5E03Location Garissa Archer's PostYears 57 (to 1997) 42 (to 1997)Month Mean flow, m3/s Mean flow, m3/sJanuary 128 10.9February 87 7.3March 90 11.4April 247 39.8May 361 26.7June 203 12.8July 115 12.3August 90 17.0September 76 15.7October 99 15.3November 297 46.0December 242 25.7Total 2,036 241Table 2.2: Mean Annual and Monthly flows in the Tana and Ewaso Ng'iro Rivers(Source: NAWARD 1998)

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Recommendations from the study of the Merti Aquifer

• Maximum depth and borehole spacing of up-coming boreholes should be limited during the drilling process. Though there is no indication of interference noted due to closely spaced boreholes, it is however recommended that any future borehole development, a minimum distance of 3km between the boreholes should be allowed to avoid any future likelihood of interference and intrusion (Up-coning) of low quality brackish/saline groundwater

• During the borehole implementation process, a clear quality control to optimize the long-tem performance should be embraced. This can be possible by ensuring a qualified hydro geologist is in supervision of the process

• Ground water abstraction per unit time should be maintained within permitted limits, (for instance, an uphole velocity of 1.5m per sec) to guard against irreversible damage to the aquifer (design groundwater abstraction regimes).

• Aquifer monitoring (abstraction rates, static water levels and the understanding of hydrochemistry) needs to be expanded especially the area outside the Dadaab axis and at the periphery of the aquifer (perceived to have brackish water) in order to understand the behaviour of the aquifer as a whole and in particular at the recharge zones.

• A comprehensive, all-encompassing short and long term aquifer study and management program should be undertaken as a matter of urgency.

2.7. Water well/Borehole design

Well design is the process of specifying the physical materials and dimensions for a well. The main objectives for the designing of a well are to ensure that:

The well produces the highest yields with a minimum drawdown consistent with aquifer capability

The water drawn is of good quality with proper protection from contamination

The well has a long life, approximately 25 years or more

Dimensional factors, strength requirements, and costs associated with well construction and maintenance plays a part in establishing the particular design parameters. Other important hydrogeological information that are also of importance in the design of a well include:

Stratigraphic information about the aquifer and its overlying sediments Transmissivity and storage coefficient values for the aquifer Current and long term balance conditions for the aquifer Water quality

Every well consists of two main elements, the casing and the intake portion. The casing serves as a housing for the pumping equipment and as a vertical conduit for water flowing upward from the aquifer to the pump intake. The intake portion of well - - is generally screen to prevent sediment from entering with the water and to serve as a structural retainer to support the loose formation material. (Driscoll, 1986)

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Standard design procedures for the design and construction of a well involve choosing a suitable casing diameter and material, estimating the depth of the well, selection of the length, diameter and material for the screen. Water well casing material may be constructed of steel or plastic (of various types). Permanent steel casing is not advised as it may corrode in certain ground waters and also encourage the development of biofilm slimes. (Water well construction Guidelines, page 3-sanitary protection of wells, casing material)

In determination of the well depth, the driller’s log is used. This log contains information from a test hole, or sampled logs from nearby wells in the same aquifer. Generally, a well should be completed to the bottom of the aquifer because:

More of the aquifer thickness can be utilized as the intake portion of the well resulting in higher specific capacity

More drawdown can be made available, permitting greater well yield Sufficient drawdown is available to maintain well yield even during periods

of severe drought or over pumping

Finishing of well or borehole necessitates the construction of a pump house, which is recommended not to be directly above the well but should be offset at a minimum distance of 2m.This will allow ease of access for maintenance.

The following table lists the maximum discharge rates for various casing sizes that produce only moderate friction losses.

Casing Sizes Maximum DischargeInches (in) Millimetres (mm) Gallons per minute(gpm) m3/Day

4 102 200 10905 127 310 16906 152 450 24508 203 780 425010 254 1230 670012 305 1760 959014 337 2150 1170016 387 2850 1550018 438 3640 1980020 489 4540 2470024 591 6620 36100

Table 2.3: Maximum Discharge Rates for certain diameters of Standard-Weight Casing, based on an Uphole Velocity of 5ft/sec (1.5m/sec)

The well should be tested so that: the satisfaction of the user needs can be confirmed, in terms of the quantity and quality of water being supplied; determine the maximum sustainable yield of the well and provide baseline data on the performance of the well, against which future tests can be compared. The tests to be conducted on the well include determination of the suitable pumping rate of the well, measuring the water level in the well with reference to a fixed and known

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point. This can be used to determine the drawdown, the difference the initial static water level (SWL) before pumping and the pumping water level

2.8. GIS and Remote Sensing

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) refer to the collection, input, manipulation, analysis, output and storage of spatial based data and information, at various scales. Spatial based data refers to any data about the physical and manmade features present on the surface of the earth, below the surface, on and below the oceans, seas, and other water bodies, and as well, the features that are existence in space.

GIS is a tool that is used to produce maps that in turn display the various layers with each layer holding the data and information about a specific or particular kind of a feature(s). These features are linked to a specified position on the earth’s surface, geographically and the records to an attribute table. GIS can relate otherwise disparate data on the basis of common geography and thereby revealing hidden patterns, relationships and trends that are not readily apparent on spreadsheets. On the basis of this new information is created from the existing data resources.

Remote Sensing on the other hand refers to the collection of data and information through imagery using satellites on space platforms or through aerial photography on airborne platforms, without being in contact with the object itself. Remotely sensed data is very useful as it is used in the production of basic maps through which collected data about the features on the ground and their attributes can be overlaid on the basic maps and used to perform the analysis and eventual problem solution.

2.9. GIS and Water Supply and Management

GIS is a very important tool in the supply and management of water supply in a region as it can be used to map and spatially locate and display various water sources in the region. In this study and application in water management, it GIS is applied to spatially locate the actual location of the Hagadera Refugee camp in relation to its real world location on the surface of the earth. This is done through projecting the image of the area and the site plan of the camp onto the earth surface through use of projection settings and attributes that accurately and precisely place the image and plan onto its definite location on the ground.

In water supply and management, GIS find applications in the location of the existing water sources, inclusive of their attribute information such as their capacities or yields, the service areas for the water sources, that is, the region within the camp or region which is served by the said borehole, water tank, well etc. The Channels used to transport the resources within the area of interest area also mapped, alongside the water distribution systems available.

