8

U T E D

October 24 DAY-", >""""" ? ctober 24

UNESCO COURIER-Page 2. OCTOBER 1951

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KOREA-TO REPEL AGGRESSION AND RESTORE PEACE the United Nations goes into action. In response to theSecurity Council call for help against the North Korean invaders, sixteen member nations sent land, sea and air forces

as their contribution to the world's first armed collective security action.

THE date was October 24,1949. High above therows of seats in San-

tiago de Chile's largestadium the flags of many coun-tries floated in the wind. A blueone, with a white laurel wreathsurrounding the five continents,dominated all the others. Itwas somewhat difficult toconcentrate on this flag repre-senting the United Nationsbecause there were 40, 000

people in the Chilean stadiumand they were applauding agroup of dancers and singersfrom all Latin America whohad come to celebrate a singleday dedicated to a unitedworld.

A united world ? Peace ?Were these idle, utopiandreams ? I asked myself twoyears ago as I sat in the San-tiago stadium. It was not eayto say emphatically"no"eventhen. Today the dangers areeven greater and the challengemore urgent. The crisis of ourtime is such that almost all ofus live with fear in our hearts.

On October 24, 19M, I re-member, the U. N. flag had re-called to my mind the birth-place of the United Nationsin San Francisco in 1945. Thename"San Francisco"hadconjured up the figure ofSt. Francis of Assisi, who ac-cording to legend, consideredall animal-even the wolves- his"brothers" ; who helpedall creatures in need and, by hisexample of kindness and humil-itv, imparted his faith in abetter world to all who appro-ached him.

There was something of theFranciscan spirit in the Charterestablished by the United Na-tions in San Francisco. Un-fortunately, St. Francis did notsucceed in changing either theworld or the spirit of man. Infact, far from considering allsolves his brothers, man hascome to think of his brothers aswolves. And kindness bv itself,or the will to let justice bedone, has not as yet proved

enough to permit good totriumph over evil.

So mankind was obliged tofind some kind of machinerycapable of checking the inter-national tensions that even-tually lead to wars, and aggres-sion itself. In the same wayas national laws punish offen-ders to maintain a moral equi-librium within society, so theUnited Nations Charter esta-hlished its own measures toCounter the international ag-gresor or offender. The needto do this gave rise to the prin-ciple of collective security. Itremained to be seen, however,whether the United NationsCharter could be effectivelyApplied in an emergency or ifit would prove to be nothingmore than mere words andempty rhetoric.

In 1950, the moment to putthe principle to the test came inKorea. At this juncture theverv existence and future of theUnited Nations was at stake.In 1935, the invasion of Abys-sinia and the inability of theLeague of Nations to deal withthis act of aggression, ultima-tely led to the collapse of collec-tive security as a preventiveweapon and ended in collapseof the League itself with theoutbreak of World War II.

We all know that when thehuman bodv is attacked bv cer-tain infectious germs, an armyof other organisms which wemay call"health"germs go intoaction to ward off the attackand on many occasions save thelife of the patient. Similarly,the attack on the United Nationsand the principles of its Char-ter-which represents thevast majority of the peoples ofthe world-led to immediatecounter-action proving that inthe case of the U. N' ; collectivesecurity was not an idle phrasebut a moral obligation on thepart ot its members to act. Itshowed that respect for law-one of the foundations of inter-national order-was a realitvand that nations were prepared

to oppose efforts to change thatorder by violence.

But the United Nations looksbeyond armed conflicts. It isesientially concerned with theconstruction of the conditionsof world peace. The humanbody contains not only defen-sive micro-organisms ; it hasessential functional organs.The United Nations too has itsfunctional organs (the specializ-ed agencies) and a neuro-motorco-ordinating system in theEconomic and Social Council(ECOSOC). For just existingis not enough.

We mut live with dignityand raise the living conditionsof men, both individually andcollectively. For this purpose,other specialized agencies of theUN were created. Each ofthem has a part to play inlaying a firm foundation forinternational peace.

This year, for United NationsDay, October 24, 1951, the themechosen to mark the sixth anni-versary of the world organiza-tion-"To Combine Our Ef-forts"-has been taken fromthe Preamble to the UN Char-ter, in which"We, the Peoplesof the United Nations"have

promised"to combine ourefforts"to accomplish the aimsset forth in that document.This means not only stoppingwars, but working together, aspeoples and as nations, to re-move the causes of war-nar-row-minded nationalism, reli-gious, social and political into-lerance, hunger and poverty,disease and ignorance.

"Let us measure the causes ofour present disputes against the rea-sons we have to unite in the face ofproblems so vast", 1\1. Torres Bodethas declared."Tile future dictatesour present dutv. International co-operation in all fields is not a gene-rous and debatable aspiration. It isan urgent necessity for every singlecountry. The United Nations sum-mon all men to this task, which isnot directed against anyone, butserves the interests of all peoplesand respects the liberty of all."

Let us indeed Combine OurEfTorts.

José de BENITO.

OCTOBE"1951 Pate 3-UNESCO COURIER

Our Efforts...

October 24... On this date six years ago the Char-ter of the United Nations came into force. The

anniversary is observed by Member Nationsthroughout the world. On this day we reaffirm theaims of the organization, we recall its achieve-ments and we pledge"... to combine our efforts..."to realize its purposes.

