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    Death,Deathlessness and Existenzin Karl Jaspers Philosophy

    Filiz Peach

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    Death, Deathlessness and Existenz in Karl Jaspers Philosophy

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    Existenz wei keinen Tod

    [Existenz knows no death]

    Karl Jaspers, Philosophie, vol. 2

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    Death, Deathlessness andExistenz in Karl Jaspers

    Philosophy

    Filiz Peach

    EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY PRESS

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    Filiz Peach, 2008

    Edinburgh University Press Ltd

    22 George Square, Edinburgh

    Typeset in 11/13pt Adobe Sabon

    by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Manchester, and

    printed and bound in Great Britain by

    Biddles Ltd, Kings Lynn, Norfolk

    A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library

    ISBN 978 0 7486 2535 2 (hardback)

    The right of Filiz Peachto be identified as author of this work

    has been asserted in accordance with

    the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

    Frontispiece: drawing of Jaspers by Engler, 1919

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    Contents

    Acknowledgements viiAbbreviations viii

    Glossary x

    Introduction 1

    Chapter 1: Death Some Preliminary Reflections 81 Definition and Criteria of Death 82 The Certainty of Death 123 Some Perspectives on Human Comportment and Attitudes

    to Death 15

    Chapter 2: Karl Jaspers Philosophy of Existence 301 Some Brief Biographical Remarks 302 Jaspers Philosophical Terminology 323 Jaspers Concept of Philosophy 434 Jaspers Concepts of Antinomies and Boundary

    Situations 555 Jaspers Concept of Death 71

    Chapter 3: Jaspers Concepts ofExistenz and Deathlessness 961 Reflections on Some Basic Features ofExistenz 962 Existenz and Some Philosophical Problems Arising

    from it 983 The Relationship Between Existenz and Death 1054 Two Interpretations of Jaspers Concept of

    Deathlessness 122

    Chapter 4: Existenz, Eternity as Non-Temporal Duration andDeathlessness 1451 Towards an Understanding of the Concept of Eternity 1452 Non-temporal Duration as Timelessness 148

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    3 Non-temporal Duration as Timelessness Revisited Eternity as the Point 151

    4 The Augenblick Experience in terms of Eternity as

    the Point 1545 Can the Human Being as Existenz be Deathless? 1606 Some Critical Reflections on Jaspers Existence

    Philosophy 1637 Concluding Remarks 182

    Bibliography 188Index 198

    vi Death, Deathlessness and Existenz

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    Acknowledgements

    No one can write a book alone. In this respect, I should like to expressmy gratitude to a number of individuals for their support during the

    preparation of this book.During my research I have encountered many distinguished Jaspersscholars, each of whom gave freely of their time to discuss particularaspects of Jaspers philosophy. I am particularly grateful to Dr HansSaner, Professor Kurt Salamun, Professor Leonard Ehrlich, andDr Alfons Grieder for their helpful discussions, comments and con-structive criticism of my work.

    My thanks also go to the editorial team at Edinburgh UniversityPress, particularly to Jackie Jones and Carol Macdonald for giving me

    the opportunity to publish my first book.Finally, I must thank Professor Ray Tallis for his encouragement

    and stimulating discussions. I am also grateful to Richard J. Peachand Gitta Valin for their valuable suggestions and comments on partsof this work.

    Thanks also to the University of Chicago Press for permission toreprint material from Jaspers Philosophy, volume 2, translated byE. B. Ashton, 1970. Originally published in 1932 as Philosophie

    (1932, 1948, 1956 by Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Gottingen-Heidelberg).

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    Abbreviations

    Primary sources by Karl Jaspers and frequently referenced texts areabbreviated as follows:

    Jaspers, K., Philosophy, E. B. Ashton (tr.),The University of Chicago Press,Vol. 1 (1969), Vol. 2 (1970), Vol. 3 (1971) Phil.1, 2 or 3

    Jaspers, K., Philosophie, Piper, PhilosophieVols I, II and III, 1994 I, II or II

    Jaspers, K., Psychology der Weltanschauungen,

    Piper, 1994 PW

    Jaspers, K., Reason and Existenz,W. Earle (tr.), Noonday Press, 1969 R&E

    Jaspers, K., Philosophy of Existence, R. F. Grabau (tr.),University of Pennsylvania Press, 1971 PEx

    Jaspers, K., Perennial Scope of Philosophy,R. Manheim (tr.), Philosophical Library, 1949 PSP

    Jaspers, K., Way to Wisdom, R. Manheim (tr.),Victor Gollancz, 1951 WW

    Jaspers, K., Philosophical Faith and Revelation,E. B. Ashton (tr.), Collins, 1967 PFR

    Jaspers, K., Der Philosophische Glaube angesichts derOffenbarung, Piper, 1962 PGO

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    Jaspers, K., General Psychopathology (2 volumes),J. Hoenig and M. W. Hamilton (tr.), The Johns HopkinsUniversity Press, 1997 GP

    Jaspers, K., Philosophical Autobiography,in P. A. Schilpp (ed.), The Philosophy of K. Jaspers,Open Court Publishing, 1974 PA

    Jaspers, K., Philosophy is for Everyman,R. F. C. Hull and G. Wels (tr.), Hutchinson, 1969 PE

    Jaspers, K., The Great Philosophers,H. Arendt (ed.), R. Manheim (tr.),Harcourt, Brace & World,Vol. 1 (1962), Vol. 2 (1966) GPh

    Jaspers, K., Von der Wahrheit, Piper, 1983 VW

    Schilpp, P. A. (ed.), The Philosophy of K. Jaspers,Open Court Publishing, 1974 PKJ

    Ehrlich E., Ehrlich L. H. and Pepper G., eds,Karl Jaspers Basic Philosophical Writings Selections,Ohio University Press, 1986 BPW

    Abbreviations ix

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    Glossary

    Augenblick (Augenblick)Ones momentary, existential timeless experience that can manifest

    itself as eternity in objective time in the world.

    Boundary/Limit Situations (Grenzsituationen)Extreme situations which mark the limits of ones empirical existencewith an uncertain future and which shake ones sense of security, i.e.circumstances one cannot master.

    Ciphers (Chiffreschrift)Symbols and the veiled language of Transcendence through which

    Being presents itself. They provide a metaphysical link to the tran-scendent realm.

    Consciousness-as-such (Bewutsein berhaupt)One of the four modes of Being which is related to ones conscious-ness in which universal truths and objective knowledge can be cog-nised and shared by everyone.

    The Encompassing (das Umgreifende)Being itself which envelops everything conceivable and that whichtranscends the subject/object dichotomy.

    Eternity in time (quer zur Zeit)Ones timeless existential experience of eternity that occurs when eter-nity cuts across time at one single point, i.e. is transverse to objectivetime. This eternal point represents the present now.

    Existence (Dasein)One of the four modes of Being which refers to the empirical, con-crete aspect of the human being among other entities.

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    Existenz (Existenz)One of the four modes of Being which refers to the non-empirical andnon-objective dimension of the human being. It can be described as

    ones inner true self, or ones self-being.

    Foundering (Scheitern)Ones awareness of inadequacy and the sense of failure in extreme sit-uations that threaten ones whole being.

    Historicity (Geschichtlichkeit)The apprehension of ones own history; the lucid comprehension of

    ones past actions which indicates the specificity of the individualsself-being which is unique.

    Reason (Vernunft)A medium through which all existential concepts are recognised andclarified. It is the binding power that unites diverse modes of Being.

    Spirit (Geist)One of the four modes of Being which is closely linked with the

    concepts of universality and totality which are part of our empiricalexistence.

    World and Transcendence (Welt und Transzendenz)World is a mode of Being that surrounds us and the origin of all realitywhich includes things, persons and even thoughts. Transcendence isthe all-encompassing and non-empirical dimension of reality insepar-able from the empirical world and ultimately non-objectifiable. It is

    closely linked with ones Existenz.

    Glossary xi

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    Introduction

    Karl Jaspers existential concept of death lies at the heart of this book.For Jaspers, a human being is not merely a physical entity, but a being

    with a transcendent aspect, which is in some sense deathless. It isthe connection between these two aspects of the human being thatgoverns the structure of his work. This book is primarily concernedto clarify and reassess Jaspers concept of death and his claim thatones transcendent self knows no death. In this respect, it is anattempt to determine what it means for a human being to be death-less within the Jaspersian framework.

