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Full text of "Total Liberation - David Naguib

Pellow.pdf (PDFy mirror"

TOTALLIBERATION

The Powerand Promiseof Animal Rightsand theRadical EarthMovement

David Nagui Pellow

Total Lieration

This !age delieratel" left lan#$

Total Lieration

The Power and Promise of Animal Rightsand the Radical Earth Movement

David Nagui Pellow

%NI&ER'IT( O) MINNE'OTA PRE''

MINNEAPOLI' * LONDON

Portions of the oo# will a!!ear in David N$ Pellow and +o%ie N"sethBrehm, -)rom the New Ecological Paradigm to Total Lieration.The Emergence of a 'ocial Movement )rame,- The 'ociological /uarterl"0forthcoming1$

https://archive.org/details/pdfy-SXe3WuQmbCt5ihd3https://archive.org/details/pdfy-SXe3WuQmbCt5ihd3https://archive.org/details/pdfy-SXe3WuQmbCt5ihd3https://archive.org/details/pdfy-SXe3WuQmbCt5ihd3


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Areviations i;

Preface ;iii

Ac#nowledgments ;;i

Introduction. All O!!ression Is Lin#ed i

5 Never A!ologiCe for (our Rage. Radical Origins

and OrganiCing 3?

3 ustice for the Earth and All Its Animals >5

? Anarchism and Antica!italism. Lieration fromovernment and Mar#et 7?

6 Direct Action. 2onfrontation, 'aotage, and

Pro!ert" Destruction 53<

8 The reen 'care. 'tate Re!ression of LierationMovements 5>?

> Resisting the reen 'care 355

2onclusion. Piecing It Together 368

Notes 387

Biliogra!h" 378

Inde; ?58


Areviations

AEDPA

Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalt" Act

AEPA

Animal Enter!rise Protection Act


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AETA

Animal Enter!rise Terrorism Act

AETA6

four activists charged under the AETA

AIM

American Indian Movement

ALE2

American Legislative E;change 2ouncil

AL)

Animal Lieration )ront

AMA

American Medical Association

AN2

African National 2ongress

APO2

Anarchist Peo!le of 2olor

AR

Animal Rights

AR2


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2M%

2ommunications Management %nit

2OINTELPRO

2ounter Intelligence Program

2OF

2hallenging O!!ression Fithin

2'L2

2old 'na! Legal 2ollective

DR

Dee! reen Resistance

i;

G Areviations

5 " && &&

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5 " &:55 5 il 5 2ll i L && &O L&i 5 i && v:i 5 &l & iv9 &&

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)orth )irst@

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E)er


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c!riPtir@al Iv tnonifi!ntiv$9i9i9v$i$9i9v$ciii " iiiv:viiiiv&A

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!!n!tiral Iv mnnifi!n oroHani@Hm

=

rou! of Eight nations

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+'%'

+umane 'ociet" of the %nited 'tates

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Gllllllit2l2l LGv:5 i 2ll i&l IGO L v:5 llO 5 @ i il v:i &9&lGG&Gl 2

IDA

In Defense of Animals

IRA

Irish Re!ulican Arm"


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IFF

Tnniistriiil HH2Hrlc!rs of tn! HHf:nrln

GGG&$%$O L; ;d; && v"; ivH; o w; Liiv9 vv wi i vi

TTT)

oint Terrorism Tas# )orce

LBT/

lesian, ga", ise;ual, transgender, cueer

M)D

MaCama )orest Defenders

MNDOT

Hlinnesota De!artment of Trans!ortation

M'%

IviHirni!an 'tat! T niv!riitv

G v;;w;i;iicLi 5 Sf ud uv G GG & v; o G L "

NAA2P

Natinnal Aiinriatinn fnr tn! Anvanr!m!nt nf 0@olor!n P!nnl!

G @IdLl&HlGdG 5 GOO&H&@Gd LG&HIG G&HG LGG& G G&G & dl G&@&G IG&l G I$ &HG

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Nlnrtn Am!riran Animal T in!ratinn Pr!@i@ 0irnf!