Collective Armed Action Against Aggression

Continued Efforts for Peaceful SettlementWherever Possible

International Action for E. conomic and SocialProgress

Aid to Peoples on the Road to Independence.

These were the main avenues along which theUnited Nations advanced in the sixth year of itsexistence. Throughout the world, in every fieldof human activity, the U. N. and its Specialized

Agencies initiated actions towards the achieve-ment of the goals of the Charter. The focal pointswere KOREA, the first example in history of theuse of collective force to restore peace, and TECH-N) CAL ASStSTANCE for under-developed areas,a positive programme to make the world abetter place to live in.

REHABILITATION OF KOREA IS ONE OF UN'S BIGGEST JOBS. Only broad internationalaction can bring relief to the hungry and homeless people. Member nations have alreadymade contributions. For instance, Thailand and the Philippines have sent rice ; Israel sulfadrugs. Altogether, over 8200, 000, 000 has been pledged for relief and rehabilitation. Shown

here is rice distribution in Seoul.

FOR PROSPERITY AND DEVELOPMENT : TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE.To stimulate economic and social advance, the UN provides technical know-ledge and expert advice to under-developed countries. Example : the Greekscheme for the utilization of idle manpower, introduced by a UN adviser. Theresults : 5, 272 kilometres of roads built or improved, 50, 000 acres of land

reclaimed by 150, 000 volunteers.

HELP ON THE ROAD TO INDEPENDENCE : LIBYA. The United Nations hasresolved the future of the former Italian colonies. One of them, Libya, is tobecome under U. N. guidance an independent and sovereign state by 1952.Here the Libyan King-Designate arrives in Tripoli, where the National Assem-

bly met to proclaim a provisional government and to draft a constitution.

FOR THE WORLD'S CHILDREN : UNICEF. Shoes for Greece's children, justone example of the world-wade operations of the United Nations InternationalChildren's Emergency Fund. A school-luncheon, a pair of shoes or an anti-T. B. vaccine, provided by UNICEF, have made the U. N. a living reality to mil-

lions of youngsters throughout the world.

UNESCO COURIER-Page 4 OCTOBER 1951

Specialized Agencies

carry out much of

the United Nations'

practical work

O HEALTH : WORLD FIGHT AGAINST DtSEASE.The World Health Organization (WHO) concentrates itsefforts on eradicating diseases : malaria, T. B., typhus. Herea Haitian mother brings her baby for a penicillin injectionagainst yaws. A WHO team of doctors and nurses is workingin the Marbial Valley of Haiti, where Unesco has a fundamentaleducation pilot project, to help fight this crippling disease.

@ REFUGEES : OFF TO A NEW LIFE. Over one million dis-placed persons have been repatriated or resettled by theInternational Refugee Organization () RO). MiHions havereceived care and maintenance from IRO and other UN agen-cies. In Palestine, over 800, 000 refugees depend on UN help.

8FUNDAMENTAL EDUCATION : A WORLD CAMPAIGNAGAINST IGNORANCE. Illiteracy breeds poverty anddisease. Over half the world's population can neither readnor write. That is whey Unesco is working to ensure the basicminimum of education for everyone, along with the knowledgeand skills to enable them to improve their living conditions.At Patzcuaro, Mexico (shown here), Unesco has set up the firstof a world network of regional fundamental education centres.

OAVIATION : INTERNATIONAL TRAINING FOR PER- SONNEL. Rapid growth of aviation makes it necessaryto develop nuclei of trained personnel in technically less advan-ced regions. International Civil Aviation Organization (tCAO)has a training scheme to ensure safe maintenance of airfields

in all parts of the world.

FOR LABOUR : IMPROVEMENT OF WORKING CONDI---T) ONS. The International Labour Organization (ILO)helps countries in solving such labour problems as man-power, migration, social security ; it promotes international

standards of industrial safety.

"LOANS BUILD INDUSTRIES. The International Bank forReconstruction and Development grants loans to war-

devastated and under-developed countries. Loans are usedfor hydroelectric power development (shown here), improve-

ment of agriculture, rebuilding of port facilities.

Ð FOOD-THROUGH BETTER AGRICULTURE. Spreadingadvanced agricultural methods is one of tasks of the Foodand Agriculture Organization (FAO). Examples : introduc-tion of hybrid corn in Europe, soil surveys in Ecuador, pond-fish production in Haiti, sheep breeding in Afghanistan. FAO

also works to improve world timber resources.

OCTOBER t95) Page 5-UNESCO COURIER

Three major United Nations tasks

in the economic and social fields

THE activities of the United Nations in the economic and social field, and thoseof the twelve specialized agencies of which Unesco is one, are reviewed by theEconomic and Social Council (ECOSOC) each summer. This Council is em-

powered not only to direct the future work of its own commissions, but also to makerecommendations to the specialized agencies. By such a survey of the full range ofwork undertaken by organizations located in different world capitals, ECOSOC stimu-lates collaboration in the many cases where joint action is needed, and makes itpossible to lay down certain priority tasks to which the efforts of all the organiza-tions should be aimed.

