Decolonization, Nationalism, and The Rise of New Nations

The 20th Century

Global Events Leading Up to Decolonization

Imperialism

Growing Nationalism

World War I

World War II

Cold War

How WWI?

Promises of self-determinationUse of colonial soldiers in trenchesLocals filled posts left by colonial powers during warFinancial strain on empireTreaty of Versailles

How WWII?

Increased nationalist uprisings following WWI and as a result of the global depressionCosts of empireUS support of anti-colonial liberation movements Atlantic Charter (1941) “right of all people to choose the form of government under which they live”Soviets condemned colonialism

How the Cold War?

Provided inspiration a blend of capitalist and socialist economies and agendas.Provided arms to those who sided with one or the other (proxy wars and arms races).Encouraged violent recourse for some as a result of the power politics of cold war competition.

Process of Decolonization and Nation-Building

Surge of anti-colonial nationalism after 1945. Leaders used lessons in mass politicization and mass mobilization of 1920’s and 1930’s. Three patterns:1. Civil war (China)2. Negotiated independence (India and much of

Africa)3. Incomplete de-colonization (Palestine, Algeria

and Southern Africa, Vietnam)

ChinaJapanese invasion interrupted the 1920s and 1930s conflict between the Communists (Mao Zedong) and the Guomindang (Chiang Kai-shek)

During the war, CCP expanded peasant base, using appeals for women (health care, divorce rights, education access, graduated taxes, cooperative farming). Growth of party during the war in part through use of anti-Japanese propaganda. Resumption of civil war after Japanese surrender. 1949 Great People’s Revolution- Mao; Nationalist leaders fled to Taiwan.

OutlineGMD-CCP Civil War (1946-1949)Recovery and Socialism (1949-1956)Rethinking the Soviet model (1956-1957)Great Leap Forward (1958-1961)Recovery & growing elite division (1962-5)Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)

Anti-Japanese War (1937-1945)

Civil War (1946 – 1949)

GMD: Guomindang (Nationalist Party)

Chiang Kai-shek (President)

CCP: Chinese Communist PartyMao Zedong

“War of Liberation”

Mao Zedong

A revolution to remove “3 big mountains”

imperialismfeudalismbureaucrat-capitalism

A “United Front” of …workerspeasantspetty bourgeoisie and national bourgeoisie

People’s Republic of China1949-10-01, PRC, BeijingChairman: Mao Zedong5-Star Red Flag

Republic of China government retreated to Taiwan

Economic Reconstruction 1950s

Soviet Union model and assistanceland reform (eliminate landlord class)heavy industry (state-owned enterprises)First National People’s Congress (1954)

PRC Constitution

Zhou EnlaiPremierForeign Minister

Great Leap Forward (1958-1960)

abandon the Soviet model of economic development

Soviet “scientific planning”

mass mobilizationpeople’s communes

Great Leap Forward (1958-1960)

unrealistic output targetsindustryagricultural and human disaster

Growing Division (1962-1965)

Mao Zedong vs. Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaopingcharismatic leadership vs. bureaucracy

Cultural Revolution (1966-1976)

Great Proletarian Cultural Revolutioncommitment to revolution and “class struggle”power struggle to succeed Mao

Phase I: the rise and fall of “red guards”Phase II: the rise and fall of Lin BiaoPhase III: the rise and fall of the “Gang of Four”

Phase I: Red Guards (1966-69)

Phase I: Red Guards (1966-69)Purge of party cadres

Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping

Purge of intellectuals

Phase II: Lin Biao (1969-71)

the putative successor to Mao Zedongthe cult of personality around Mao

In 1971 Lin allegedly tried but failedto assassinate Maoto flee to Soviet Union (“9.13”)

“9.13” eroded the credibilityof the entire leadershipof the Cultural Revolution

Phase III: the “Gang of Four”1972 – 1976power struggle between

the radical “Gang of Four”, led by Jiang Qing, Mao’s wifethe “moderates”, led by Premier Zhou Enlai

the fate of Deng Xiaoping

Diplomatic Breakthrough

1971, PRC became the representative of China in UN (replaced ROC)