With the capture of the various water distribution system characteristics and instruments with relation to the population statistics of the area of interest and the access roads in the area, GIS techniques and analysis methods can be employed. In

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the process, very vital information can be obtained through querying of the resultant GIS database to answer very important and specific information such as:

What is the service area of a specific borehole with regards to its yield? With the population of the area of interest, is the total yields and supply

capacity of the boreholes and water sources in the area of interest sufficient? With the respect to the current locations of the wells and boreholes and the

population’s requirements for water, where is the best location to locate a new water point (borehole, well, water tank etc)?

Which is the shortest route to a specific water point for quick repair work and/ or replacements in the distribution system?

Among other critical questions.

Therefore, GIS is a very important tool in this project as it helps associate the relevant and related layers of data and information onto a single system that can be queried to answer very vital and critical questions as concerns the supply of sufficient and quality water to the people.

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Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1. Overview of Methodology

Methodology refers to the tasks, processes, and the criteria used within the timeline of the carrying out of the project, aiming at the achievement of the set objectives, thus the content of this chapter. These tasks and the chronological and step by step procedures, as indicated in this chapter show the manner in which the various results from the analysis tasks in the project are come about. They indicate the steps followed such that the expected results and objectives set for the project are achieved.

This chapter also introduces the area of study, The Hagadera Refugee Camp, and provides information about this area and the justification for the coming up and carrying out a study of the water situation, that is, the availability and sufficiency of the water resources within the Hagadera Camp region and their utilization by the agencies in the region, but mainly the usage of the resources by the refugee population in the camp.

The various software and hardware and their specifications for the successful carrying out of the various tasks will also be discussed within this chapter. The various analysis and geoprocessing tasks will be mentioned and the methodologies to their successful carrying out are also discussed.

3.2. Area of Study

Dadaab region is a semi arid town located in Dadaab Division, Garissa District, of North Eastern Province of Kenya. Hagadera Town is also located a few kilometers away from Dadaab town, in Jarajila Division, Garissa District. These two towns of interests have coordinates:

Town Centre Longitude LatitudeDadaab 40° 18’ 50” E 0° 03’04” NHagadera 40° 22’ 12” E 0° 02’ 06” N

Table 3.1 Coordinate information of the towns in the area of study

Dadaab region, as of 2011 hosts what is often described as the largest refugee camp in the world (Wikipedia, en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dadaab). Dadaab features a UNHCR base that serves the various refugee camps in the region. These refugee camps include IFO Camps, Dagahaley Camp and Hagadera camps and the other new camps which are at present being planned, such as the Alinjigul and Kambioos camps.The region experiences a semi arid to arid climatic conditions with mean annual temperatures ranging from 30 – 36 °C. The rainfall experienced in the region is also low with means of between 150mm/year to 350mm/year. The rainfall and rainwater in the area is quickly lost back into the atmosphere due to the very high temperatures

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in the area, which is also accelerated with the scarce vegetative and soil cover in the region.This region is mainly covered with loose sand soil with barely any vegetation cover, except for scattered shrubs. The region generally has a low potential for vegetation or plant growth.

Hagadera Refugee Camp is among the first to be constructed in the 1990s and mainly plays host to refugees of Somali and Ethiopian origins. This large number of refuges present in the Hagedera Camp and the other camps in Dadaab is mainly attributed to the civil unrest and internal disputes in their home countries. For instance, The rising cases of piracy and terrorism and the increasing number of the Al Shabaab insurgents in Somalia has led to a world-declared war on the militia in the country. This has significantly resulted and still contributes to the increasing numbers of those fleeing the country into Kenya. As of statistics of 16th September, 2012, the Population of the Hagadera Camp stood at 140,317.

 AGE 0 – 4 years 5 – 11 Years 12 – 17 Years

  F M Total F M Total F M Total

ETHIOPIA 272 300 572 342 370 712 219 297 516

RWANDA 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

SOMALIA 10,598 11,212 21,810 15,903 16,579 32,482 8,355 10,022 18,377

SUDAN 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

UGANDA 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

Total 10,871 11,512 22,383 16,245 16,949 33,194 8,574 10,319 18,893

 48.60

% 51.40%   48.90% 51.10%   45.40% 54.60%  

 AGE 18 – 59 Years 60+ Years Grand Total

  F M Total F M Total F M HH Total

ETHIOPIA 920 1,063 1,983 67 39 106 1,820 2,069 1,502 3,889

RWANDA 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1

SOMALIA 30,439 28,350 58,789 2,522 2,441 4,963 67,817 68,604 42,885 136,421

SUDAN 1 1 2 0 0 0 1 1 1 2

UGANDA 0 3 3 0 0 0 1 3 2 4

Total 31360 29,418 60,778 2,589 2,480 5,069 69,639 70,678 44,391 140,317

 51.60

% 48.40%   51.10% 48.90%   49.60% 50.40%    

Table 3.2 Breakdown of the population statistics of Hagadera Refugee camp as of 16th Sept, 2012

The high number of the refugee population and the prevailing climatic and vegetative conditions in the region is putting a strain on the sufficiency of the water resources that are present in the area. The Dadaab region’s main source of water is through boreholes that have been constructed in the region at various places. These boreholes dug in the area draw their water from the Merti Aquifer. The Merti Aquifer and Tana River are the permanent sources of water for the district, with the Merti Aquifer’s main source of it waters in the Ewaso Ng’iro and from the rains causing flash floods in the area. These waters seeps or infiltrates into the ground,

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thanks to the large molecules of the loose soils and the almost non-existent vegetation cover in this area. A detailed study of the Merti Aquifer was carried out by the Earth Water Limited under the commissioning of the UNHCR and details about the study and recommendations have been discussed in the previous chapter, Literature Review.

3.3. Data Sources and Tools

Datasets and Sources

For the complete and successful study and analysis of the project and the eventual achievement of the objectives laid out, there is need for data. Various datasets are thus needed or required for the project, and thus their sources need to be determined and the various datasets are collected and where necessary, manipulated before use within the project.