At the session of the Council which ended last month in Geneva, particularemphasis was laid by all the members on major tasks which should figure prominentlyin the programmes of the various organizations during the next few years. Threeof these merit particular attention here.

o AIDING UNDER-DEVELOPED REGIONS

THE social and economic developmentof under-developed areas is perhapsthe most important single aim ever

tackled through international action. TheUnited Nations and most of its specializedagencies have joined in this great effortwhich received powerful encouragementwhen, in 1949, the Economic and SocialCouncil launched the U. N. ExpandedProgramme of Technical Assistance forthe Economic Development of Under-Developed Countries. This programme isin many ways unique : it is a fullyco-operative undertaking in which allthe organizations play a part throughspecial budgets. A large number ofgovernments-some of them notmembers of the United Nations-havecontributed a total of over $20, 000, 000.While the programme is only meant tocontribute the technical aid of experts, ithas already shown its capacity to"primethe pump"of economic development andto set in motion activities far exceeding inscope what could be financed out of therelatively small sum just mentioned.

Unesco's main contribution has been inthe educational field, since no communitycan hope to improve its economic standardslastingly unless there is some realunderstanding by its members of thepurpose of the effort required. Greatestemphasis has been placed on fundamentaland adult education, that is to say, theemergency type of elementary educationwhich governments are introducing in

areas where neither the children northeir parents have had the benefit of anorganized school system. In 1947 Unescoorganized the first international experi-ment in fundamental education in adistressed valley in Haiti. Unesco'sconception of fundamental education,which was first hammered out there, isnot confined to the rudiments of schooling,but also includes education in suchmatters as modern agriculture, publichealth, village industries and crafts.

The Haiti experiment has been followedby many others. Unesco either sendsexperts to advise on the launchingof fundamental education projects orconducts the projects wholly or partlyitself. This year Unesco has launched aworld campaign against ignorance and itsevils which will attack this problem at itsbase-the lack of FundamentalEducation specialists. The programme isbased on the idea of"training by chainreaction"which foresees a growing armyof 5, 000 teachers of teachers within12 years through a network of regionaltraining centres spread around the globe.The need for scientific advice has alsoemerged sharply, and Unesco is nowproviding technical help in the appliedsciences and is also devoting attention tothe important psychological problemswhich may arise when a primitivecommunity is abruptly brought face toface with problems of modern indus-trialization.

MAKING HUMAN RIGHTS A REALITY

THE gradual realization in practice ofthe fundamental human rightsinscribed in the Universal De-

claration of 1948 is another major theme.Unesco has its own contributions to makein the fields of education, science andculture. It has launched, with the supportof some fifty nations, a world campaignfor free and compulsory primary schoolingwherever it is not yet fully in operation,thus aiding in the fulfilment of the rightto education which appears in Article 26of the Universal Declaration. In manydifferent ways it, its promoting theenjoyment of the right freely to par-ticipate in the cultural life of thecommunity, and to share in scientific

advancement and its benefits (Article 27).It is also in a variety of ways, andparticularly by proposing means toovercome the existing barriers to the freemovement of information across frontiers,endeavouring to give greater reality toevery man's right to be fully informedabout events all over the world.

The Economic and Social Council notonly reviews the progress achieved by thespecialized agencies in such matters ashealth, food, labour and education, but isalso framing a Human Rights Covenant,which will ultimately be laid before theworld's parliaments, and which will givelegal effect to the principles laid down inthe Universal Declaration.

@ STRENGTHEN) NG THE BULWARKS OF PEACE

THE third field of major internationaleffort which should be mentionedhere is the continuing effort to

assure and strengthen peace throughoutthe world. It is true that the problemshere are in large part political and, assuch, outside the purview of ECOSOC.The Twenty Years'Programme for Peacelaunched a year ago by Mr. Trygve Lie,Secretary-General of the United Nations,is not, however, entirely concerned withpolitical and military issues. It alsospeaks of the minimum conditions ofeconomic and social well-being withoutwhich peace must remain insecure.

Unesco is working on several aspects ofthis paramount problem of strengtheningthe bulwarks of peace. It has studiedand reported on methods and techniquesby which the doctrines of internationalunderstanding and of the brotherhood ofman may become real in the minds of all ;it is investigating particular situationswhich may arise in areas in process ofeconomic change, where dangerous statesof tension are latent in different sectionsof the community ; it is seeking to bringabout a wider understanding of andsupport for United Nations action toenforce collective security, notably amongthe young ; and through the mass mediait has. sought to publish, broadcast andscreen information designed to awakenpeoples'interest in the lives and achieve-ments of their fellow men. This group

of activities received special attention atUnesco's own General Conference thisyear, and the Organization's support forthe United Nations was specifically andenthusiastically pledged by some sixtydelegations without dissent.

These annual proceedings of the Eco-nomic and Social Council are thereforemuch more than formal and constitu-tional. They provide a unique opportunityof integrating the efforts of twelve ormore international organizations, and ofinspiring them anew with faith in thebasic purposes for which they werecreated. Specialised agencies like Unescoare of course autonomous, and are onlybound by the decisions of their ownannual conferences. Perhaps the valueof the Economic and Social Council'ssurvey lies precisely in its largely informalcharacter. The members of the Council,the directors-general of the variousorganizations, the officials and specialistswho attend, can all speak freely and com-ment on each other's work.