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NAEL)PO

Norm American Eartri Lieration )ront Press %ince

NA)TA

North American )ree Trade Agreement

NARN

Northwest Animal Rights Networ#

NEP

New Ecological Paradigm

Areviations ;i

NFL)

New HH0Hrlci LieraHtion )ront

N(PD

New (or# Police De!artment

P2RM

Ph"sicians 2ommittee for Res!onsile Medicine

PETA

Peo!le for the Ethical TTreatment of Animals

PO2LAD


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Program on 2or!orations, Law, and Democrac"

R29ALB

R!vniiitinna rv i !II@ Animal T in!ral@lon Rricrari!

RRR

Rriiinri Riv!r R!nnP


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'+A2<

'to! +untingdon Animal 2ruelt" im!risoned activists

'LAPP

*strat!oHir lawsuit@s a!ainHt niinlir nartirinatinn

o L; 2L L&9ti9Gv9 G2I&&OI$GLO 2I t,-G;;o l lvu$l@;;w l


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%'PIR

%nited 'tates Pulic Interest Research rou!

FAR

Fin Animal Rights

FTO

Forld Trade OrganiCation


Preface

I egan this stud" in 344= with the goal of understanding how radicalenvironmental and animal lieration activists see# to effect change, !ar9ticularl" in the face of state and cor!orate re!ression$ I conducted onehundred semi9structured interviews and e;tensive fieldwor# at confer9ences, activist gatherings, meetings, and other related !ulic events0which involved hundreds of additional informal conversations withactivists1 and !erformed e;haustive content anal"ses of thousands of!ages of newsletters, magaCines, ournals, wesites, and Cines !roduced" activists$ Overall, the three com!onents interviews, fieldwor#, anddocument anal"sis offer an o!!ortunit" to triangulate sources of evi9dence to !rovide a more com!lete !resentation of the data$

I egan " identif"ing #e" organiCations, grou!s, and individuals withinthe radical environmental and animal rights movements, as ac#nowl9edged in oth academic and activist literature 0I freuentl" use -animalrights- and -animal lieration- interchangeal"1$@ Im!ortantl", I onl"considered grou!s -radical- if the" sought to effect change at the root of!erceived !rolems rather than reform the s"stem$ Fhile mainstreamgrou!s see# reform and wor# within the current !olitical and regulator"s"stem, radical grou!s attem!t to disru!t and transform the s"stem more

directl", though in !ractice some grou!s su!!ort a comination of e;tra9legal and legal a!!roaches to change 0see !$ 8= for a discussion of theselaels and the continuum in which the" fall1$ 'ome of the core grou!sI identified include Earth )irst, Earth Lieration )ront 0EL)1, 'ea 'he!9herd 2onservation 'ociet", Animal Lieration )ront 0AL)1, 'to! +unt9ingdon Animal 2ruelt" 0'+A21, and Peo!le for the Ethical Treatment

;iii


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;iv Preface

of Animals 0PETA1, although man" interviewees came from smaller localor regionall" ased grou!s and informal collectives that are less well#nown$ Additionall", I interviewed a small sam!le of memers of severalmainstream animal rights and environmental organiCations, a small sam9!le of #e" memers of historicall" relevant movements that have heavil"influenced contem!orar" radical environmental and animal lierationactivists 0e$g$$ Blac# Panther Part", Blac# Lieration Arm", and PuertoRican Inde!endence movements1, as well as numerous activist attorne"swor#ing with environmental and animal rights grou!s and individuals$

I used res!ondent9driven and re!utation sam!ling to locate interview9ees$ I chose to em!lo" a semi9structured interview techniue that allowedfor standardiCed uestions "et fle;iilit" in answers and elaorations$

'i;t"9nine interviewees identified as men, and thirt"9one identified aswomen, a reflection of the fact that man" of these organiCations are male9dominated$ Peo!le whom m" research team and I interviewed for this!roect came from AriCona, southern and northern 2alifornia, )lorida,Illinois, Minnesota, Mar"land, Missouri, Montana, New (or#, Oregon,Tennessee, Te;as, %tah, Fashington, D$2$, Fashington 'tate, and Fest&irginia$