Diplomatic Breakthrough

1972, President Nixon visited Beijing

Mao and Zhou Died in 1976

Turning point in China’s postwar era“Gang of Four” were arrestedEnd of the Cultural Revolution

Mao’s legacies

Reforms and Opening up

The 3rd Plenum of the 11th CCP Central Committee in 1978

Deng Xiaoping’s ascendancyeconomic modernization became focus

US-PRC diplomatic relations in 1979

China since 1945

Mao dies in 1976 and Deng Xiaoping comes to power. Deng institutes the Four Modernizations, which focuses on improving agriculture, industry, science and technology as well as defense.Deng was in power until his death in 1997

Government in China TodayCurrently known as the People’s Republic of China (PRC).It is a single-party socialist republic (one party, in favor of the working class)The Communist party holds powerThe current president is Hu JiantoBeijing is the capital city

Review of China’s Population

Over 1.3 billion people (1/5 of the world’s population)56 recognized ethnic groups. The Han are the largest (92%)Large population can be attributed to Mao

Population in China

Efforts were made to limit the population

Only 2 children per family lawOne Child Policy

Policies did not work that well

Rural families did not complyMales regarded more highly than females

Negotiated Independence in India and Africa

Independence with little bloodshed in India and much of colonial Africa in decades following World War II.Why? At what cost?

India

India and other Asian colonies were the first to establish independence movements.Western-educated minorities organized politically to bring about the end of modification of colonial regimes.

Mohandas ‘Mahatma’ Gandhi

Passed English bar - lawyer for Indian merchants in South Africa.

Gandhi’s answer to a spiritual theory of social action – Satyagraha - “soul force”. A tactic using nonviolent resistance or civil disobedience.

A ‘Revolution’ in Indian politics

Gandhi’s Satyagraha -“What do you think? Wherein in

courage required – in blowing others to pieces from behind a cannon, or with a smiling face to approach a cannon and be blown to pieces?...Believe me that a man devoid of courage and manhood can never be a passive resister.”

Gandhi in India

1915: back in India - Dressed in traditional clothing- crisscrossed India on third-class trains listening to common people to understand their plight.Urged a boycott of British goods, jobs & honors.

The British Back Down1931 - released Gandhi from jail & negotiated with him as an equal.1935 - Indian got a new constitution.1942- called on British to “Quit India” – civil disorder campaign – arrested & jailed.

The Muslim LeagueLed by Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876-1948)Feared Hindu domination of an independent India ruled by Congress Party.Made Muslim separation from Hindu majority a nationalist issue.In 1940 Jinnah told a Muslim League conference that Britain should give Indian Hindus & Muslims separate homelands – Gandhi appalled “victory of hate over love”

Independence But PartitionBritain agreed to speedy independence in 1945, but murderous clashes between Hindus and Muslims in 1946 led to a delay.

In the end...India’s last Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten (1900-1979) proposed partition. Both sides agreed.

One fifth of humanity gained independence on August 14th 1947.

The Tragedy of Partition

Massacres and mass expulsions.100,000 slaughtered & five million refugees Gandhi said “What is there to celebrate? I see nothing but rivers of death.”Gandhi was gunned down in January 1948 by a Hindu fanatic, while announcing a fast to protest Hindu persecution of Muslims.

Refugees

Modern IndiaLargest democracy in the worldJawaharlal Nehru became the first prime minister for the next 17 yearsDemocracy, Unity, & Economic Modernization

Challenges: Kashmir= years of conflict that continues todayCold War alignment= NON Alignment MovementIndustrialization= slow but comingSocial and cultural issues= continuous challenges with progress

Caste systemEconomicWomen’s rights

Kashmir

Border both India & PakistanHindu leader with large Muslim populations1947-Pakistan invaded leading Kashmir to align with India

fighting cont.’d until 1949. Cease fire lead to 1/3 control by Pakistan 2/3 by India.