There may be some disagreement onpoints of political doctrine ; there areconstant problems of administration andof financing, to be tackled and overcome.But it cannot be doubted that the Eco-nomic and Social Council provides Unescoand its sister agencies with an invaluableoccasion to view their own work in trueperspective and to link it with the otherwork of the United Nations.

The first of a series of buildings to house the permanentheadquarters of the United Nations has been completed andis already in use. This 39-storey Secretariat skyscraper canaccommodate 4, 000 people. When fully completed, the head-quarters site will serve the General Assembly, ECOSOC

and other UN bodies in New York City.

0Oft'tMst

IN the time of Pericles the average Athenian wasfirmly convinced that the Boeotians were dull-witted, the Cretans liars and the Asiatics effe-

minate and uncivilized.Such clichés as these have now lost their

offensive connotation, although literature hasnevertheless kept them alive for 2, 500 years.During this time, however, countries and commu-nities have invented many others. Those incommon use today, and there are hundreds, arenot lacking in virulence. Ask anyone, in any lan-guage, to complete slogans like"The Germans are...The Jews are... The French are...", and, as likelyas not. he will not hesitate to give the usual hastyjudgments. The opinion varies with the nationa-lity of the person expressing it : those who areregarded as"scientific and hard-working"by theirneighbours in the West may be no more than"militaristic and hyprocritical"to Eastern eyes.

IF scientifically controlled examples are neededthere are plenty-scandalous or divertingaccording to the mood of the reader-in a

book by Professor otto Klineberg, which the SocialScience Research Council has published in NewYork. This book, which gives results of researchinto"Tensions. Affecting International Understand-ing", is a contribution to the work undertaken byUnesco in the field of Social Sciences. The pur-pose of this work is clear when one considers theabounding errors and misconceptions, even betweencountries which regard one another as friendly,in their statements and discussions. Errors andmisconceptions cause resentment and tension, andthe result is too often catastrophic. The first needis for understanding, for prejudices must be ana-lysed before they can be destroyed. And what ajungle of pseudo-science must be uprooted, fullof slogans, illogical ideas, and clichés !

Before dealing with these cliches-or, as asociologist calls them, national stereotypes-Dr.Klineberg is honest enough to ask if they do afterall contain a"kernel of truth". When ten ortwenty million people regard their neighbours aseither frivolous, witty or lazy, should not theiropinion be accepted as the starting point foran investigation of the existence of such qua-11.... _t T., . .... L :.... : L, ... alities ? In practice it seems wrongto rely on opinions. Those whoexpress them may be in1iuenced byeven the most anecdotal history,while propaganda exerts an evenmore powerful sway. To upset theseunstable opinions may only requirethe effects of a few novels, films, orvague fears. Politics is anotherimportant factor.

If economic interests become in-volved, an entire race can find itselfregarded in a different light over-night. Dr. Klineberg recalls thehistory of the Chinese in California.(He has taken an example from his.".""., 4,." 1", 4 mh, 4 4ho"r, ninrvown country, but what other nation has not hadsimilar experiences ?).

A hundred years and more ago, California gavethese Chinese a cordial welcome. The white gold-hunters wanted to get rich quickly and theyneeded good workers and servants."The Chin-ese,"said the papers of that era,"are verycapable, sober, tractable, inoffensive, law-abiding...The most worthy of our newly adopted citizens."The 1860's arrived, with industrial upheavels, aninflux of population from the centre and the east- and unemployment. At the elections of 1867the two parties were promising to"protect theCalifornians against Mongolian competition."TheChinese were now described as"unassimilable,criminal, debased and servile, deceitful andvicious."In short, they had outlived their use-

The illustrationst Brotherhood eBurbank, Caiitorniéfilm is based onand Gene Weltfishprotagonist of eacwhich sneeringly resolved by the na !illustrations are cOI

O One night Henry, an ordinary. friendly American, dreams ofvisiting far-off strange lands.A henry gets up and finds a number of exotic landscapes rightin front of his own window.

The men from far-off lands peer out of their respective win-dows in mutual surprise.

O HenlY tries to convjnce his new neighbours that HIS way oflife is the best.A FInally everyone is gOLng around in agry circles, scratching,fighting and palling.

A But then they stop and begin to wonder why they are fighting, IIBecause they are different ? ?

& Physically, men are a lot more alike than you might think ;Si/witness the matter of biood'type".

When they meet, fully grown, they're amazed how environ-ment has more to do with development than anything else.

`.'when these two women-for experiment's sake-exchangebabes, the children develop according to environment.

I itS/

By Georges FRAD/ER

fulness and were to be got rid of. In stereotypesof this kind the kernel of truth appears microsco-pic. Some enquiries have indicated that moreoften than not it can be reduced to nothing.

: rations on these pages are reproduced from the animated colour-filmerhood of Man produced in 1945 by the United Productions of America,California, on the initiative, of the United Automobile Workers-CIO. Thesed on the pamphlet Races of Mankind written by Ruth BenedictWeltfish of the Department of Anthrolopogy of Columbia University. The

it of each racial group in Brotherhood of Man has a Green Devil alter ego

'ering ! y suggests the old racial prejudice slogans. As each question is) y the narrator, the green devil retreats from the normally happy person. AllIS are copyright by UPA and may not be reproduced without prior permission.