    The book explores Jaspers notion of death, seeking to provide abetter understanding of human existence in this world. In a sense it is

    a reflection on what it means to be human, highlighting the signifi-cance of the relationship between man1 and death, and his preoccu-pation with human finitude. We know that we must eventually die,and sooner or later we have to confront our own mortality. There is,however, no certainty as to when and where we might die.

    Traditionally, the idea of finitude and death are closely associated,for it is death that marks our finitude. Human finitude is a biologicalfact and is intrinsic to human nature. But people perceive death not

    only as the empirical limit to existence but also as a metaphysicalissue. The distinction between biological death and death as a philo-sophical issue is important because an empirical inquiry into deathis fundamentally different from a metaphysical inquiry. Death hasempirical certainty in so far as this certainty is based on observationof the death of others, and this is our only direct experience of death.Death as a philosophical issue, however, raises a number of addi-tional questions relating to human existence and self-understanding.Although the certainty of death arises out of ones awareness of the

    fact of others death, this cannot reveal any metaphysical insight intoones own death. The ultimate metaphysical knowledge regardingdeath is not accessible to human beings. Even so, it is not enough toview death as merely the biological cessation of life; it must also be

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    understood as an existential issue that is very much part of the fun-damental structure of mans being in the world. As our relationshipto death undergoes modifications, so too does our attitude towards

    it. The critical philosophical question is not the dichotomy of life anddeath, but rather how each of us relates to the certainty of our owninevitable death. Throughout history the prospect of human deathand attitudes towards it have been viewed and interpreted in variousways, not least that death is not the absolute end of an individual.Others have held that death is indeed the absolute end. Whateverview one holds, one cannot avoid developing a position regardingones own death.

    An existential approach to the concept of death points to theintrinsic relationship between the human condition and mans con-frontation with death as an unsurpassable limit. The meaning ofdeath is sought in the inner structure of human existence and there isno pretence to provide definitive answers. From an existential view-point, ones relationship to death is regarded as a constitutive elementof mans existence in the world constitutive in the sense that aware-ness of ones finitude and coming to terms with ones inevitable deathare fundamental issues in human existence. If death is understood

    existentially, then it becomes clear that death is not simply a biologi-cal fact that annihilates a life process. This approach to death placesgreat emphasis upon this world, in that human existence is closelyconnected with ones choices, decisions and fulfilment in the world.Most existential philosophers argue that awareness of our finitudegives us the possibility to shape our lives and heighten the meaning ofour existence.

    Through an examination of Jaspers notion of death, and in particu-

    lar the deathless aspect of the human being, this book proposes thatJaspers exegesis of deathlessness can be presented coherently outsidea religious framework. In order to reach this conclusion, it is necessaryto provide a preliminary general outline and clarification of the fun-damental issues involved in a philosophical examination of death.Against this background, Jaspers existential views on death, togetherwith some relevant concepts and terms, also require clarification. Onlythen can one begin a detailed analysis of the notion of deathlessness.This analysis offers an interpretation of Jaspers view on the transcen-

    dent aspect of the human being. Connected to this central point are anumber of closely related issues. These include the concept of deathitself, and the notions of time and eternity and are discussed in theprocess of constructing the central argument of the book.

    2 Death, Deathlessness and Existenz

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    Why should one investigate Jaspers philosophical view of death?The answer is two-fold. First, there is not much work in the Englishlanguage dealing in detail with Jaspers notion of death, in particular

    the deathless aspect of the human being. When I first read JaspersPhilosophy, I was inspired but at the same time puzzled by theconcept of eternity in time in his analysis of death. In Jaspers view,one is able to experience a sense of deathlessness in an existentialmoment, the Augenblick, while one is alive. For Jaspers this momentis eternal. Philosophically this is an interesting view, but gives rise toa number of problems that Jaspers seeks to resolve by relating humanexperience to the eternal realm. The philosophy of time and eternity,

    however, is a complex issue that Jaspers does not deal with in anentirely satisfactory manner. When I wanted to discover more abouthis existential perspective on death, particularly about his conceptof eternity in time, I could not find adequate sources. What doesJaspers mean by eternity? What does it mean to say that eternity cutsacross objective time (i.e. quer zur Zeit)? What does it mean to saythat Existenz, ones inner self, knows no death, that is, that it isdeathless? Although the subject of death is discussed in different con-texts in various publications about Jaspers philosophy, there is no in-

    depth analysis of deathlessness in relation to eternity in time. Thislack of relevant material led me to think further about the issue anddiscuss it with Jaspers scholars in continental Europe and America. Iteventually led me to write about it myself to bridge the gap. In thebroader scheme of things, this book contributes to Jaspersian schol-arship in the English-speaking world on the understanding of humanfinitude and death from the perspective of eternity in time. Duringmy research, however, I realised how difficult it is to present Jaspers

    concept of deathlessness in terms of eternity in time as a seriouspiece of scholarly work. Jaspers was right to emphasise that somemetaphysical concepts and experiences are not easily expressible andin some cases are ineffable. Perhaps this is one more explanation forthe dearth of material in English.

    The second answer to the question of why one should pursueJaspers philosophical view of death is connected with the receptionof Jaspers philosophy in the English-speaking world. In my view, heis one of the most misunderstood of the twentieth-century philoso-

    phers. His thinking is widely associated with existential ideas whichare regarded by some as vague and incoherent. Some philosophersconsider his philosophical statements to be unverifiable assertionsbased on certain existential human experiences. Others regard his

    Introduction 3

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    philosophy as expressing religious views; yet others suggest thatethics is his paramount concern.2 Jaspers reiterates in his works,including in his Philosophical Autobiography, that his philosophy

    should not be assessed within a theological framework. He wouldalso deny that he is engaged in moral philosophy or expressing ethicalnorms. Jaspers is not presenting a dogmatic moral conduct in hisworks. As he repeatedly says, his elucidation of human existence isnotpresented as objective knowledge or even a logical process oneshould pursue. Each individual must decide for himself.

    Admittedly, some of Jaspers views are not explicit, but rather areimplicitly present in his works. His philosophical thought is grounded

    in the concrete human being and his experiences in the world.Although Jaspers believes that thinking is articulated in language, attimes his assertions appear opaque and are therefore open to misin-terpretation. When one is dealing with deeply contentious metaphys-ical issues, e.g. abstractions such as time and eternity, efforts tounderstand or to define the nature of such concepts are inevitablyinadequate. Since we do not have the necessary vocabulary, when wespeak about them we are only referring to a symbolic representation.But this does not mean that Jaspers ideas are unphilosophical or

    meaningless. His lack of clarity is due in part to the inadequacy ofordinary language utilised for the expression of metaphysical issues,as Jaspers himself acknowledges. William Earle makes an astutecomment in the Introduction to Jaspers Reason and Existenz,where he points to the inadequacy of language, and refers to a lack ofdefinition in Jaspers key terms, which in his view is not accidental:

    We are told the roles of these terms in his thought, but not what theymean in any testable fashion. But this feature of his thought is not acci-

    dental, nor is it to be ascribed to some stylistic flaw. It lies at the veryheart of what he wishes to say. To give definitions of these termswould be to contradict the intent of his philosophy. Nor for this reason,are they meaningless; their meaning arises only at the extreme limitsof reason. They designate ultimately what is other to reason.3

    While it is easy to be critical of Jaspers use of language, one cannotdeny the enormous difficulty of formulating coherently such meta-physical concepts. Our perception of reality is closely bound up with

    language, and most accounts of time, eternity and death indicate theinsuperable language gap. Thus one must take into account, and becritically aware of, the inadequacy of ordinary language in express-ing metaphysical experiences of reality.

    4 Death, Deathlessness and Existenz

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    One final important point to be made here is to acknowledge thedifficulty in analysing a continental philosophers existential ideas inan environment where the analytic approach to philosophy, so pro-

    minent among Anglo-American philosophers, prevails. Numerousdiscussions with these philosophers and Jaspers scholars on the con-tinent confirmed that these two schools of thought sprang from verydifferent traditions. Indeed, there are some Anglo-American philoso-phers who find it difficult to accept existential metaphysics as realphilosophy at all. Working in an Anglo-American environment whenones line of thinking is more attuned to the continental approachadds an interesting perspective to ones work, though not surprisingly

    can take one down a lonely path. In the elucidation of Jaspersconcept of death and deathlessness I have given a detailed criticalanalysis which might be regarded by continental philosophers assplitting hairs or pseudo-linguistics. On the other hand, somereaders, particularly analytic philosophers, may find this study toosympathetic to Jaspers. I do not believe, however, that an apology isdue in respect of either stance.