The area of study is the Hagadera Refugee Camp, which is one of the many and very large camps playing host to a very large population of refugees from the neighbouring countries as a result of the civil unrest in their home countries. These countries include the now South Sudan, which separated or was divided from the originally and previously existing Sudan. Other countries include Uganda, Tanzania, Ethiopia, and Somalia having the majority of the Dadaab Camps Population, due to the never ending civil wars that has existed in the country since the 1990s, and mainly from the recently declared war on terrorism and piracy by the Kenya Defence Forces and AMISOM.

The United Nations High Commission for Refugees, UNHCR, is the agency responsible and in charge of the setting up and management of the refugee camps and the refugee affairs. In addition to the UN Refugee Agency, there exists other Non-Governmental Organizations that are contracted with the UNHCR and are thereby tasked with various tasks touching on refugee affairs, their livelihood and their survival and security within the camps. These other agencies include GIZ, CARE Kenya, NRC, Red Cross, just to mention a few, and especially those tasked with duties involving or circumventing water resources.From the study of the area of interest and identification of the various and directly linked agencies responsible for the various affairs touching on the refugees at the camps, especially their health, security, education and key among them being their water and sanitation facilities, it is very clear that the sources for the various datasets that are relevant for use with the project could be found within these agencies.

In carrying out the various tasks within the project and in its area of study, various data sets were necessary and were therefore collected. These include:

Site or Hagadera Refugee Camp plan showing the locations and the presently available facilities, infrastructure in terms of access road network and the plan for the various available camp blocks as occupied by the refugees resettled within the camp. This set of data was collected from the UNHCR

Boreholes and other water resources available within the camp region. This included the site names and attributes such as the yields, salinity status and

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operational status of the various water sources, mainly the boreholes serving the refugee population and the agency staff within the camp. These data sets have their source from the GIZ, CARE Kenya and UNHCR.

A satellite imagery of the area of study providing an overview and general location of the area of study and its infrastructure. The source of the imagery is an image from the Google Earth servers, courtesy of Google Inc.

Population statistics of the Hagadera Refugee Camp

Other datasets and their sources that were used within the project include a LANDSAT Imagery of the AOI obtained from the United States Geological Survey Centre for Earth Resources Observation and Science (USGS/EROS) website (http://glovis.usgs.gov, topographical maps covering the Hagadera and Dadaab Regions, courtesy of the RCMRD and the Geography Department, University of Nairobi.

Datasets Details SourceSatellite imagery of Dadaab

Showing general overview of study area and roads

Google Earth imagery

Hagadera Camp plan Showing existing facilities and access roads

UNHCR

Borehole Information Location and attribute information about the existing boreholes in area of study

UNHCR & GIZ

Population Statistics Refugee populations in the camps

UNHCR

Landsat Imagery Remotely sensed information about the area

USGS/EROS

Topographical maps Relief and planar overview of the area

Geog Dept, UoNRCMRD Data Centre

Table 3.3 A summary of data and their sources as collected and used in the project

Tools

The data sets collected from the various aforementioned sources were thus manipulated, corrected, consolidated and re-projected before their use within the project. This activity was to be carried out through the application of various techniques, which includes manual scrutiny and the use of digital media, that is, a computer hardware and GIS & RS software.

For manual scrutiny of the collected data, the tools required area mainly stationery such a book and a pen, which were used to carry out the manual calculations. In terms of digital media, the tools employed for the data manipulation into relevancy within the project include a calculator, computer hardware and various GIS and Remote Sensing Software.

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For the successful completion of the project, the following are the minimum computer hardware and software specifications:1. Hardware Specifications

A 2.0GHz Processor A 2GB RAM/ Internal Memory 160GB Hard disk/ external storage

2. Software Specifications A computer running on Windows 7 Operating Software(OS) Esri’s ArcGIS 10 Software Global Mapper v13 software Text Editors e.g. Notepad Microsoft Office 2007 with word processing and spreadsheet packages Adobe Reader for PDF documents

The project was therefore done from completion to the end, inclusive of the analysis and interpretation of the results using the above indicated software, with ArcGIS 10 being the major software used in the creation of the Geodatabase. Other software employed for the project includes Open Source GIS software, Quantum GIS v1.8.0 and GRASS GIS extension on QGIS.

3.4. Data Manipulation

At the completion of the data collection stage of the project’s timeline, a vast amount of data and information was available. This thus necessitated the commencement of the data manipulation process or stage of the timeline. The data manipulation stage, in this case involved mainly the sorting out and selection of the highly relevant data and information necessary for the project’s study topic and study area. The manipulation of the data also involved the georeferencing and rectification or re-projection of the data sets sorted out, such that the data sets being used fall into the same projection system.

Sorting Out of the Data

The data collected from the various agencies, especially the data and information concerning the boreholes and their location within the study area, was of a lot and covering a wide area, including areas out of the study area or AOI. Therefore these datasets have to be sorted out and those boreholes of interest present within the study area were selected from the large amount of data collected.

To accurately select the relevant datasets about the boreholes that lie within the study area of Hagadera Refugee camp, a comma delimited csv file was created. This file contained all the boreholes site names and coordinate information relevant in determining the locations of the boreholes on a map overlay. In determining the locality of the boreholes in the study area, QGIS was used to import and load the csv file’s content onto the workspace area of the QGIS screen. One advantage of using QGIS open source software to display the data is that the software has the capability

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to view various data sets with varying projections. This is done through enabling the ‘On the Fly CRS Transformation feature on the project properties window under

Figure 3.1 Showing the QGIS ‘On the Fly CRS Transformation feature

With the feature enabled and a coordinate reference System selected, in this case, WGS 84, all the datasets are imported and displayed on the workspace area. The imported information about the boreholes is then saved as a KML file. This format is mainly used to display or overlay features over the Google Earth imagery. This thus enabled the sorting out and selection of the relevant datasets and especially the selection of those boreholes located within the area of study or surrounding the Hagadera Refugee Camp. Thus now a refined list of boreholes and their accompanying attribute and location information can be developed for use in the project, though the coordinate information or projection still is not refined.