In an effort to gain a dee!er understanding of the movements andensure I was interviewing a wide range of !artici!ants, m" research teamand I also attended several environmental and animal rights conferences,and maor events in the %nited 'tates, including the Their Lives Our&oices conference, the Let Live conference, the Earth )irst Roadshow,the Trans and Fom"n@s Action 2am! 0TFA21, and the Earth )irstRound River RendeCvous$ I also attended man" smaller gatherings, wor#9sho!s, and events organiCed " activists in several cities$ At each event Iattended !anel sessions and discussions, oserved, and interviewed !ar9tici!ants$ )ieldwor# at some events even necessitated cam!ing in forestsand digging latrines$

I also conducted content anal"ses of each organiCation@s wesite,which included ut was not limited to their organiCational histor", theirmission, their activities and actions$ )urthermore, I acuired and codedco!ies of movement newsletters, where availale$ I also collected andanal"Ced hard co!ies of all handouts given out at the events attended$ Iengaged in a !rocess of o!en coding to discover #e" themes in the data$Once I identified themes, I focused the coding to allow !atterns in the

data to emerge$H

Preface ;v

)ollowing Ri# 'carce, one of the !reeminent scholars of radical envi9ronmental movements, at times I rel" heavil" on the Earth )irst ournal


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-ecause it remains a crossroads vehicle for communication within themovement generall"$ In an" given issue of the ournal, one is li#el" toread not onl" aout Earth )irst actions ut those " the Animal Liera9tion )ront 0AL)1, the Earth Lieration )ront 0EL)1, the 'ea 'he!herds,and " grassroots environmental activists around the !lanet$-H I wouldadd that one is also li#el" to read aout actions " Indigenous and !eo!leof color movements in the %nited 'tates and around the gloe fightingenvironmental racism and im!erialism and for !olitical !risoners from arange of social causes$

Academia as a '!ace of Lieration and Re!ression

+ere I !resent a somewhat !ersonal e;!loration of the wa"s that m"research for this oo# !rovided me with a firsthand e;!erience with statere!ression$ I ofiHer this material not to suggest that m" case is !articularl"im!ortant, ut rather as a wa" of eing trans!arent aout the wa" this!roect was sha!ed not onl" " m" oservations and interviews withearth and animal lieration activists ut also " the o!erations of thestate institutions that see# to contain them and occasionall" those schol9ars stud"ing them$

Angana 2hatteri is a scholar9activist and colleague of mine who onceencouraged me to thin# of sustainale #nowledge as a necessar" founda9tion for the develo!ment of sustainale communities$ That is, #nowl9edge must e !roduced not ust for !rofit or !ersonal gain, ut also forthe !ur!oses of nurturing all memers of societ" and the ecos"stemsu!on which we de!end$ That reuires uilding relationshi!s and institu9tions that are committed to democrac" and social and environmentalustice$ I have tried to #ee! that in mind ever" da" since she s!o#e thosewords at an environmental ustice conference at the %niversit" of Mich9igan in 3443$ Lin#ing 2hatteri@s !oint to the role of social movements,sociologists Ron E"erman and Andrew amison write.

A social movement is not one organiCation or one !articular s!ecial interestgrou!$ It is more li#e a cognitive territor", a new conce!tual s!ace that isfilled" a d"namic interaction etween difl)erent grou!s and organiCations$ $ $ $It is !recisel" in the creation, articulation, formulation of new thoughts andideas new #nowledge that a social movement defines itself in societ"$J