    In sum, with these background considerations in mind, my princi-pal objective is to determine what Jaspers means by deathlessness,

    and to demonstrate that his concepts of death and the transcendentaspect of the human being can be presented coherently. On the basisof my research in this particular area, I will propose that what Jaspersattempts to convey need not be expressed in theological terms. In theprocess, I shall also argue that Jaspers assertions regarding theeternal aspect of the human being need not be meaningless.

    The structure of this book starts from a broader perspective ondeath, then narrows down to Jaspers philosophical concept of death,

    before progressively focusing on the central issue of Jaspers notionof deathlessness. Chapter 1 is concerned with the notion of deathin general terms only. It is not primarily a critical analysis, but doesraise several philosophical questions: What is death and why does itmatter? How do people relate to death? Is death a point of transfor-mation to an eternal life? Death-awareness enables the individual toconsider such questions and adopt an attitude and relationship todeath. One aim of this chapter is to provide the reader with a widerbackground against which the central issue of this book can be better

    understood. Ideas that are discussed here will be linked with later dis-cussions on Jaspers existential analysis of death.

    Chapter 2 starts with some of Jaspers existential concepts, includ-ing Existenz, Dasein and Transcendence. I then turn to the specific

    Introduction 5

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    issue of Jaspers concept of philosophising and outline what itmeans to him. The relationship between philosophy and science, andbetween philosophy and religion, are also discussed. This differenti-

    ation elucidates his idea of philosophy, which in turn enables thereader to grasp his concepts of philosophical faith and boundarysituations which are important components of Jaspers concept ofdeath, and are closely connected with his notions of Existenz andTranscendence.

    Existenz is arguably the most important but least understood termin Jaspers existence philosophy and for this reason Chapter 3 is ded-icated to its analysis. In the first part of the analysis, the basic features

    ofExistenz are critically examined. This is followed by an evaluationof the relationship between Existenz and death. In this context, I lookclosely at Jaspers concept of the Augenblick experience throughwhich one can become aware of a timeless moment of eternity. Since,according to Jaspers, the relationship between Existenz and death hasto be seen in the context of timelessness, the concept of timeless-ness and eternity in connection with the Augenblick experience willalso be examined in order to ascertain whether Jaspers notion of eter-nity is in line with the traditional understanding.

    In the light of this discussion, I then put forward two fundamen-tally different interpretations of Jaspers concept of deathlessness:the Mystical Interpretation and the Existential Interpretation. Finally,I focus on some critical reflections and remarks on the ExistentialInterpretation of the concept of deathlessness and propose thatJaspers assertions need not be seen as incoherent or enigmatic withinthis framework. Such reflections will take us very close to the heart ofthe book.

    Chapter 4 is the convergent point of the book, in that related areasdiscussed in the first three chapters are now linked together. This finalchapter is an extensive discussion of Jaspers concept of deathless-ness. It seeks to demonstrate that the central issue of the deathlessaspect of the human being can be understood coherently from anexistential perspective. The concept of non-temporal duration pro-vides the context for the subsequent argument relating Jaspers ideasto the philosophy of earlier thinkers, including Plotinus, and somemedieval scholars. A non-religious interpretation of non-temporal

    duration as timelessness is presented in order to clarify the elusivenature of the Augenblick experience.

    In the next section of Chapter 4, the eternal aspect of thehuman being is examined. To address this question, the findings of

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    our analysis are linked with traditional attitudes towards death. It isemphasised that ones deathlessness in the Jaspersian sense has to beunderstood in terms of ones existential experience in the Augenblick

    in the here and now. Following this, I critically discuss and givean account of Jaspers concept of deathlessness in terms of eternityin time.

    First, however, we survey some basic issues such as definition, cri-teria and attitudes concerning death in general terms in order to setthe scene. The issues discussed in Chapter 1 cover generally acceptedtraditional views regarding death. The significance of this chapter isthat it allows us to draw a functional comparison in Chapter 4

    between Jaspers concept of death and such traditional views.

    Notes

    1. Throughout this study I use the masculine third person singular for thesake of clarity and ease of reading. No gender bias should be inferredfrom this.

    2. Although Jaspers is opposed to systematic ethics, it can be argued thatthere are normative presuppositions in Jaspers philosophy. In meta-reflection, what is not said but implied in Jaspers assertions becomesapparent, particularly in his elucidation ofExistenz. In ones existentialexperiences moral attitudes are presupposed, but are never explicit.These presuppositions (e.g. courage and dignity in the face of death; tol-erance and open-mindedness) suggest implicit value judgements.

    3. Earle, R&E, pp. 1314.

    Introduction 7

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    CHAPTER 1

    Death Some Preliminary Reflections

    The issue of human relatedness to death manifests itself in variousforms. There is neither a single, unchangeable attitude nor a correct

    one. In recognition of their importance, traditional attitudes towardsdeath can be presented under three headings:

    Death is not the absolute end of the human being. Death is the absolute end of the human being. Sceptical, evasive and indifferent attitudes to death.

    Death-awareness enables the individual to look into some funda-mental questions and develop an attitude and relationship to death.What is death? How do people relate to it? In order to illustrate

    diverse interpretations of attitudes, reference will be made in thissection to various cultures, including some ancient civilisations. Thisprovides the relevant background knowledge that will be linked withlater discussions on Jaspers existential analysis of death.

    1. DEFINITION AND CRITERIA OF DEATH

    There is a traditional view which maintains that death is the muse of

    philosophy. Indeed, the concept of death has inspired numerousphilosophical reflections on human existence. For Plato, for example,preparing oneself for death is the most important part of philosophis-ing. Although it has preoccupied every society for thousands of years,death remains one of the most mystifying phenomena.

    Death is an enigmatic universal event, a mysterious prospectivestate, in that some aspects of it do not seem to be accessible to thehuman mind. What, then, is the nature of death? Providing a precisedefinition and an adequate philosophical analysis of death is a diffi-

    cult if not an impossible task. Some thinkers argue that this difficultyis due to a lack of a sufficient understanding of life. As Confuciusstates, if one does not know life, how should one know death? Thatthere is no inside knowledge of death, however, does not mean that

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    we can know nothingabout it. Within limits some empirical know-ledge is possible. Nevertheless, the ultimate concern may not simplybe the dichotomy of life and death but rather a personal concern as

    to how each one of us relates to the fact that death is certain.So what is death? To begin with, death is known to us simply as the

    end of the life of an individual being and the ultimate human limi-tation. Feinberg defines it as the first moment of ones non-existence.1

    Death is the negation of life: it is a null state. It is permanent and irre-versible. One possible definition, which appears in the Dictionary ofPhilosophy and Psychology, is as follows:

    Death: (physiological) Final cessation of the vital functions. Death of

    the body (somatic death) occurs when one or more functions (respir-ation, circulation, excretion, nervous coordination) become dis-turbed to such an extent as to render the harmonious working of thevarious organs impossible.

    A tissue is said to die when it loses permanently its power ofresponding to its appropriate stimuli. The brain and nervous systemdie, in man and warm-blooded animals at the moment of somaticdeath; gland tissue dies very soon after. Smooth muscle retains itsirritability 45 minutes, skeletal muscle some hours after death.

    . . . But by death is more generally meant the cessation of theprocess of life, transforming a living being into a corpse.2

    At first glance this definition of death as the permanent cessation ofthe process of life seems plausible, but death does not merely indi-cate bodily death. If being alive includes the mental processes of thehuman being, what happens to such processes at death? It may berational to say that death is the loss of certain functions. However, ifwe try to be more precise, we move on to insecure terrain. In the

    above quote, somatic death is defined as the cessation of all vitalfunctions, such as the heart beat and respiration, despite the fact thatmany cells continue to survive for some time after somatic death.There are, of course, various criteria which indicate the presence ofdeath in different situations mostly within the sphere of medicalexpertise. It is said that a growing consensus supports some kind ofbrain-oriented definition of death, namely the permanent cessation ofbrain activity, but some aspects of this definition are far from settled.Some thinkers argue that death is not merely the absence of life

    and that the term death signifies departure or separation of theabstract entity from the empirical concrete realm. Death, then, can beregarded as a separation of life-form and vitality from a carbon-basedphysical organism.