A number of universities submitted to theirstudents a list of different ethnic groups through-out the world and asked them to state whatdegree of like or dislike they felt towards each. Inthe long list the names of three entirely imaginarypeoples were introduced-the Danireans, thePirineans and the Valonanians. The results wereinvariable. Each time a minority of studentsabstained from judging these imaginary peoples ;but the others did not hesitate to record their likeor distrust. Usually the Danireans were regardedwith disfavour and sometimes the Pirineans andthe Valonanians were held in greater esteem thanreal peoples. It is true that if these unfortunatestudents had never seen a Valonanian, neitherhad they ever come into contact with, for example.Hindus or Arabs.

This is the root of the problem : None of themhad ever seen the Arabs. But, then, who will eversee the Americans ? In former times, a classicaleducation did at least inculcate the simple rule nntto attribute to all, the qualities of the indivi-dual ; in extolling the virtue of Penelope, itremained silent on the general fidelity of Ithacanwives. Thus it was hoped that a man of culture

would be recognized by his refusal,in all circumstances, to give force-ful judgments on peoples, races orvague ideas in general.

Today most people are willing toadmit their folly in talking aboutthings of which they know nothingyet fail to recognize that suchchatter is dangerous. Dr. Kline-berg notes that"those wbjectswho reacted unfavourably to minor-ity groups were, on the whole, thosewho reacted in term of the stereo-type. They were the people whosaid,'The Jews are...''The Englishare...'The very willingness to speak

rl t. rrn. < : : on tl1p h. < : : i. < : : nf l1nvprifipnin such general terms on the basis of unverifiedand frequently unverifiable assumptions is to beregarded as suspect."

The word"suspect"seems inadequate when onerealizes that these unfounded assumptions form apart-perhaps bigger than ever-of the edu-cation received by children at home, in the street,and even at school. Every parent is not a logicianand of course society must respect the basic truthsthat are expressed around the family table. Butthere is nothing to stop society from countering theprejudices which, for instance, are created bydoubtful children's"literature".

Numerous studies have shown that a traitor orthe criminal in such literature must invariably bea foreigner, and as often as not, a member of ahated or despised group. When the adolescent no

longer reads these periodicals he finds the same"diet"in popular magazines. Dr. Klineberg reportsan interesting analysis of national stereotypes pre-sented by eight particularly successful magazines.Close examination of 198 short stories in thesepublications revealed that their characters playedtheir role only according to a strictly establishedethnic hierarchy : one nationality fits the gangster,one origin the harlot, one skin colour the half-wit.

FOR the schools, Dr. Klineberg stresses"theextent to which textbooks can influence chil-dren". After examining a number of these

books, and especially those dealing with history,he declare. s :"The authors of secondary-schoolhistory texbooks in all countries are substantiallyin agreement that the leaders of their own countrywere honourable and their soldiers noble and cour-ageous ; when defeated, it was because of theoverwhelming force of the enemy ; the enemy,whatever his identity, was treacherous andcowardly."

Under Unesco auspices, numerous educators.historians and geographers are trying to bringabout a reform of the textbooks in use ; the aim isimpartiality. The purpose of such a reform is notto tarnish, in the eyes of young citizens, thehonour and glory of their ancestors, but only toenable them ALSO to believe in the rights andhonour of their neighbours across the sea or thefrontier.

The unequivocal aim of all education worthy ofthe name is to fight continually against the pre-judices, ignorant misunderstandings and stupidhatreds which daily invade the mind of the child.But neither the teachers, nor the philisophers, areenough to silence the sententious chorus which, atevery corner of the globe, and every level of society,continues to express its distrust and fear of theCretans and Valonanians.

A Henry begins to feel a bit of doubt : will lie like thIs""wenvironment and these strange peoples ?

ð : \, Long, long ago, life began on quite an equal basis with'1 ! 1 Adam and Eve ; then people spread all over the world.

- KnONing ! hese things, sensible people learn to live asbrothers is peace and friendship...

His Green Devil pulls at him and suggests some unpleasantthoughts about racial differences

A All the Green Devils start to work on their masters to causeV trouble and dissension.

As things developed on the continents, the Asiatic civiliza-tion grew faster than elsewhere.

t ! : \. Today, things are just about equal mentally for the threeraces of mankind-white, yellow and black.

Heir ugly Green Devils of prejudice, hate and stupidity.V (Copyright UPA).

they stop kicking each other around and instead apply hepoint of their boots to the seats of...

UNESCO COURIER-Page 8

MODERN ARCHAEOLOGISTS'DIG'

FROM AEROPLANES

OCTOBER I 9 51

BRITISH farmers near Andoverwere sceptical when theyheard that there were clear

and unmistakeable traces ofan important native settlementburied in their fields. Theyknew every inch of their land,and there were definitely no signsthat they could see of it. Theirdistrict had long been of interestto archaeologists, but theseexperts had never found any"clues"in the ground to such asettlement.

The way in which it wasdiscovered seemed strange too. Itwas not by excavations, but byair photographs. And the pic-tures were taken, not beforecultivation started, when it waseasiest to see the land, but justprior to harvest time, when thethick crop made the soil virtuallyinvisible.