Georectification and Re-Projection

Georectification refers to the process that involves the identification of ground features that appear on an image and their ground coordinates to spatially locate the imagery features on the real world through a defined projection system. While re-projection refers to the performing of a coordinate reference system transformation to a suitable coordinate system that correctly and accurately defines the area of study. In Kenya, it has been determined that the main projection parameters that are used for mapping purposes are:

Projection: Universal Transverse Mercator, UTM Datum: Clarke 1880 Modified ( Arc 1960) Zone: -37 ( 36°E - 42°E Southern Hemisphere) Units: Meters Central Meridian Scale Factor: 0.999600000 Central Meridian: 39.00000

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Latitude of Origin: 0.000000 False Easting (m): 500000 False Northing (m): 10000000

For proper utilization of the functionalities of the GIS software to be used, ARCGIS 10, the coordinate system to be used should be a projected system, and not a geographic system. Therefore this calls for the re-projection of the coordinates of the data sets sorted out to UTM (arc 1960) which is a projected system from WGS 84, which is a geographic system.

For the georectification process, the software used was Global Mapper v13. The data sets to be projected include the site plan of the Hagadera Camp, the imagery obtained from the Google Earth Imagery. These data sets are separately loaded onto the Global Mapper and coordinates the various features with known coordinates are used to perform the georeferencing, with the projection setting set to the UTM projection as indicated above. The rectified images are thus exported in raster format, that is, the geoTIFF format, a format that carries with it the coordinate information and thus can easily be loaded onto GIS software in readiness for use in the project analysis.

For the selected boreholes currently under the WGS 84 system, the same Global Mapper 13 is used to perform their re-projection of the coordinate system from the geographic system into the projected system of UTM (arc 1960). This is done through the following process:

1. Load the specified datasets onto the Global Mapper with the original projection system.

2. Click on the Tools option on the Menu bar of the Global Mapper screen and select ‘Configure’

3. A pop up screen comes up, from which you click on the projection tab.4. Enter or select the required or new projection parameter for the re-projection

of the data set. That is, the borehole projection to be transformed into UTM (Arc 1960)

5. Click on ‘Apply’ and then ‘OK’ to actualize the re-projection.6. After the completion of the actualization process, export the vector data or

the point data sets as a shapefile, and save onto a folder to be used for the project.

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Figure 3.2: Showing the configuration screen in Global mapper v13 for the rectification and re-projection functions through parameter selection for the required CRS.

This is the process of conducting the georectification and the re-projection processes using the Global Mapper v13 software for many types and formats of data sets. After the completion of the above stage of processing of the data sets, the datasets are thus ready to be used for the actual project and eventual analysis and derivation of viable conclusions and recommendations as per the guidelines set out through the project objectives.

3.5. Data Visualization in ArcGIS v10.0

With the completion of the data collection process and the data manipulation and refinement process, the data sets are therefore ready for use within the framework of the ArcGIS software platform. Therefore the software, arcGIS v10.1 will be used for the display, visualization and eventual performance of the analysis or geoprocessing functionalities relevant and very necessary for the achievement of the set objectives and the determination of the sufficiency of the water resources for the vast population living within the refugee camp.

Folder Connection and Geodatabase Creation

This journey of the visualization of the data sets and their eventual use in the analysis process starts with the creation of a file geodatabase, which will contain all the feature classes and feature datasets for the project. Using ArcCatalog, a folder connection is created to the folder existing on the computer memory. It is on this folder that the geodatabase will be created and as well, all the other sets of data will be located or placed for easy access of the datasets for use and display within the software. Therefore, after the making of the folder connection using ArcCatalog, a geodatabase, named, HagaderaWater.gdb is created and stored on the folder.

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On-Screen Digitization

With the creation of the folder link and the creation of the geodatabase, the Hagadera Camp plan raster file is added onto the workspace screen of the arcgis software. This is to be used or to serve as a base map for the creation of the various feature classes on the geodatabase, through on the screen digitizing of the access roads and camp or agency facilities present in the Refugee Camp.

With the settings for the datasets set for UTM coordinate system, which is a projected CRS, the feature datasets and feature classes can thus be created on the geodatabase. In creation of the new feature classes or feature datasets, the type of feature, be it a point, line or polygon feature, is set and the CRS also set according to the data frame settings of the various layers of data to be displayed. With the creation of the facilities dataset and the roads network dataset, the facilities on the site plan of the camp and the access roads serving the camp can thus be digitized and saved on to the geodatabase in vector formats. After the digitization of the access routes and the camp facilities, the attribute table of these features is thus also updated through creation of additional fields to hold information such as the facility or road names, facility areas or road lengths, road driving speeds, direction of their usage if either one-way or bi-directional and also indicate the class of the access roads. Apart from the roads network and the facilities present in the camp, point features representing the town centres, that is the Hagadera and Dadaab town centres, have also been imported onto the geodatabase. And additional details added onto their attribute table.

Having loaded onto view the raster file of the Hagadera Refugee Camp and as well creating and displaying the feature classes for the camp facilities and the access routes in the region, the main and most important data set can thus be also added onto the data frame and displayed. This involves the adding of the Borehole shapefile for the sorted and selected boreholes in the study area. After loading of the Boreholes’ shapefile, it is then imported onto the geodatabase as a feature class too, together with its attributes as they appear on the attribute table showing their coordinate information and other attributes such as their yields and management agency. On screen digitization is also done for the water supply lines within the camp area indicating the area of service for the specified boreholes. The location of the various taps within the camp is also indicated on the view, thus providing the location information to the various points to which the residents of the various camp blocks and the staff of the agencies present within the camp can source for the all important resource, for various uses, with mainly quenching their thirst and domestic uses topping the list of uses at the camp.

3.6. Creation of a Network Dataset

A network dataset is a very important feature dataset that is created from the existing roads and access routes feature classes and is mainly used to perform analysis functions such as determine the shortest routes to a given target, alternative routes that can be used to get to a specified point on the map, while calculating the time spent to get to the targeted destination. This network dataset can also be used to

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determine the service area that say, in case of an emergency, an ambulance can serve in a matter of minutes, with the default time being 5 minutes.

Therefore in this case, the roads and access routes feature classes are used in the building of the Network Dataset, named, HagaderaNET. The creation of the HagaderaNET is as outlined in the flow diagram below.