    Death Some Preliminary Reflections 9

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    The two accepted major criteria of death are heartlung deathand brain death. The former takes place when the functioning of theheart and lung ceases irreversibly. Today, however, this criterion has

    been complicated due to scientific and technological developments inthe field of medicine. Brain-death can be described as the irreversiblecessation of the functioning of the brain. However, it does not neces-sarily follow that an irreversible coma should be identified with brain-death. There are cases in which an individuals brain function ceasesexcept the part of the brain which controls respiration and circula-tion. In a situation like this, is this individual alive or dead? Accordingto the heartlung-death criterion he is not dead, but according to the

    brain-death criterion he is.Conversely, respiration and circulation can be maintained mechan-ically when all brain functions fail irreversibly and totally. Such cir-cumstances can lead to both philosophical and ethical problemsabout an individuals life and death. It is indeed problematic whetherthere is a specific definition of death or not, for there are a number ofvariables concerning when death occurs, and nobody knows where todraw the boundary between life and death. In a coma, for example,it is possible that biological life can be preserved. But is it reasonable

    then to suggest that a person in a coma is psychologically and sociallydead? Although we acknowledge that death is the cessation of life, itremains unclear what precisely death is. All one can claim is a partialand limited understanding of it. Perhaps we have to accept that thereare diverse categories which are defined according to their biological,psychological or sociological explanations rather than just one typeof death.

    So far we have discussed the biologicalaccount of death. In this

    approach, the event of death is explained in terms of biologicalprocesses. Death is regarded as a phenomenon which belongs andis confined to living organisms. This account presupposes that humanbeings function purely as an organism and therefore man too issubject to death just like any other organism. While the organism isalive, the possibility of death is present and will eventually occur. Theidea here is that any organism that comes into being eventually per-ishes. Although most living organisms must die, does this applies toall living organisms? For example, the micro-organism the amoeba

    does not seem ever to perish at all. It perpetuates itself not by repro-duction but by cell division. Strictly speaking, then, the amoeba is notsubject to death as man is and can be described as somehow animmortal living organism.

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    Biologically, the cell is the most basic unit that constitutes thehuman organism. Each cell has a structure and is made up of mole-cules that are not living entities themselves. One can claim that when

    the firing of neurons in the body ceases, all functioning systems stop.In this case human existence is reduced to a neural communicationsystem within the body. Is life to be defined merely as a connection orrelationship of non-living basic units? Furthermore, while we arealive our cells are constantly dying and being replaced by new ones.Can it be said that we are constantly biologically dying? Generally,we acknowledge that there is more to human life than a mere collec-tion of non-living molecules.

    The question then is whether biological death occurs as a result ofthe death of those cells, or whether it should be regarded as the deathofallcells. Medical science tells us that even after bodily death certaincells continue to live for a while; hair and nails continue to grow whenones body is already in the process of decomposing. While these cellsare active, the body cannot be considered to be dead. It seems that thebiological approach on its own may not be able to determine theboundary between life and death. All it can offer is a broadly basedmaterialistic explanation of the cessation of the activities of the

    human body. The non-physical aspect of the human being does notseem to be part of the explanation. For example, how does the vitalaspect of human life, consciousness, fit into this explanation? So farthere has been no plausible answer to this. When we look beyondthe empirical realm we find that we have to examine certain meta-physical issues, particularly when discussing the notion of humanfinitude. It seems that the issue of human death needs to be taken upfrom a non-empirical standpoint as well since the biological account

    is insufficient.The distinction between death as a biological issue and death as aphilosophical issue must be emphasised, because an empirical inquiryinto death is fundamentally different from its non-empirical counter-part. There are certain empirical criteria of death which are inherentwithin the empirical inquiry. An empirical inquiry is quite restrictedas it operates within a specific system of scientific definitions andrelies on scientific instruments and measurements. In other words, thesciences view death as nothing but an empirical event. Death as a

    philosophical issue, however, with its metaphysical undercurrents,raises a number of questions relevant to human existence and theself-understanding of human beings. Such philosophical concernsare beyond the scope of empirical inquiry. Posing questions from a

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    metaphysical viewpoint implies going beyond the realm of empiricalinquiry. The starting point is the fundamental question of what itmeans to be a human being. In this approach to human death particu-

    lar emphasis is given to the understanding of personal identity andthe problem of mind and body.

    Religious accounts of death, which may be connected to the philo-sophicalapproach, offer an explanation that may be tied up with theconcept of the divine or supernatural. Accordingly, the meaning given todeath is based, at least for some religions, in the belief that God existsand that it is His decree that we should die. Assuming that the wholesystem of being and non-being is pre-ordained by God, any independ-

    ent philosophical questioning is restricted, as it would be consideredarrogant to question the omnipotent Divine Being and His judgements.Within this framework, death may be considered as the transition of thesoul from the decaying body into another corporeal body, which will bethe reconstitutionof the person inanother realm.Death may alsobecon-sidered, amongotherpossibilities, as the separation of the immortal soulfrom the mortal body, as exemplified in Platos metaphysics.

    2. THE

    CERTAINTY OF

    DEATH

    The only certainty for everyone who is born, says Richard Kalish,is that death will occur.3 There are two certain facts about onesexistence: it is certain that I will die; but I will never experience myown death. Although our knowledge of death itself is confined to thebiological sphere, we are certain that we all must eventually die. Itseems that the human being has a clear awareness of death. Manalone, among mortal beings, is capable of reflecting on his own death

    and has foreknowledge of it.The inevitability and certainty of death operate as ontologicalnecessity in some philosophical analyses of death. The idea of theinevitability of death goes back to one of the earliest testimoniesknown to us; a story from third millenium BCE Mesopotamia, namelythe Epic of Gilgamesh. We recognise in the Epic most of the themesregarding death, including the futility of struggling for what cannotbe attained, namely immortality, and the eventual acceptance of thecertainty of death in human existence.

    But how do we acquire this certainty when we say that we arecertain that we will die? Where does this knowledge come from? Ourcertainty of death cannot be based on self-knowledge since ones owndeath is something which is outside ones experience and remains as

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    a future possibility, as Heidegger says in Being and Time. Death hasempirical certainty in so far as this certainty is based on the observa-tion of the death of others; this is the only experience one has regard-

    ing death. However, not everybody agrees that empirical evidence issufficient to give us the kind of certainty we have regarding our mor-tality. This empirical certainty can make the individual aware of theevent of the death of others, but it cannot reveal any metaphysicalinsight into his own death. My own death is outstanding and alwaysahead of me, so to speak. It may be a horrific death or a peaceful andtimely one. However, there is no certainty as to when, where or howI will die, and the uncertainty of its occurrence paradoxically remains

    something that is absolutely certain.Another dimension of death is its artistic perspective, which alsohighlights its certainty. The all-conquering power of death can be seenin various art forms, including drama, poetry,4 music and the visualarts.5 Examining death in terms of the arts adds a positive dimensionto the concept. An example from the world of literature powerfullyillustrates how the certainty of ones impending death affects onesexistence. In one of his books, Dostoievsky gives a detailed descrip-tion of a condemned man who is about to be executed. The individual

    is certain that he will soon cease to be and this awareness of the cer-tainty of his death shakes his whole being. Dostoievsky writes:

    The chief and the worst pain is perhaps not inflicted by wounds, butby your certain knowledge that in an hour, in ten minutes, in half aminute, now, this moment your soul will fly out of your body, andthat you will be a human being no longer, and that thats certain themain thing is that it is certain.6

    This passage clearly reveals an individuals despair in the face ofcertain death. Human death may be acknowledged in the abstract,but when one has to face up to ones own death, and when it becomescertain, it turns into acute awareness of ones total extinction as ahuman being.