But after they saw the photo-graphs, there was no doubt aboutit : there, among the growing'crops, was a remarkably clearoutline of what the settlementlooked like in plan. Even long-buried ditches and pits wererevealed.

For the archaeologists, it wasanother example of how airphotography can yield results thatobservers on the ground can neverhope for.

Variations in vegetation reflectfeatures buried below the surfaceand long lost to sight. Photo-

by Richard O'FARRELL

graphs taken from the air cangive extraordinarily detailed cla-rification of these features, thusenabling archaeologists to recon-struct the history, form andgrowth of towns, villages, garri-sons and buildings.

Nature's Sketch Book

E YEN when such markingscan be seen from theground, they are often so

distorted by perspective that norecognizable pattern can be dis-cerned. The aircraft, on theother hand, provides an overallsurvey.

Air photography has, of course,been used extensively in Britainand other countries for town andcountry planning and in therevision of maps. But archaeo-logists cannot obtain all the in-formation they want from thesehigh altitude photographs, whichare taken at any time of the year.Their investigations call for amore detailed reconnaissancecarried out at between 1, 000 and3, 000 feet under the rightconditions of lighting, weatherand vegetation.

Only for a short period eachsummer, a few weeks beforeharvest time, does arable landbecome nature's historical sketchbook, when the infinite patterns

of crop-markings disclose toarchaeologists the presence, thecharacter and even the epoch ofburied features.

But in these few weeks ofeach year, Britain's air-mindedarchaeologists have already madea large number of importantdiscoveries. For instance, threeRoman forts which they locatedin Watling Street offer a bigopportunity of obtaining newinformation about the history ofthe Roman conquest.

The usefulness of these photo-graphs also depends on the soiland type of crop. In general,long-rooted cereals, viewed in thelate spring or early summer, givethe most sensitive renderings.Photographs taken at Carriden,Linlithgowshire in 1945, clearlyrevealed the three ditches of afort under a crop of wheat ; thefollowing year, a grass cropshowed nothing.

Rotation of Clues

OFTEN the most satisfactoryresults are not to be obtain-ed unless observations are

made over a number of years.Only a proportion of agriculturalland will give results at any onetime ; rotation of crops will revealdifferent"clues".

Year after year the archaeolo-

gists returned to photograph theRoman camps at Dunblane,Scotland, and each time they gota more complete idea of just whatit looked like over a couple ofthousand years ago.

The extreme drought of 1949caused the plan of one corner ofthe 50-acre legionary fortress atInchtuthill, Perthshire, to appearin exceptional detail as parch-marks in rough grass. It reveal-ed that there would have beenrows of timber barracks arrangedin facing pairs. Not only themain walls, but also the internalpartitions of the barracks becameclear, forming a remarkablerecord of the plan of a timberfortress such as cannot at presentbe seen anywhere else throughoutthe territories that formed theRoman Empire.

Under the searching gaze ofthe air camera, even Stonehenge- one of the best known andmost studied monuments in theworld-had to reveal some of thesecrets it had kept from archaeo-logists for centuries.

The possibilities of aerialarchaeology are immense, andalready its discoveries cover allperiods between the New StoneAge and the present day. It is aninstrument of research of theutmost value in the study of man'ssocial development.

i(f'h% s copyright by lJr. J. 1\. S/JOBeplt,f"/lil'P/"-'i/y of (' (/m/J/irl ! JI'.)

A FORTRESS IS REVEALED.-Only an aerial photograph could show theshape of this ancient fort at Bonchester Hill (Roxburghshire), which was pro-

bably occupied from prehistoric times until the Roman era.

CEMETERY JUNCTION.-As day draws to a close, a striking picture istaken of these prehistoric tumuli near Lambourn (Berkshire). The junction

in the road is known as Seven Barrows (i. e. burial mounds).

THE ROMANS CAMPED HERE.-These remarkable foundations at ChewGreen (Northumberland) are located beside the main Roman road to Scotland.

In this wild piece of country Caesar's armies rested.

OCTOBER 1951 Page 9-UNESCO COURIER

STONEHENGE, the most famous megalithic monument in Great Britain, has been studied by archaeologists from all over the world. This aerial photo-graph shows the complexity of the memorial, whose construction extended over a long period. The view was taken from the east along the line of the ave-

., nue, which can be seen extending to the bottom right-hand corner of the picture.,....

ROMAN'RUNWAY'.-The archaeologist who went up to photograph arelic of 2, 000 years ago-a Roman road intersection which had been revealedby parch marks in the grass at Badbury Rings (Dorset)-was amazed

at its similarity to plane runways.

HADRIAN'S DEFENCE POST.-This view of the fort of Housesteads,with the wall and military road threading their way along the crags, is probablythe first single photograph to give the elements of the frontier scheme which

was based on Hadrian's Wall.