Figure 3.3: Showing the steps in creation of the Network Dataset

With the datasets already imported into the geodatabase and then displayed onto the workspace screen of the ArcGIS, and the creation of the Network Dataset completed, the analysis of the data in relation to the study area and the study topic can thus be carried out. Thus questions like: What is the shortest route from the UNHCR Field office to Borehole? What area does Borehole 2 serve? Are the yields for boreholes 3, 4 &7 sufficient for the population of refugees on the adjacent blocks?

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Chapter 4

ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

4.1. Results

From the completion of the various methodologies discussed in the previous chapter, leading to the eventual use of the software, ArcGIS 10.1 to display the data collected for the project, results can thus be obtained through running of various analysis processes within the software application.

The software, ArcGIS 10.1 was used to display the various datasets obtained for the project, using the projected coordinate system, that is, using the UTM arc1960 projection parameters. The datasets as displayed on the workspace screen of the software, with all the facilities, access routes and the camp blocks digitized, the result obtained looks as shown in the image below:

Figure 4.1: Hagadera Camp Layout showing the access roads, boreholes and the various camp facilities

4.1.1. Network Dataset Results

ArcGIS provides for a functionality that is vital for the creation of a network dataset using the access routes and roads present and created or digitized within the system’s geodatabase. A network dataset finds applications in determining the best route to access a certain facility or facilities in a specified order in the shortest time

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possible, determine the service area, say of an ambulance or fire truck in a matter of minutes in case of an emergency. It is also helpful in the determination of the best locations to place a new facility. Having created the HagaderaNET to serve as the network dataset for the Hagadera camp, using the access routes serving the region, the result of the process is as shown in the image below:

Figure 4.2: HagaderaNET network dataset showing the directions for the roads network

4.1.2. Water Services Network

Water being a major resource for the refugee’s livelihood, and also being the major topic for the project, data was obtained about the various water points and their distribution systems. This data was thus also added onto the ArcGIS display, indicating the pipeline network, main service area for the available boreholes, the valves position in the network and the various positions within the camp where taps have been placed to ease and improve access to the rare commodity in the area. The results for the water services distribution services are as shown below.

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Figure 4.3: Water supply Network showing the supply distribution facilities

4.1.3. Borehole Depths and their Yields

The various boreholes present in the camp region all obtain their waters through drawing from the Merti Aquifer. They are all sunk deep into the aquifer to facilitate the extraction of this resource. These boreholes are sunk to a given depth, measured from the ground level, and their total depths, water struck levels and also their static water levels are as indicated in the table below:

Borehole Name Total Depth-TD (m) WSL (m) SWL (m) Yields ( m3/hr)Hagadera BH 1 150.1 110.1 107.5 9.23Hagadera BH 2 151 120.6 107.7 16Hagadera BH 3 150 112 114.7 14.5Hagadera BH 4 150 110 115.2 18.68Hagadera BH 6 135 104 106.3 13Hagadera BH 7 154 112 113.6 28.8

Table 4.1: Boreholes and their various depths and yields

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4.2. Analysis

4.2.1. Route Network Analysis

The route network dataset created and described in the methodology enables the determination of the best and optimal routes to use to access a facility within the refugee camp. The network establishes the junctions and directions for the roads and access routes available within the camp (see figure 4.2). For use of the GIS network analysis to find the optimal (shortest and suitable) route to use to gain access to a facility within the camp, the start and stops are fed into the ‘New Route’ option of the Network Analyst/ geoprocessing tools. Network analyst tools are thus applicable whenever there is need for cost reduction, in terms of the amount of fuel used by the vehicle and the time taken to quickly reach the intended destination.

Figure 4.4: The route model for accessing the boreholes

4.2.2. Borehole yields vis-à-vis the Camp Population

From the research done about the water situation within the Hagadera Refugee camp and the information collected about the boreholes within the camp region and their daily yields among other important attribute information, analysis can thus be done to ascertain the sufficiency of the water currently being supplied to the refugee population, the agencies and facilities within the camp.

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The boreholes attribute information about the boreholes serving the refugee camp of interest is as shown in the table below.

BH_No Site_Name Eastings Northings Elev_mYield(m3/hr) Status

C10098 Hagadera Bh 4 650964.2 9999944.5 135 18.68 FreshC10097 Hagadera Bh 3 651506.6 9999656.2 134 14.5 FreshC10421 Hagadera Bh 7 652612.1 9998942.2 134 28.8 Fresh

C9760 Hagadera Bh 1 652789.910000364.

6 127 9.23 Fresh

C9761 Hagadera Bh 2 652910.510000866.

2 127 16 Fresh

C10423 Hagadera Bh 6 65305310001189.

6 127 13 Fresh

BH_No Site_Name Const_Yr SWL_m TD_m WSL_m

C10098 Hagadera Bh 4 1992 115.2 150 110

C10097 Hagadera Bh 3 1992 114.7 150 112

C10421 Hagadera Bh 7   113.6 154 112

C9760 Hagadera Bh 1 1992 107.5 150.1 110.1

C9761 Hagadera Bh 2 1992 107.7 151 120.6

C10423 Hagadera Bh 6   106.3 135 104Table 4.2: Boreholes’ attribute information table

There is high demand for water within the camp to sufficiently and effectively serve the refugees in the camp, the agency staff or personnel and the various health, education and security facilities present in the camp. This demand is mainly brought about by the fact that the influx of refugees coming into the region is high and at an alarming rate due to insecurities and civil unrest in their home areas/countries and the need to search for greener pastures elsewhere.

From the statistics obtained, as of September 2012, the camp had a refugee population of about 140,317 refugees. This figure is high for the planned and designed plan of the refugee camp and therefore increasing the demands for the water in the region. Therefore analysis of the amount of water that is extracted or obtained from the boreholes can thus be calculated, and with the recommended 16 hour-straight running of the pumps per day, the amount that is produced by each borehole and the summed total from the outputs of all the boreholes can be used to compute the total amount of water, in terms of litres per day. This value is thus also used to compute an estimate of the amount of litres currently being supplied to the individual refugee in the camp each and every day.