1962- China seized part of Kashmir1972- Indian and Pakistani forces fought againToday: tensions continue and flare up intermittently

Nehru’s Family Rules1964 Nehru diesCongress Party left with no strong leader1966 Indira Gandhi becomes Prime Minister (Nehru’s daughter)

1980 re-elected (after a short period out of office)

Increased food/grain productionFaced a threat from Sikh extremists agitating for an independent state1984 500 were killed in a violent demonstrations2 months later her Sikh bodyguards shot her

1984-89 Rajiv Gandhi leader / charged with corruption

1991 killed by a bomb while campaigning near Madra

Independence in Africa

The Colonial Divisions of Africa and the Emergence of New Nations

AfricaNationalists composed of ex-servicemen, urban unemployed & under-employed, and the educated. Pan-Africanism (Marcus Garvey) and Negritude (Senghor)Senghor (Senegal) and Dubois (African-American)

Africa

1957, Gold Coast (renamed Ghana) independence, led by western- educated, Kwame Nkrumah. By 1963, all of British- ruled Africa, except Southern Rhodesia, was independent.

Africa

French-Ruled:Initially more resistant than the British.Encouraged closer French ties- assimilation, not autonomy. Not willing to go far enough in granting rights. With exception of Algeria, by 1960 had granted independence.

Leopold Sedar SenghorWestern educated Francophone intellectual from SenegalPoet who became first president of Senegal. Advocated democratic socialism and negritude.

Leopold Sedar SenghorNegritude: validation of African culture and the African past by the Negritude poets. Recognized attributes of French culture but were not willing to be assimilated into Europe.

"L'èmotion est nègre, la raision est héllène." (emotion is Negro, reason is Greek) "Negritude is the totality of the cultural values of the Black world."

Violent & Incomplete Decolonization

Presence of European immigrant groups impeded negotiations violence.

Kenya, Palestine, Algeria, and southern Africa

Vietnam’s de-colonization complicated by France’s colonial ties and cold war politics.

Middle East: Palestine & IsraelZionism1917 Balfour DeclarationImmigration of Jews to PalestineEuropean HolocaustIncrease of migration1947- end of British mandate of Palestine and failed UN partition solution1948 establishment of IsraelRegional conflicts->

KenyaPresence of settlers prevented smooth transition of power. Kenya (20,000 Europeans only) led to violent revolt.Mau-Mau Revolt, 1952, led by Kikuyus suppressed by British. 1963 independence granted to black majority, led by Kenyatta.

South Africa

4 million white residentsAfter 1901, denied civil rights to black population

Strong economy, both mining & industryBlack workers demanded changeAfrikaner-dominated (white) National Party won 1948 election

Apartheid

South AfricaApartheid

87% of land for whites; others classified by race

No protests tolerated (African National Congress, Mandela, Sharpeville massacre 1960)

Evoked international opposition

1989, end of apartheidF. W. de Klerk

1990s: black government elected

1994, Nelson Mandela: 1st black president

VietnamFrench rule since 1880s –rice, mining, and rubber exports Rise of foreign educated intelligentsia (Ho Chi Minh)Formation of Viet Minh in 1941Guerrilla War with France (1946-1954) (aided by China)Divided country in 1954 (Geneva Conference) led to gradual US entry to contain communism.

Vietnam

Cold War stalemateViet CongBombing campaign (President Johnson), ground troops in 1965Until 1973Paris Peace Accords1975, last American troops leave

Women as leaders in the movement

Women fought alongside men in whatever capacities were permitted in Algeria, Egypt, China, Vietnam, India and elsewhere.China, 1942:

“ The fighting record of our women does not permit us to believe that they will ever again allow themselves to be enslaved whether by a national enemy or by social reaction at home.”

Women given constitutional rights but social and economic equality rarely achieved in postcolonial developing nations.

Fall of Empire: Fall out & Legacy

Colonial footprintProblems of TransitionProblems of Identity

Challenges of IndependenceEthnic disputesDependent economiesGrowing debtCultural dependence on westreligious revivalism as backlash Widespread social unrestMilitary responses to restore order

Population growthResource depletionLack of middle class in some localesEducation deficit and later, brain-drain.Neo-colonialism through economic debt.

ConclusionsDecolonization was sometimes a violent process- dependent in large part on how many settlers had come to the colony.In many parts of world, decolonization was not revolutionary. Power passed from one class of elites to another. Little economic and social reform occurred. Significant challenges faced independent nations. Western economic dominance of the global trade system continued unabated. WHY?