UNESCO COURtER-Pe) 0

AERIAL ARCHAEOLOGY

(continues)

CLUES TAO THE

HIDDEN PAST

The existence of this big henge"monument at Coupland (North-

umberland) was unknown untiltwo years ago when aerial pho-

tography revealed a striking dif-ference in the colour of the

vegetation. Yet this"clue"to amemorial that would have beenabout 280 ft in diameter couldnot be distinguished by an observ-er on the ground. In the same

way, details of an oval-shapedbuilding at Hutton Moor, York-shire, were revealed by the linesin a cereal harvest. It wouldhave been surrounded by a largeembankment and two moats-one inside it and the other out-side-which were cut by thetwo entrances. These are stri king

examples of the part aviation canplay in both archaeology andphysical geography. In the I 920's.aircraft revealed lost towns andcivilizations in Syria and Mesopo-tamia. A number of universities,

especially in France, use air pho-tographs in their studies of vol-canic areas, soil erosion and

geology. Recently, under theauspices of the United Nations.an international centre was set

up at Delft (Holland) to trainspecialists in the aerial explorationof regions whose resources were

insufficiently well known. Here,therefore, aerial photography issimu) taneous) yhetpinggeo ! ogists,

map-makers and agricukurists.(Photos copyright by J. K. St. Joseph)

OCTOBER 1951

OCTOBER 1951 Page II-UNESCO COURIER

ASPECTS OF SCIENCE

IN THE FRIGID REALMS

OF ABSOLUTE ZERO

THE human spirit thrives onj challenge, and scientists arehuman. Small wonder, then,

that experiments striving to obtaina knowledge of nature at extremeconditions attainable in the labo-ratory have always had a parti-cular fascination for manypioneers of science. So it has beenwith the attempts to examine andunderstand the behaviour ofmatter at extremely low tempe-ratures. The struggle to attainthe absolute zero is the laboratorycounterpart of the fight to reachthe poles of the earth or to scaleEverest, but with one difference :The physicist knows from the startthat his attempt will be in vain.

What do we mean by the abso-lute zero of temperature ? Modernscience has established beyond alldoubt the notion that"tempera-ture"is merely a rneasure of theceaseless, frenzied dance of themolecules of which all matter iscomposed-the"minute vibratorymotion of the particles of bodies"in the words of Newton. Heatingan object means giving its myriadmolecules a higher average speed,cooling it means reducing theirspeed. While there is no apparentupper limit to temperatures attain-able in the universe (the centreof a hot. star is probably at about40, 000, 000 degrees), there is atheoretically fixed lowest tempe-rature-the absolute zero-whereall molecular motion would cease.To attain this condition, the wholeof the chaotic movement of themolecules would have to be stilled.

The Air Turns Blue

WATER freezes at 0 degreesCentigrade (32 degrees onthe Fahrenheit scale) ;"dry

ice", or solid carbon dioxide is at73 degrees below the Centigradezero (-100 deg. F.) ; by compres-sing it and then removing heat bymeans of flowing water, ordinaryair can be converted into a bluishliquid at-183 deg. C (-300 deg.F. The absolute zero would fallat-273 deg. C., or--460 deg. F.Scientists have not quite attainedit in practice-and there are goodtheoretical indications that theynever will-although they havecome within a few thousandths of

Low-temperature research is one of the mostfascinating frontiers of modern-day physics.It has brought about such things as householdrefrigeration and the mass production ofliquefied gases, used for liquid-fuel rocketsand supersonic aeroplanes. liquid hydrogenmay also be important in future experimentsin interplanetary rocket propulsion. Drawingshows a helium refrigerator which maintainsfull tanks of liquefied-gas propellants for use

in rocket experimentation.

Research in low-temperature physics hasincreased at a striking rate since the end ofthe last war with the development of a heliumliquefier devised by Prof. S. C. Collins of theMassachusetts Institute of Technology. Withthis apparatus (alongside) it is possible toproceed directly from the temperature of coldtap water to that of liquid helium, without theaid of special cooling agents such as liquidhydrogen or liquid air. Whereas prior to 1946only two U. S. laboratories were doing lowtemperature research, there are now over threedozen such laboratories and a score in severalother countries. (Photo Arthur D. Little Inc.).

by Ira M. Freeman

a degree of this mark. This theydo by starting with liquid helium,which is only about 4 deg. C. aboveabsolute zero.

Cotton Gets Dangerous

EARLY in the last centuryMichael Faraday, the Englishexperimental genius, first

succeeded in changing an appa-rently"permanent"gas, chlorine,to the liquid form ; by the end ofthe century oxygen, nitrogen andhydrogen had been liquefied allow-ing experimenters to reach aslow as 20 deg. above the absolutezero. Helium, the last hold-outamong the gases, yielded tofl. Kamerlingh Onnes, working atthe famous low-temperature labo-ratory in Leyden, in 1908. Bymaking liquid helium evaporaterapidly, Onnes reached down towithin a single degree of the abso-lute zero. From this jumping-offpoint, modern methods makinguse of magnetism can chill sam-ples of matter to within perhaps0. 001 deg. Modifications now in theplanning stage carry the promiseof narrowing the gap to aboutone-millionth of a degree, but theexperimental difficulties are for-midable.

The last few degrees of the ther-mometric range are of tremendous.interest to science, because in thisregion matter behaves in quiteunexpected and puzzling ways.Already at liquid-air temperature,peculiar things happen. Rubberbecomes as brittle as glass, andshatters in thousands of pieces ifdropped on the noor. Cotton that, has been immersed in liquid airexplodes like gunpowder whenlighted with a match. Thesethings are demonstrated in schoolscience laboratories.