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No. BH_No Site_NameYield(m3/hr) Litres/Hr

Litres/day(24Hrs)

Amount in 16 hours

2 C10098 Hagadera Bh 4 18.68 18680 448320 2988803 C10097 Hagadera Bh 3 14.5 14500 348000 2320004 C10421 Hagadera Bh 7 28.8 28800 691200 4608005 C9760 Hagadera Bh 1 9.23 9230 221520 1476806 C9761 Hagadera Bh 2 16 16000 384000 2560007 C10423 Hagadera Bh 6 13 13000 312000 208000

TOTALS 100,210.00

2,405,040.00

1,603,360.00

Table 4.3: Borehole yields in terms of capacity pumped on a daily basis

The formula

Total amount pumped in 16 hours / Total camp population

is applied to compute the rough estimate of the capacity of water that is currently being supplied to the inhabitants of the refugee camp, assuming that the total camp population is inclusive of the security, health and agency personnel offering their services at the camp in addition to the refugee population.

Assuming that the population of all the agency personnel, security staff and health service personnel in the refugee camp sums up to about 500 in number, the above formula can thus be applied to obtain the per person estimation for the all important resource. Therefore

1603360.00 / (140317 +500) = 11.38 litres/ capita per day

While the WHO and UNHCR minimum refugee estimate stands at 15litres capita per day. Assuming that with the high rate of population growth of the camp, such that with some of the refugees coming in being transferred to other new camps, the Sept 2013 refugee population estimate stands at a figure like 155,000, inclusive of the personnel, the daily per person estimate will thus stand at:

1603360 / 155000 = 10.34 litres per capita/day

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Sept 2012 population+ staff

Sept 2013 population+ staff

0246810121416

amount per capitaWHO Recommendation

Figure 4.5: Showing the current and estimated consumption of the water resource

From the calculations performed above, it is very evident that the water currently being received from the existing boreholes is not sufficient enough to effectively be used by the refugee camp population alongside the agency staff, health and security personnel and as well, the livestock in the camp. Thus there is need to have new or more boreholes sunk into the aquifer to supplement the present water yields and ease the demand for the commodity within the Hagadera Refugee Camp.

4.2.3. Water Distribution within the Camp

The boreholes’ location information is such that they are located not within the camp blocks but instead at the periphery of the camp blocks. Therefore to get the water being pumped from these boreholes to locations where the refugees and the facilities in the camp have easy access to the resource, there exists a water supply pipeline running through the various blocks of the refugee camp.

The pipeline is strategically located within the camp such that the water from the various boreholes can be easily obtained for use in the various households within the camp blocks. The refugee population doesn’t have to walk a long distance to access the water resource but instead walk a few metres from their residence to a nearby tap. Taps have been placed along the supply pipeline such that the very important and basic resource is brought closer to them.The various health, education and security facilities are also supplied with the resource which is obtained from the taps strategically places within the facility compound off the water supply pipeline. This thus reduces congestion and competition for water at the taps being used at the residential areas with those urgently requires for the school going children and the patients receiving medical attention within the refugee camp.

Currently, storage tanks for the resource, which is a necessary and a very important item is such a place of high demand for water for survival, only exist or have been

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placed within the administrative region of the camp. Also, smaller sized tanks are also present within the schools and health facilities in the camp. With the borehole pumps operating for 16 hours on a daily basis, the need to store the pumped water for later use is an important factor to be considered and put into place. This will reduce congestion at the taps, especially in the mornings, will reduce wastage of the pumped water and definitely provide storage of the water for later use by the refugees and the agencies within the camp. Therefore, suitable locations within the camp need to be determined, tank capacities need to be calculated or determined too and water tanks placed or constructed within the camp.

Figure 4.6: Shows the water distribution channels and distribution point locations, for taps and water tanks

4.2.4. New Borehole and Water Tank Location Sites

Hagadera Refugee Camp is currently over populated and therefore their water needs and demands are sky rocketing high. The camp presently has 6 boreholes supplying the camp with the much needed resource for their livelihood.

Every day that comes and goes, the camp among other camps in the area receive a huge number of new refugees fleeing their homes in search of greener pastures and a peaceful environment to raise their families and live their normal or in this case, almost normal or better lives when compared with the life they lived in their motherland. Among the new refugees coming into the Dadaab refugee camps are mainly women and children, while the youthful men and their husbands are left back to guard and protect their estates and livestock and probably join them at a later date.

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With the high population of children and women in the camp, the demand for health and education facilities is among those prioritized and for that reason; these facilities must also be supplied with adequate water. This further increases the demand for the already diminishing and inadequate yet all important resource for the survival of the people and their livestock.

The only solution to the predicament presently being witnessed in the camp in relation to the refugee water needs is the construction of new boreholes with specified or predetermined yields at predetermined or suitable locations within the camp. Water tanks are also to be strategically located at suitable locations in the camp to ensure ease of access to the commodity.

GIS offers very useful tools and functionality that when initiated or properly modelled would precisely locate the best or most suitable locations within the camp and its periphery that will facilitate the construction of new boreholes and the placement of water tanks of specified capacity due to population needs and demands.

Location of New Boreholes

Dadaab area is constantly receiving huge numbers of refugees every day of the week and consequently, the population of the camps, Hagadera Refugee Camp included, goes on the rise. This thus puts a strain in the demand for resources in the camp. Water resources, health care services, education facilities and the security facilities in the refugee camp have to be analysed and improvements made to ensure that favourable conditions are present within the camp.

Water being a very important resource yet presently scarce within the refugee camp, the UNHCR or any other agency working directly with the refugees might embark on the construction of new boreholes to supplement the present capacities being pumped through the supply lines.

A GIS expert will thus find it necessary to query and come up with a model for the ideal or most suitable location to place these new boreholes within the camp. The criteria for the determination of the new boreholes might be such that they are closer to the camp blocks, away from the existing boreholes, should be located in a safe and secure location on the outskirts of the refugee residential boundaries, easily accessible by roads and of course in an area where the Merti aquifer can be easily reach without sinking the borehole so deep into the ground or interference with water quality or mixing up of the saline and fresh waters.

A model (see figure 4.6) is used with the project to compute and identify the most suitable locations for the location of the new boreholes within the refugee camp.

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Figure 4.7: Showing the model used to determine the optimal locations for a new borehole within the refugee camp. Created in ArcGIS 10.1

The result from running the ArcGIS model above, is as shown in the figure below.