    So far we have suggested that mans knowledge about the certaintyof death is due to the observation and experience of the death ofothers. There is another school of thought that supports the view thatman knows intuitively that he has to die. Assuming that there is such

    a thing as an a priori inner awareness of death, could it be anothersource of this certainty? According to Max Scheler, even if one werealone in the world, one would instinctively know that one will die.7

    In his view, there is an a priori awareness of death and this is an

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    integral part of human life; to think of life as detached from deathwould be to grasp it only partially. Scheler also claims that each indi-vidual has an inner experience of death directedness (Erlebnis der

    Todesrichtung). The experience of death directedness is closely con-nected with ones awareness of ageing. Landsberg takes up this issueand describes Schelers view of the phenomenon as follows:

    According to him [Scheler], the idea of death occurs only as a limit-ing point, which one may foresee by observing the development of theprocess of growing old.8

    For Scheler, the phenomenon of ageing is significant. He reminds us

    that ageing does not exist in the world of dead things. However, somephilosophers, including Landsberg, find Schelers view unsatisfactory.Landsberg wonders whether death for humans is something otherthan the concept of the final limit of individual evolution. He adds thatthe human experience of the necessity of death reaches beyond thedata provided by the feeling of growing old. Landsberg concludesthat death is in no sense linked with the process of growing old.9

    In Tod und Fortleben, Scheler states that death is not merely anempirical fact of our experience, but is part of the essence of experi-

    encing of every other life as well as our own life. Although Schelersstatement is not entirely clear, what he seems to be saying is that deathis in a sense contained in the process of living itself and is an insepa-rable part of human life.10 In brief, according to Scheler, there is anintuitive certainty of death (intuitiv Todesgewissheit), a certainty thathas nothing to do with ones attitude towards death, whether deathis feared or desired. Scheler thinks that the intuitive certainty of deathis deeply rooted in the human psyche. For him, a persons attitude to

    death is secondary and has to do with his life history. But if each indi-vidual has an intuitive certainty of death, how can we explain that inprimitive societies man clings persistently to the idea that death iscaused by external forces? Landsberg, for example, argues that primi-tive peoples, like children, lack awareness of the necessity of death.If one assumes that death is caused by external forces, then it is diffi-cult to account for Schelers view of the intuitive certainty of deathwithin each individual. Scheler would attribute the absence of intui-tive certainty of death to the repression of this idea. In his view, it is

    possible to be intuitively certain of death while at the same timerepressing and denying such certainty. Although this appears to becontradictory, it can be interpreted as a dialectical tension that is partof the existential human structure.11

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    3. SOME PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN COMPORTMENT AND ATTITUDESTO DEATH

    Throughout history the prospect of human mortality and attitudestowards it have been viewed and interpreted in various ways. Somesuggest that death is not the absolute end of an individual but thathuman existence continues beyond death. This is a widely held pos-ition, one that prevailed in the ancient, medieval and early modernworld. Others hold that death is the absolute end and there is no tran-scendental or psychic elements that endure after death, let alone theperson as a whole. In other words, there is nothing beyond the hereand now. Some, on the other hand, take a sceptical, evasive or indif-

    ferent attitude to death. But whatever view one holds, it is clear thatone cannot avoid having some kind of attitude to ones impendingdeath.

    Death, on the whole, is regarded as an object and source of fearthat terrorises humans. An often cited example of mans profoundfear and acute awareness of death is Ivan Ilych.12 For Ivan, deathbecomes an obsessive object of fear. He initially suppresses his death-anxiety during an illness. Before he encounters the critical stages of

    his disease, death has no particular significance for him but is only abiological fact which happens to other people at the end of their life.When he eventually realises that his life is coming to an end, thereality of his death turns into acute existential Angstand this anxietydiscloses the finitude of his own existence. Ivans Angstand disbeliefin the face of death is expressed as follows:

    Caius really was mortal, and it was right for him to die; but for me,little Vanya, Ivan Ilych, with all my thoughts and emotions, its alto-gether a different matter. It cannot be that I ought to die. That would

    be too terrible.And now here it is, he said to himself. It cant be. Its impossible!

    But here it is. How is this? How is one to understand it?13

    Ivan Ilych clearly is terrified. Although he acknowledges that all menhave to die, he finds it very difficult to come to terms with his ownapproaching death. Its stark reality leads him to re-examine his lifeand discloses to him the futility of the attitude he held towards lifebefore his illness. Ivan Ilych experiences hope, confusion and despair

    almost simultaneously before finally accepting the necessity of death.In the analysis of human comportment towards death there is one

    common element which repeatedly manifests itself. This is the factthat for all of us death signifies an unavoidable event which is beyond

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    our control. We are finite beings, and are aware that at each momentwe are moving towards our end. We may respond to this limitationwith despair or resignation. However, we are also capable of looking

    to the future with a positive attitude and striving to become what weare not-yet. Our awareness of death may enable us to discover theintensity of life in the here and now. This awareness can give each ofus the possibility of shaping our lives and heightening the meaning ofour existence. In the light of the awareness of our finitude and theever-presence of death, how do we relate to the reality of death? Inorder to answer this let us survey three basic attitudes towards death.

    3.1 Death is not the Absolute End of the Human Being

    There is a belief that regards life on earth as only one part of humanexistence. According to this view, death will not be our end-point butthe beginning of a new journey. This belief contends that death is notthe absolute end, but a transition to, or participation in, anotherrealm in which at least some essential but not purely material partof the person continues.14 What exactly is it that endures? It is saidto be ones soul or spirit, ones innermost non-material, and in

    some cases eternal, self. This view inevitably raises certain questions:Transition to what or where? What connection, if any, is therebetween life in the here and now and what comes after death? Theanswers given to such questions reflect various standpoints regardinghuman existence and death. One common element, however, is thatdeath is not the absolute end of the individual. This offers support tohumans in facing up to death, be it their own or that of others. It mayalso offer consolation, hope and relief from death-anxiety. On the

    other hand, it may give rise to fear of being punished after death inaccordance with certain religious beliefs. The idea that good behav-iour gives human beings access to a better realm appeals to manypeoples across many cultures. This position consolation on the onehand, fear on the other is somewhat ambivalent, but it can beargued that it may actually provide moral guidance to human life.

    In all cultures, however primitive, there is a sense of relatedness todeath, and this is manifested in various forms. Relatedness to deathand ones preoccupation with ones own death go back many cen-

    turies. This historical feature seems to be closely connected with thefear of death. Perhaps it is this fear that contributes to the specificityof human culture. Each society develops its own belief system, a setof values, ceremonies and rituals to integrate death into the culture to

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    help individuals cope with the mysteries and fear of death. In otherwords, a culture suggests ways of relating to death by social means.In some cases this may mean that the body of the dead is dealt with

    and disposed of in some kind of ritual and the dead are then believedto be continuing to exist among the living in a non-physical manner.This belief of integrating the dead with the living in everyday life sup-ports the view that some primitive societies did not accept the totalannihilation of the human being. That is, the finality of death was notfully apprehended. In primitive societies death was regarded as acci-dental and caused by external forces, but was neither necessary noruniversal.15

    One culture which held the view that death is not the absolute endis the Babylonian. This is clearly expressed in the Epic of Gilgamesh.Accordingly, death is conceived as the separation of body and spirit.In the Babylonian tradition when people die they go to the under-world, the road of no return, or Kur.16 The presence of the under-world is felt throughout the narrative of Gilgameshs encounter withdeath. The Babylonians have grasped what death implies; they knowthat there is no return after death to this world. It is also clear fromthe narrative that their attitude towards death stems from the fear of

    death.If we look at the ancient Egyptians, we find that they were preoc-

    cupied with death and self-preservation. In ancient Egypt, the signif-icance of preparing for life after death was at its height. Evidence,such as food, drink and personal objects found at the burial site of thedead, indicates their strong belief in the afterlife. The dead were wellprovided for in case they needed such objects in their future existence.This was one way of circumventing death based on the belief that a

    persons life can be prolonged beyond bodily death by supplying thecorpse with worldly goods and preserving it by mummification.17

    Some ancient Egyptian documents, for example The Book of theDead, which dates from around 3500 BCE, reveal a preoccupationwith death. The book treats the journey of the human soul in eternityas a factual certainty. It seems that the Egyptians thought of humannature as psychophysical and therefore the body is essential forhuman existence. Hence the body must be preserved for future reani-mation through highly elaborate rituals.

    There are probably as many views on death as there are civilisa-tions, and even within one civilisation views shift from one century toanother as exemplified in ancient Greece. Concerns about the condi-tion of man and the acknowledgement of ones mortality have clearly

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    led to philosophical discussion of death. The limitations and mortal-ity of the human being are clearly illustrated by Greek tragedy. Therelationship between the dead and the living is often depicted by

    showing how the dead can affect the life and consciousness of theliving being.

    In early ancient Greece, death was seen as natural, unthreatening,one of the facts of life. It was regarded as the frame of mans existenceand unavoidable. The widespread belief expressed in the eleventhbook of the Odyssey was that each human soul continued to existafter death as a shadow in the kingdom of the dead, Hades, fromwhich there was no return as described.

    Within a couple of centuries, however, a change appears. The doc-trine of metempsychosis, the transmigration of the soul, becomesmore widespread. According to this doctrine, the soul does not disin-tegrate with the body at death but begins in a new life. The soul isthought to be imprisoned in the body but leaves it at death and aftera period of purification enters another body, a process that is repeatedseveral times. The doctrine ofmetempsychosis which postulates theimmortality of the soul prevailed for many centuries, and also influ-enced the Christian Church.