However, one of the most inte-resting phenomena is that ofsuper-conductivity, shown by anumber of metals when broughtto within a few degrees of absolutezero. A weak current of electri-city is passed through a wire ofthe metal. Then, as the tempe-rature is lowered, a critical point

i. s reached where the metal ceasesto oppose the flow of the currentaltogether. Under these condi-tions, if the current is merelystarted and the battery then dis-connected, the current will con-tinue to flow virtually for ever.Equally curious things happen withrespect to the magnetic behaviourof metals in the weird lowerreaches of the thermometric scale.Since many practical electricaldevices involve magnets and elect-rical coils, the possibilities fore-shadowed by these discoveries arebeing watched with great interestby engineers.

. Zero'Brings Warmth

BUT the most anomalous andenigmatic behaviour of all isshown by the very substance

that enables us to descend to thelowest levels of temperature-li-quid helium. By rapidly pumpingaway the vapour rising from thisliquid, its temperature can belowered to little more than twodeg. above absolute zero. At thispoint its behaviour becomes likethat of no other known liquid. Itfinds its way with ease throughthe smallest of holes. It furtherresists attempts at confinement bycreeping up the sides of its con-tainer, to escape over the rim.

Again, this coldest of all liquidsis, paradoxically, a remarkableconductor of heat. When one sideof a vessel containing liquidhelium is warmed, a surge of heatis rapidly conveyed to the otherside. From the analogy with thetransmission of sound wavesthrough the air, the Russian ex-perimenters who first noticed thisphenomenon called it"secondsound."Although a general in-terpretation of these unique obser-vations can be given in terms ofthe quantum theory (see theCourier for November, 1950>, thereis undoubtedly much yet to bediscovered in the frigid realm ofthe absolute zero.

Readers desiring a free copy ofa brief bibliography on Low Tem-perature Physics should write to theDivision for the Popularization ofScience, Unesco, 19, Avenue X ! eber,PARIS <16'), France.

Most of us are familiar with two differ-ent scales of temperature and twodefinitions of zero : Fahrenheit andCentigrade. Scientists, however, havebeen working for some time with a third :the Kelvin or Absolute Zero scale.The three scales more or less reflectthe history of man's understanding ofheat and cold. Gabriel Daniel Fahren-heit, the German physicist who manu-factured meteorological instruments, setzero at the lowest temperature he couldthen obtain by freezing a mixture. Onthis scale"absolute zero"is-459. 6degrees F. In 1742, six yeafs afterFahrenheit's death, the Swedish astro-nomer Anders Celsius proposed a newscale with the freezing point of water atnormal atmospheric pressure as zeroand its boiling point as 100. This scale,usually called Centigrade, was officiallyrenamed the Celsius Scale four yearsago by an International Conference onWeights and Measures In Paris. Sincethe abbreviation C. is retained, thechange Is not too important for thelayman. On the Centigrade or Celsiusscale, absolute zero is-273. 16 degrees C.Both the Fahrenheit and Celsius scalesare essentially arbitrary, like the kilo-gram, the pound, the mile or the metre.In 1848, with the increase in low-tem-perature research, the British scientistLord Kelvin proposed his"absolute"scale. This retained the Celsius degreebut shifted zero to the lowest tempera-ture imaginable (the total immobilityof mo ! ecuies). Absolute zero, therefore,is zero degrees in the Kelvin scale, whichis usually abbreviated K. The abovethermometer shows significant tempera-tures in respect to the absolute zeroin the Kelvin scale. Thus water isshown, as boiling at +373 degrees K.and freezing at +273 degrees K. Allother figures are indicated in the Kelvinscale and can be converted to the Cen-tigrade or Celsius scale by subtracting273 degrees.

AFTER FAHRENHEIT

AND CENTIGRADE :

THE KELVIN SCALE

TEMPORARY HOME

FOR UNITED NATIONS

GENERAL ASSEMBLY

For the secondtime in three yearsFrance is to be thehost nation to theUnited NationsGeneral Assembly,whose sixth ses-sion is scheduled

to open in Paris, at the Palais de ChaiHot, on November 6. It washere, on December 10, 1948, that the United Nations General Assem-bly adopted the historic Universal Declaration of Human Rights.This year it is significant that the Assembly, again meeting inParis, will have on its agenda a draft International Covenant onHuman Rights which will ultimately give force to the prin-

ciples enshrined in the Universal Declaration. Through experiencegained in meeting the needs of the-1J48 meetings, the FrenchGovernment is putting up additional temporary buildings to housethe Conference and Secretariat working areas. The EifTeI Tower,as this photograph shows, will make an impressive backgroundto these new 5-storey prefabricated buildings, so designed thatthey can be taken down after lht'Conf"rence and re-erecledelsewhere. The United Nations Secretariat for the Conferencewill comprise some 1, 300 persons while delegations will numberapproximately 1, 000. Plenary Sessions of the Assembly will beheld in the Theatre of the Palais de Chaillot which has been con-verted to provide simultaneous interpretation in the five officialUnited Nations languages. Next mar, the permanent Assemblybuilding at U. N. Headquarters in New York is expected to he read-.