Figure 4.8: Showing the suitable sites for the construction of new boreholes

Location of Water Tanks within the Camp

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Storage water tanks are a very essential facility for a refugee camp as it is used to store water for a later use, especially in a region where the availability of continuously flowing water is not guaranteed. Thus water tanks is a viable mechanism of supplying water to the refugees as it can be placed at a location closer to the residence of the refugees.

To avoid congestion at the water taps from the supply lines running underground, which if compromised or destroyed means poor water quality or low rate of discharge of the taps. With water tanks, they can simultaneously be filled with water from the supply line while the refugees collect water from the storage tank. Water tanks are thus a trusted method of water storage and supply to the people and the facilities.

The criteria for the location of the sites to place the water tanks is pretty much the same to that of locating new sites for construction of boreholes within the camp boundary. In the case of the storage tanks, the criteria applied is that they be placed as close to the refugee residential as possible though, though in a safe place easily accessible by security personnel, the refugees and the agency staff in case of repairs. Each and every school or education facility and health facility should also have a water tank within its premises.

The result of the spatial analyst model (see figure 4.9) used to locate suitable area of locating the water tanks within the residential region of the refugee camp is as shown below (figure 4.10):

Figure 4.9: Showing the Model used to determine the locations for the water tanks within the camp.

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Figure 4.10: Showing the optimal locations for the placement of water tanks within the camp with the figures 7-9 representing these suitable locations

4.2.5. Estimated Yields of Boreholes and Water Tank Capacities

In the establishment of the new boreholes and the placement of water tanks within the refugee camp boundary, there are factors that need to be considered. The goal of these two activities is that sufficient and quality water reaches the inhabitants of the refugee camp, that the health and education facilities amongst other agency of camp facilities get access to this very important resource that is required for the survival of the people and their livestock, whilst staying or building their family foundation while in the refugee camp.

From the study and analysis of the current yields of the existing boreholes in the camp, the water being pumped within the supply lines in the camp is insufficient to meet the minimum basic needs as required. This therefore calls for the establishment of new boreholes that will take care of the deficit and ensure there is sufficiency of water in the camp to sustain life.

Attribute Quantity Units

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Assumed Camp Population 155000 PersonsMinimum water requirements per person per day 15 m3/hrRecommended Total daily Consumption per Day 2325000 Litres/16 hrsCurrent daily consumption per Day 1603360 Litres/16 hrsWater deficit on a daily basis 721640 Litres/16 hrsOutput per hour 45102.5 Litres/hourNew Boreholes’ Total Yield 45.1025 m3/hr

Table 4.4: Showing the water yields or capacity statistics

With reference to placement of the water storage tanks within the refugee camp, the criteria to use should be such that the area that is served by the said water tank would obtains sufficient water for their daily and most basic needs. Therefore the capacity of the water tank should be calculated with reference to the block or region population statistics such that the storage tanks will adequate supply sufficient and quality water to the population of the region. The establishment of the water tanks within the camp facility should be such that the water pumped from the boreholes is used to fill the tanks whenever the taps are not running of overnight. This will ensure that the water is stored for later use by the camp residents.

Assuming that the there is even and equal population within the camp blocks, and that the households each require about 20 litres for the most basic needs, more specifically for drinking and cooking, per day, the capacity of the water tanks can be established, to sufficiently and effectively supply the commodity to the residents.

Current Camp population = 140317 refugeesCurrent No of Blocks = 14 blocksPopulation per Block = 140317/14 = approx. 10023 refugeesTherefore assuming that there are approximately 5 persons per household, each household requires 20l for the most basic needsThe capacity of the tank within each block can be calculated as:(10023refugees/5 persons per household) *20 litres of water = 40092litres

Thus with each block having a suitable location for placement of the water tank to directly serve the residents in the region, the minimum capacity of the water tank should be approx 40000 litres (40m3). This will ensure that on full capacity the tanks can and will supply quality water sufficiently to the camp residents.

The depth of the wells contributes to the yields of the boreholes such that the deeper the casing is sunk into the aquifer, the higher the drawdown and hence the higher the amount of the water drawn from the aquifer. The pipe diameter selected for the boreholes also influences the borehole yields, such that a high amount can be pumped through wider pipes as compared to smaller diameter pipes, assuming that the pump works at a constant and predetermined rate.

Chapter 5

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CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1. Conclusions

Dadaab region and more so the Hagadera Refugee Camp exits in an arid to semi arid area, and with such a climatic condition, the vegetation cover in the area is scarce and almost depleted. This area thus experiences scarcity of water resources which are vital for their daily uses for their livelihood and that of their livestock. The increasing population of the refugees in the area also contributes to the high and increasing demand for the resource whilst putting a strain to its supply. Thanks to the presence of the Merti Aquifer, boreholes can be sunk into the ground to provide access to the commodity and thus can be supplied to the populations present in the area.

The Hagadera Refugee Camp and the other camps present in the Dadaab region is mainly managed by the United Nations Humanitarian Commission for Refugee. Nonetheless, there are also other Non Governmental Organisations (NGOs) present in the area that also offer their services to the refugees and as well, the original occupants of the region. These NGOs include the Kenya Red Cross Society, CARE Kenya, GIZ, Norwegian Refugee Council, among others. These organizations are charged with various humanitarian efforts within the camps, mainly through provision of health care and emergency services, provision of water services, refugee registration, just to mention a few.

From the study of the Hagadera refugee camp and the provision of water services, which includes the supply of quality and sufficient water to the refugee population within the camp, it is clear evidence of the distinction between the administrative region and the residential region for the refugee population. Hagadera Refugee camp has its administrative area on the Northern section of the camp, just across the main road leading to Alinjugul. The refugee camp blocks, which are also their residential areas, are located on the southern and north eastern sides of the camp, in subdivisions or blocks to accommodate the refugees. Of course there are health and education facilities among other social facilities within of close to these camp blocks. It is also evident from the study area that security for the camp is also an issue such that there are security facilities present in the region, both for the refugee population safety and that of the agency personnel in the camp. These facilities present within the camp have been mapped and the relevant attribute information added to their representation.

Within the Hagadera Refugee camp, the population of refugees and that of the agency personnel in their various facilities in both the administrative and refugee residential areas, get their water supply for their various uses for the day, from boreholes in the camp. There are currently 6 boreholes in the camp that get their waters from the Merti Aquifer, which is present in the area and covers an area wider than Dadaab. These boreholes all have different yields thus providing different capacities of water which goes into circulation within the supply pipeline running

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underground with the camp, facilitating the easy access to the water resource for the camp inhabitants.