    When analysing the notion of the immortality of the soul onecannot ignore the death of Socrates, which is described in PlatosPhaedo. The Platonic discussion of death in Phaedo entails the sepa-ration of the soul from the body. The Platonic Socrates claims thatdeath is the beginning of true life, at least for the philosopher. Thetrue life demands liberation from the untrue life of our commonexistence. For Plato, our world is one of shadows and the truth liesbeyond. Death is the necessary entrance into real life because, for

    Socrates, mans factual life is essentially unreal. On his deathbedSocrates assures us that he is capable of surviving death. He declaresthat the death of the body does not destroy the soul. In his view,people are not to be identified with their bodies, and they will survivetheir death in non-bodily form. Accordingly, man is strictly mortal,and what is immortal is not man himself but the divine element inhim, namely the soul. Socrates serenity and confidence in the face ofdeath are based on his faith. For Socrates, the soul represents whatwe truly are.

    A religious perspective of life and death reflects the idea of the spir-itual nature of man. In Christianity, as in Judaism and later in Islam,views on death and immortality have followed a path similar to thatof the ancient Greek world. Ninian Smart suggests that traditional

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    theology, and in particular doctrines of the soul, lean heavily uponphilosophical ideas found in the Greek tradition.18 In both Greekand Christian ideology divinity and death are closely connected.

    According to Christian theology, the myth of the fall of man is linkedto human mortality. The soul is contemplated as a metaphor for per-manence that human beings have been seeking for centuries. Whileone might accept that the concept of immortality is not found origi-nally in Christianity or Judaism, it has later become the view ofpopular religion.

    Although originally in the Old Testament death was regarded as anatural event and there was no direct reference to the afterlife, later

    various beliefs about life after death developed over time.

    19

    The viewthat man is not naturally immortal gradually began to change. Theconcept of immortality became closely connected with the judgementof God and the idea of a final resurrection at the end of time.20

    The continued existence of the person was perceived by many assimilar to life on earth and not as existence as a disembodied soul.According to St Paul, there will be a resurrection of the dead onthe Day of Judgement, and saints and sinners will stand before Godand be judged. In fact, Christian doctrine has asserted that man is

    a sinner and deserves the punishment of death. St Anselm in theeleventh century firmly attributed death to human error. Penalties andrewards, as the result of divine judgement, come to be associated witha future state of being. But this doctrine does not preach the immor-tality of the soul. Accordingly, after death not only the soul but alsothe body will live on. Thus in this belief there is no bodysoul sepa-ration, a belief based on the resurrection of Jesus for which no otherproof is required. Later, however, one finds that the Christian attitude

    towards death takes a different turn, namely the separation of thesoul from the mortal body. In the medieval period, for example, thesoul was regarded as the form of the body and the two were seen asin natural unity. This unity is ruptured at the moment of death whenthe body perishes and the soul continues to exist in one form oranother.21

    There is indeed a strong belief, for some, that life after death is aninfinitely better existence. This belief expresses a wish to be releasedfrom the pain of this life which is intrinsic to the human condition. In

    short, many people seek comfort and relief in religion, and manscontinued existence in the afterlife is regarded as a gift from God.Temporal life may be considered as but a part of human existence andthis belief may ease the fear of death and bring comfort to those who

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    hold it. It is clear that belief in personal immortality is based on anact of faith. Although many believers find comfort concerning deaththrough their faith, not all who hold such beliefs are reassured. For

    some, fear of death can be a negative force and an existential night-mare for those who are stricken by it.

    There is a mystical outlook which suggests that ones true inner selfmay merge with a cosmic or divine whole or overall totality after death.Accordingly, worldly life in the here and now is considered part of amore embracing reality and it is believed to be complemented by sometranscendent existence, although not necessarily of the person as anembodied being. This belief in the afterlife appears in various forms.

    We see it first in Anaximanders thought in the sixth centuryBCE

    . Deathmeans returning to the universal totality, the primeval One, whichis all-embracing. Everything originates in this totality, and everythingreturns to it according to the order of time. Later, the Sufi traditionadopted a similar approach to death. Accordingly, the meaning ofdeath for the Sufis is the return of consciousness to its original sourcewhich is infinite and eternal, and being One with this totality.22

    Many mystics claim that deaths sequel is neither annihilation norpersonal immortality, but a re-merging in an ultimate spiritual reality

    from which the human personality that lives and dies has temporarilydetached itself. This is a partial independence from its source and com-mensurately it is a partial alienation from it. There is a strong belief inthe Absolute Being, namely God, which is all-encompassing. Thesimile of the ocean or immortal sea is often used when explainingthe image of ultimate reality.23 For Sufis, all beings, including thehuman being, are ephemeral entities. They are described as nothingbut a drop in the ocean appearing in numerous forms in the observ-

    able world. Each entity is no different from the rest of the ocean, butits temporary identification is defined by its physical form. It is claimedthat our individual life appears out of the great ocean that pervadesthe universe and at death merges back into this totality. For the Sufis,death is something to look forward to, because this is the way ofbecoming part of the divine totality and the ultimate reality.24

    In sum, the meaning of death for the Sufis is the return of the soulto the universal totality and being one with the deity. The physicalbody decays and decomposes at death, but the individual conscious-

    ness is absorbed in this ultimate reality and returns to its originalsource, which is infinite and eternal. The highest level of consciousnessis the experience of the absorption of ones soul into the divine source.This can be achieved by rising above the distinction between I and

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    you, subject and object. It is possible for beings to reappear in thephysical world in a different form in the future. According to Sufism,whatever appears is the result of the power of renewal inherent in the

    boundless totality.Let us now consider another view on immortality. There is a belief,

    which may be qualified as a compromise, which expounds that deathdoes not entirely annihilate the individual; people live on in differ-ent forms in temporal existence. There are various possibilities, so theargument goes, which may enable man to live on in the world. Inthis mode of thinking, one is not concerned with traditional conceptsof immortality but with other possibilities, such as producing children

    or through works of art, music, poetry, and so forth. It is consideredto be an attractive viewpoint in that one can live on in the worldthrough the effects that are the results of ones activities or indeedthrough ones offspring. In fact, for Ludwig Feuerbach the only trueimmortality is biological immortality in ones offspring.25 This maynot be a strong argument but it is a consolation for those who haveno faith in an afterlife but who do not wish to surrender to total anni-hilation either. This mode of survival enables one to reconcile oneselfto death by leaving ones mark in the world. One should remind

    oneself, however, that there is no guarantee of survival in such a rec-onciliation.26 Whether one passes on ones genes, or leaves a work ofart, or lives on in the memory of others, none of these modes of sur-vival will constitute personal immortality. This kind of explanation isjust a metaphorical way of saying that the dead may be rememberedby those who are left behind, or that an outstanding artists worksmay continue to be admired after his death. But this is very differentfrom ones personal immortality since one no longer exists as a person

    in the world.In recent years, there has been speculation that other modes of sur-vival are possible. As a result of developments in contemporarymedical science, biology and technology, there is a belief that peoplemay survive death in the future by preserving their physical bodies.27

    In the final analysis, however, scientific and technological develop-ments can do no more than prolong life. Human beings eventuallyhave to face up to death.

    3.2 Death is the Absolute End of the Human Being

    According to this view, death is the absolute end of a person and thereis no transcendent or psychic elements that endure after death, let

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    alone the person as a whole. This view represents the denial of anyform of afterlife. In other words, ones death is considered to beempirical but with the further qualification that there is no further

    dimension to it. The unknown is transformed into the certaintyof non-existence beyond death, leaving the individual to pursueworldly activities in the here and now. In this section, we shall brieflylook at only two perspectives: the Epicurean/Lucretian argument andthe Heideggerian existential view.

    The views of Epicurus (300 bce) and Lucretius (1 ce) exemplifythe belief that death is the absolute end of human existence. TheEpicurean/Lucretian argument states that death is beyond sensation

    and not a rational object of fear; consequently any assumption thatdeath occurs within human experience is regarded simply as incon-sistent. This argument is based on the assumption that the dead canknow nothing because death is equated with the permanent lack ofexperience. Both thinkers insist that man should face the fact of deathwith serenity and need not be troubled by hope. Epicurus andLucretius also claim, as a reaction to the dualism of Plato, that atdeath the soul perishes with the body.

    Thus the well-known Epicurean argument puts forward a case for

    the total acceptance of death, which at the same time encouragespeople not to be afraid of it. Epicurus argues that when death is I amno more, when I am there is no death since one cannot experienceones own death. Generally speaking, Epicurus argument givesa rational account for the acceptance of death. In his Letter toMenoeceus Epicurus writes:

    So death, the most terrifying of ills, is nothing to us, since so long aswe exist death is not with us; but when death comes, then we do not

    exist. It does not then concern either the living or the dead, since forthe former it is not, and the latter are no more.28

    Lucretius adopts a similar line of argument:

    Rest assured, therefore, that we have nothing to fear in death. Onewho no longer is cannot suffer, or differ in any way from one who hasnever been born . . . Pain and sorrow will never touch you again.29

    In this passage, Lucretius makes an additional point by comparing

    non-being after death and non-being before birth. Generally speak-ing, ones attitude towards these two periods is quite different. On thewhole, one seems to be more affected and concerned with ones futurenon-existence than the thought of nothingness before ones birth.

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    Given ones natural orientation towards the future, as most of oneseveryday activities are directed to the future, it is not surprising thatone may feel more concerned about non-existence after death than

    about pre-natal non-existence.At first glance, the Epicurean/Lucretian argument seems plausible,

    in that death is not considered as evil as it does not cause suffering forthe one who dies. Some philosophers take the view that this argumentis strong and worth defending. It is true that from the first-personviewpoint death remains impossible to experience. But is it also truethat the fact of death has no relevance in ones life as Epicurus claims?One may accept that if one no longer exists then death can do one no

    harm, though not everyone concurs.

    30

    According to Lucretius, deathdoes not concern the living because it is a not-yet event. But is ittrue to say that death is no concern to us just because we cannotexperience it? We are concerned with future events that are not-yetpresent, including our own death. And this orientation towards thefuture is one of the most significant features of the human being.The Epicurean argument seems to neglect this important aspect.Furthermore, it does not deal with the process of dying as there is aclear distinction between death and dying.31 Not every death is a

    clear-cut case as the Epicurean argument suggests. It is neverthelesstrue that if we no longer exist we cannot experience death. AlthoughEpicurus argument may appeal to some, it may be argued that it doesnot bring relief to ones death-Angst.

    Having looked at the Epicurean/Lucretian argument, let us nowmove on to the Heideggerian existential approach to death. Strictlyspeaking, it is questionable whether Heideggers position regardingthe notion of death in Being and Time can simply be identified with

    the view that death is the absolute end and there is nothing beyond it.Heidegger seems to have developed an evasive strategy in this respect.Although he acknowledges that death is the end of ones being-in-the-world, he does not assert whether there is or there is not anythingbeyond ones worldly existence; on this he maintains silence. Mostphilosophers interpret Heideggers silence as an indication of Daseinsexistence only in the here and now. Heidegger, of course, might claimthat he is concerned only with the ontology of Dasein. That is, he isonly interested in death as an end to worldly existence and in the phe-

    nomenology of human comportment towards death. For Heidegger,issues regarding Daseins beliefs about any form of afterlife are onticalmatters which do not concern the ontological structure of Dasein.32

    It makes no sense for Heidegger to talk about existence beyond this

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    world. He is not interested in the question of which attitude shouldbe adopted. In his view, Dasein understands its selfas a mortal beingin the world and it has to face up to it.

    Heideggers analysis of the phenomenon of death is firmlygrounded in his fundamental ontology. He inquires into the basicproblems of Being, human existence and truth. He gives an existen-tial analysis of Dasein in terms of its ontological structure. Humanexistence, for him, is the key to interpreting philosophical questionsabout Being. According to Heidegger, the ontological structureof Dasein can be established on a purely phenomenological basiswithout reference to a deity or the concept of immortality. In his

    approach, Heidegger avoids any form of transcendent explanation ofdeath. For him, Daseins existence is permeated by awareness ofdeath, and death is faced in the here and now.

    Heideggers analysis of death is not concerned with how people feelwhen they are about to die, nor with death as a biological event, butwith the meaning and the existential-ontological significance of deathto Dasein in the light of its being-in-the-world. Heidegger interpretsthe existential significance of death as follows. For Dasein, death isthe ultimate possibility in a three-fold sense:

    it is ones ownmost possibility and one dies alone; it is non-relational, i.e. it cannot be shared; it is inevitable, it cannot be outstripped.33

    For Heidegger, understanding the phenomenon of death involvesgrasping the being of Dasein as a whole. If Daseins potentiality to beis understood existentially, then it becomes clear that Daseins being inits totality is being-towards-death. Being-towards-death is Daseins

    being-in-the-world and its being-towards-the-end. According toHeidegger, Dasein understands what it means to be through facingdeath.

    Heidegger, like Epicurus and Lucretius, holds that Dasein cannotexperience its own death. He acknowledges that facing ones owndeath is radically different from being concerned with the death ofothers. My own death means the end of my possibilities, the totalend of my being-in-the-world, not the end of world itself. TheHeideggerian concept of my ownness (jemeinigkeit) is important.

    For Heidegger, the fear of my own death comes from the fear of myextinction as a human being. I may be able to face other peoplesdeath, but find it virtually impossible to come to terms with myown death. However, not all existential thinkers concur with the

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    Heideggerian view of death. Sartre, for example, argues that death isa contingent fact which belongs to ones facticity, and that death is asabsurd as life is. Death cannot be ones possibility, he claims, as it

    always destroys all other possibilities. It is clear that Sartre sees deathas a destructive force which cannot be regarded positively. He doesnot deny the reality of death but does not think that it is particularlyimportant.34 Sartre further disagrees with Heidegger that deathbelongs to the ontological structure of Dasein.35

    According to Heidegger, then, ontological analysis enables usto have an understanding of our finitude, and the awareness of ourfinitude makes authentic existence possible. For Heidegger, death

    becomes meaningful when one perceives ones existence in the lightof Being. Although his existential approach to death is intelligible,it does not seem to satisfy the human need to understand andconquer death and death-Angst. For thousands of years people havestriven to transcend the human condition in order to grasp themystery of death. The need to search for something beyond worldlyexistence is a feature of the human being. Heidegger seems to over-look this need.

    3.3 Sceptical, Evasive and Indifferent Attitudes to Death

    Sceptical, evasive and indifferent attitudes often manifest themselvesin various forms when dealing with the everyday reality of death.When such attitudes prevail, some might argue that the significanceof death is ignored and the issue may be left as an open-ended possi-bility.36 With the decline in religious belief, partly due to a more crit-ical approach to ideas and the progress of science, evasive and simply

    indifferent attitudes to death became more widespread in the West.We speak of a sceptical attitude if it denotes suspension of beliefregarding the possibility of an afterlife and seeing death merely as aworldly event. Some people remain undecided about the afterlifethroughout their lives.

    In the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, death is seen from a dif-ferent perspective. Talking about death does not necessarily involvereferring to immortality, that is, to any form of life after death or toa Divine Being. Human death can now be understood not in terms of

    what comes after life but more as an issue to consider in the here andnow. This is perhaps one of the reasons why what is beyond death isnot questioned as it seems incompatible with modernity. People try tofree themselves from certain basic presuppositions or suspend belief

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    regarding the concepts of God and divine eternity. Their interest isfocused on what the consequences and implications of death mightbe in their lives, and how death affects the structure of their every-

    day life.37In the postmodern era we seem to be pathologically averse to

    death. As Feifel suggests, in the presence of death, Western culturehas tended to run, hide and seek refuge in group norms.38 ManyWesterners seem to have lost the ability to face the fact of death withserenity. Now death and the process of dying are mostly taken care ofin hospitals and for the most part have been removed from the familyunit. Thus the whole process has become medicalised and conse-

    quently is impersonal. It has been suggested that death and dying havebeen removed from the realm of normality and consigned to a realmof unreality.

    One way of dealing with the fear of death is the suppression of theissue, whether consciously or unconsciously. A typical manifestationof this is the evasive activities of the individual in order to avoid thesubject. On the whole, there seems to be an ambivalent attitudetowards death. On the one hand, there is some interest in the subjectand it may be discussed as a general topic. On the other, there is a

    sense of detachment from death and it is treated as external to modernlife. In other words, it is not internalised or regarded as a personalissue. In its indistinct form, death loses its philosophical impact.However, we cannot entirely ignore death as it often takes placearound us and thus we inevitably experience the death of the Other.This encounter with the death of the Other can be experienced at dif-ferent levels. In The Outsider, Camus identifies and expresses a cooland detached reaction to death where the main character, Meursault,

    behaves as a totally detached observer without any kind of emotionin the event of his mothers death. Meursaults indifference clearlyexemplifies ones distance and disconnection from the dead. Mersaultfeels nothing but indifference at his mothers funeral and declaresthat he cannot take an interest in a dead woman. He feels thathis indifference to this event is compatible with the indifference ofthe universe.39

    Having surveyed some salient points of the general notion of death,

    it becomes clear that there is no final answer to or one ultimateperspective on, death. However, the discussion in this section willprovide a helpful background material and relevant connections withlater chapters in this book.