Within the refugee camp, there are various access routes that crisscross the camp providing accessibility to the various facilities present within the camp. These access routes can thus be followed or used to access the schools, health centre or hospitals within the camp. The refugees also find the routes, which are mainly covered with sand useful in their quest to have access to the water facilities to retrieve the very important resource for their daily needs. The security personnel also get to use the access routes to efficiently patrol the camp hence promoting safety and security to the inhabitants of the camps.

For the complete study and analysis of the data obtained in the area of study, ArcGIS 10.1 software was used. This thus facilitated the creation of a geodatabase which contains all the data collected, both relevant for the topic of study and a little off the subject of study. This geodatabase provides a platform for the central storage of the data and information about the area of study, the refugee camp, and has the capability to be updated or modified thereby facilitating the querying of the data stored, thus facilitating the analysis and drawing of conclusion or derivation of necessary solutions to any problems being experienced within the camp. More information can be added to the geodatabase to facilitate a wide and interrelated application of the information derived, thus can be used in various projects within the camp.

With the completion of the study of the water situation of the area of study, the Hagadera Refugee Camp, the following conclusion can thus be drawn:

The refugee population of the camp is in excess or way surpasses the intended population size during the site planning at its inception. The camp is thus presently congested with not enough space to accommodate all of them, yet the number continues to rise.

The resources supplied within the camp are inadequate and with the high population of refugees in the camp, the demand for the resources is increased. The supply of the resources is limited and cannot completely, effectively and sufficiently satisfy the needs of the inhabitants of the camp.

There are 6 boreholes in the region that provide for the water needs of the refugees within the camp. But with the high refugee population, the supplied water is not sufficient for their consumption.

The recommended minimum amount of water to be consumed by a person per day for the most basic of needs within the refugee camp, of 15 litres per capita, is not met. With the population of the camp, the figure stands at 11.39 litres per capita. This is inadequate for the refugees’ daily needs.

There is a supply line within the camp that supplies the water from the 6 boreholes in the region thus facilitating the easy access to the resource by the refugees. This also prevents the refugees, especially those affected by malnutrition, sick and weak, from walking very long distances to gain access to the water resources, which in most cases may be of poor quality and contaminated.

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5.2. Recommendations

Water finds applications in many and very important sectors of the economy and directly in the sustainability of all living organisms on the surface of the planet. From the study of the Hagadera Refugee Camp and the availability of water as a resource that is highly in demand by the refugee population, yet very inadequate, the following recommendations would contribute in the changing of the situation on the ground, as far as availability, supply and utilization of water as a resource is concerned:

1. With the ever increasing refugee population in the region, resulting into congestion and the fight for space within the camp as at present situation, the camp should be enlarged through identification of suitable locations to plan and design new camp blocks to accommodate the new refugees.

2. The supply line for the water should be modified so that the refugees can access the resource from taps present within the camp blocks. This thus calls for the increase in the number of taps supplying water to the refugees and subsequently reducing congestion at the taps.

3. Additional water tanks should be placed strategically within the confines of the camp blocks for the storage of pumped water and thereby improving access to the water for various uses by the refugee population. The location of these storage tanks should be strategic for ease of access putting their security in consideration.

4. New boreholes should be constructed to supplement the amount of water being supplied or consumed presently at the camp. This will ensure that the amount being supplied will increase with the increase in the population size at the camp.

5. The new boreholes being constructed should be at strategic and suitable locations as identified the performance of a spatial analysis of the data available. The new boreholes should also be of a specified minimum daily yield calculated from the study of the population of the camp, to ensure that the refugees have access to sufficient and quality water for their daily needs.

6. To ensure that the calculated minimum yields of the new boreholes are achieved and thus facilitate sufficient water supply, the boreholes should be sunk a little deeper into the aquifer, say at a depth of 160-175m from the ground level.

7. Wider diameter pipes should also be used for the new boreholes so that the capacity or amounts of water drawn from the boreholes are high.

8. More medical and security facilities should be installed within suitably identified locations within the camp to facilitate provision of quality services and supply of resources to the refugee population, as well as promote fast response in case of emergencies.

9. The NGOs or UNHCR should also consider installing solar powered pumps to run the pumping and supply systems of the water. This will reduce the costs of operating the pumps thus the surplus revenue can be channelled to other refugee needs.

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REFERENCES

1. Agarwal, A., M. S. D. Angeles, R. Bhatia, I. Cheret, S. Davila-Poblete, M. Falkenmark, D. G. Villareal, T. Jonch-Clausen, M. A. Kadi, J. Kindler, J. Rees, P. Roberts, P. P. Rogers, M. Solanes, and A. Wright. (2000). Intergrated Water Resources Management.

2. Castelein and Otte (2002), Conflict Co-operation Related to International Water Resources. Koi Chiro Matsura, Director General of UNESCO is cited.

3. Driscoll, Fletcher G. (1986) Ground Water and Wells, Water Well Design pp 413-463.

4. Earth Water Limited (Nairobi) under commissioning from the UNHCR (2010), Report on the study of the Merti Aquifer.

5. Lester, B, (1985). Hydrogeology of Eastern Isiolo District, EMI Programme Office, Embu, Eastern Province.

6. Lane, I.I. (1995). A preliminary Assessment of the Hydrology and Hydrochemistry of the Merti Aquifer, North Eastern Province, Kenya, and Lower Juba, Somalia. Unpublished Thesis, University College, London

7. Ministry of Water Development, MoWD (1991). Isiolo Water Resources Assessment Study (WRAP). Main report. Water Assessment Section, Ministry of Water Development, Nairobi.

8. Swarzenski, W. V.; Mundorff, Maurice John (1977). Geohydorology of North Eastern Province, Kenya. USGS Water Supply Paper: 1757-N.

9. Water well construction Guidelines, page 3-sanitary protection of wells, casing material.

10. Wikipedia, Water Management http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/water_management. Accessed on February 22nd, 2013.

11. UNHCR, (1992), Water Manual for Refugees.

12. United Nations, Population and Water Resources, Population Information Network.

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