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    Notes

    1. Feinberg, Harm to Others, p. 172.2. Wieseman, Death, p. 256.

    3. Kalish, Death and Dying, p. iii.4. R. M. Rilke elegantly articulates mans confrontation with his impend-

    ing death in the tenth elegy in his Duino Elegies. Sometimes the conceptof death can be romanticised. For example, in the nineteenth century theRomantics believed that death was the beginning of eternal life and lifeexisted for the sake of death. There was also the Romantic love of death.Keats, for instance, was half in love with easeful death as he stated inhis Ode to a Nightingale.

    5. The medieval allegorical concept of the Danse Macabre, also called

    the Dance of Death, depicted the power of death in the poetry, musicand visual arts of Western Europe mainly in the late Middle Ages.The Dance of Death was fully developed in a series of paintings inthe fifteenth century. This was considered a stern reminder of theimminence of death and a call to repentance. In music, the Dance ofDeath was performed frequently in compositions associated withdeath.

    6. Dostoievsky, The Idiot, p. 46.7. Scheler, Tod und Fortleben, p. 12. Similarly, Emanuel Levinas argues

    that ones death is not deduced from the death of others by analogy.In his view, ones knowledge of death is instinctive. Levinas, Totality andInfinity, p. 233.

    8. Landsberg, The Experience of Death, p. 195.9. Ibid., pp. 1956.

    10. Scheler holds the view that survival after death is plausible. For him,although immortality cannot be proved, the evidence for survival canbe derived from an inner experience (Erleben). Choron, WesternThought, pp. 21213.

    11. In one of his essays, Arthur Koestler discusses certain contradictionsone encounters in life. He calls these pathogenic factors. One of thefactors is awareness of ones mortality. In his view, its discovery is bythe intellect, and its rejection by instinct and emotion. He also says thatemotion rebels against the idea of personal non-existence. This simul-taneous acceptance and refusal of death reflects perhaps the deepest splitin mans split mind. Koestler, The Urge to Self-destruction, p. 23.

    12. Tolstoy, The Death of Ivan Ilych, pp. 445.13. Ibid.14. Rudolph Steiner calls this transition point the gate of death. He claims

    that when a man passes through the gate of death he comes into a spir-itual world which is infinitely richer. Steiner, Lectures, p. 35.

    15. Landsberg, The Experience of Death, p. 196.16. Sandars, The Epic of Gilgamesh, p. 27.

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    17. Ironically, it was the living rather than the dead who benefited from thecontents of the burial sites. Tomb robbers became very skilful as theyrobbed the wealthy dead of their worldly goods.

    18. Smart, Philosophical Concepts of Death, p. 133.19. Choron, Western Thought, pp. 812.20. All the references cited here regarding the Christian view of the afterlife

    are based on The New Jerusalem Bible (Longman and Todd, 1985).21. The thirteenth-century theologian Thomas Aquinas tried to prove the

    immortality of the soul in his Q.D. de Anima.22. The Sufis version of this belief will be discussed in Chapter 3.23. This image is often used by Rumi a well-known thirteenth-century

    Ottoman/Turkish mystic who contributed much to Sufism. Rumi, This

    Longing, p. 49.24. Although Baruch de Spinoza is not a mystic, his views on death bearsome similarities to the Sufis way of thinking. According to his pan-theism, the human mind cannot be absolutely destroyed with the body,but something of it remains which is eternal. Spinoza, Ethics, p. 268.

    25. Feuerbach, Thoughts on Death and Immortality, pp. 1401.26. First, ones work may never be recognised or accepted during ones life-

    time or after ones death. Or what might seem all-important and immor-tal at a particular time may lose its importance and disappear, e.g. thestory ofOzymandias as depicted in Shelleys sonnet:

    My name is Ozymandias, king of kings:

    Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!

    Ozymandias was once proud of a monumental building which he hadbuilt to demonstrate his might. He thought that this work of art wouldimmortalise his name and his glory would be eternal. It is interesting thatShellys sonnet remains and is, more informative and longer lasting thanOzymandias monument itself. See Hanfling, Life and Meaning, p. 23.

    27. For example, in the field of cryobiology, living organisms can be pre-

    served by suspended animation or freezing. However, the process ofreviving human cells without damage is far from being actualised.Cloning and genetic engineering also hold the promise of survival ofhuman beings. This mode of creating copied organisms from an orig-inal is a well-established technique; but philosophical problems arisewith this method. Although the clone may be genetically identical to theoriginal organism from which the cell is taken, it would be wrong to saythat it is identical with the original organism. Furthermore, memoriesand experiences of the clone will be very different from those that

    belong to the donor. The clones experiences cannot be identical withthose of the original entity. Finally, life can be significantly lengthenedby the application of transplantation technology. This biological processinvolves replacing diseased or malfunctioning bodily parts with healthy

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    ones by means of transplantation. However, at present there are stillproblems with reactivating severed nerves. Even if such biologicalprocesses were successfully executed, the result could not be classified

    as survival but merely a mode of postponing ones death.28. Epicurus Letter to Menoeceus appears in its entirety in Jones et al.,

    Approaches to Ethics, p. 85.29. Lucretius, On the Nature of the Universe, p. 122.30. Nagel objects to this on the grounds that one can be affected or harmed

    even if one has no knowledge of the harm after ones death. Nagel,Mortal Questions, pp. 110.

    31. Death and dying are different and must be distinguished. It is generallyaccepted that death is an event. Dying, on the other hand, is ambiguous

    and is considered to be a process rather than an event, which may takea long time. Furthermore, dying does not necessarily lead to death. Thusthere may not be causal connection between death and the process ofdying. The state of being dead must also be distinguished from deathand dying, because they all refer to different states of being.

    32. According to Macquarrie and Robinson, Ontological inquiry is con-cerned primarily with Being; ontical inquiry is concerned primarily withentities and the facts about them. Macquarrie and Robinson, inHeidegger, Being and Time, fn.3, p. 31.

    33. Heidegger, Being and Time, p. 294.34. Sartre, Being and Nothingness, pp. 53940.35. Ibid., p. 545.36. M. Schlick (18821936), for example, expresses his suspended judge-

    ment and suggests that death may or may not be the end, and considersdeath as an open-ended possibility. He regards survival as an empiricalhypothesis which he needs to verify after his death. Schlick has beendead for 70 years and so far he has neither verified nor falsified hisempirical hypothesis. Schlick, On the Meaning of Life, p. 470.

    37. A cynic might say that in todays society when death occurs there are

    other issues to consider. For example, the event of death generates dif-ferent kinds of business, namely funeral and burial arrangements, reli-gious ceremonies, gatherings of people after the funeral, and so on. Eventhe grieving process can be a lucrative business. I am referring here toan article which appeared in New Zealand Herald(3 February 1998)under the heading of Professional mourners find business booming.Apparently the phenomenon of rented tears at funerals is Vietnamsgrowing prosperity.

    38. Feifel, The Meaning of Death, p. xiv.

    39. Camus, The Outsider, pp. 1627.

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    CHAPTER 2

    Karl Jaspers Philosophy of Existence

    1. SOME BRIEF BIOGRAPHICAL REMARKS

    Jaspers is one of the influential German thinkers of the twentiethcentury. His influence is found in the works of Hannah Arendt,Hans-Georg Gadamer, Jrgen Habermas, Helmut Plessner andPaul Tillich among other thinkers. Jaspers contribution to themedical, psychiatric and philosophical fields is extensive; his GeneralPsychopathology, for example, is still used in psychiatry. It is none theless unfortunate that, as a philosopher, he has not been fully appreci-ated or fully explored in the English-speaking world. In his outlookand mode of inquiry, Jaspers primary focus was the concrete indi-

    vidual. He believed that personal experience is ones fundamentalsource of truth about reality. His interest in humanity, the individual,freedom and communication remained throughout his life.

    One of the crucial factors which affected his philosophical think-ing profoundly was an incurable disease, which forced him to liveconstantly in the face of death. His frailty may have made him acutelyaware of his limiting situation and its significance in life. Reflectionson limiting situations such as suffering, struggle, guilt and, in particu-

    lar, death, whi