;vi Preface

In other words, social movements are not ust driven and made !ossi9

le " a !assion for change, ut " the develo!ment of ideas$ The !owerof ideas is something scholars have long een aware oQ More than acentur" efore E"erman and amison came along, arl Mar; and )ried9rich Engels reminded us. -The ideas of the ruling class are, in ever" age,the ruling ideas. i$e$, the class which is the dominant material force insociet" is at the same time its dominant intellectual force$-@ In otherwords, ideas matter in !olitics and societ", and !recisel" ecause elitessee# to control the contours and content of ideas in !ulic circulation,social movements are some of the most im!ortant forces for the creationand a!!lication of new and transformative #nowledge$ Fhile ever"one


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!roduces #nowledge and theor", it is the o of scholars to do this ever"da", in our teaching, research, and writing$ Of !articular im!ortance arethe roles of activist9scholars, ecause the" are among the man" grou!s of!ersons whose o it is to !roduce and communicate alternative andcounterhegemonic #nowledge in an" societ"$ Man" activist9scholars wor#in solidarit" with social change efforts inside and outside the academ"$Not sur!risingl" then, oth activist9scholars and social movements withwhich the" ma" e lin#ed freuentl" ecome targets of state re!ression$

The Daven!ort rand ur"

On Novemer 5$ DeMuth !leaded guilt" to a lesser

Preface ;vii

offense associated onl" with the 344> case and was sentenced to fivemonths in federal !rison$ +is colleague 2arrie )eldman s!ent fourmonths in ail on contem!t of court, since she also refused to tal# to thegrand ur" aout the %niversit" of Iowa case$ 'he was released in March3454$

In a motion to the udge see#ing a revocation of 'cott DeMuth@s releasefrom ail 0related to the contem!t charge1, Assistant %$'$ 'tate@s Attorne"2lifford 2ron# wrote. -Defendant@s writings, literature, and conductsuggest that he is an anarchist and associated with the AL) movement$Therefore, he is a domestic terrorist$- In other words, DeMuth@s ideasand eliefs, his constitutionall" !rotected !olitical activities 0such as vol9

unteering with an eco!olitical !risoner su!!ort grou! in the Twin 2it9ies1, and his alleged affiliations were sufficient for the state to rand hima -terrorist$- 'everal %niversit" of Minnesota graduate students launcheda su!!ort grou! for DeMuth 0and later other scholars under siege1 called'cholars for Academic ustice, and man" scholars from around the%nited 'tates and internationall" s!o#e out in su!!ort of DeMuth andsigned a !etition we !osted on line$ 'cott DeMuth released a statementregarding his decision to adhere to strict research ethics, which foradehim from s!ea#ing to a grand ur".


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As !art of m" academic career, I have een involved in researching theanimal rights and environmental movements and interviewing !artici!antsof those movements$ The identit" and contents of interviews are !rotected" confidentialit" agreements, and I have an oligation to this confidenti9alit" $ $ $ ecause grand ur" !roceedings are held in secret, there is norealwa" to verif" if I had onl" given m" name or if I had given awa" the iden9tit" and contents of each interview I have done$ Therefore, if for no otherreason, I elieved that m" !artici!ation would violate the trust and confi9dentialit" of those who I have interviewed$ I went to Daven!ort $ $ $ #now9ing that I could e ailed for contem!t of court, and I was willing to dealwith whatever legal conseuences came with that decision$H

DeMuth@s words reveal the inherent conflict etween governmentcoercion in such investigations and academic freedom$ %nfortunatel",the federal government did not sto! with him$ The )BI soon contactedme for information aout DeMuth and aout m" own research on earthand animal lieration movements$

;viii Preface

On the advice of law"ers and activists, I maintained m" resolve not tos!ea# to the authorities$ I was also concerned that m" own universit"might not offer me the #ind of su!!ort I would need to withstand a grandur" investigation, should it come to that$ The %niversit" of Minnesotahas an inglorious histor" regarding academic freedom going ac# at leastto 575< when 0during the anti9erman h"steria of Forld Far I1 theRegents fired !olitical science !rofessor Filliam 'cha!er for allegedl"eing -a raid !ro9erman- who was unwilling -to aid the %nited 'tatesin the !resent war$-J

Accordingl", I too# new !recautions$ M" research team egan usingnon9universit" e9mail communications in order to conduct usinessrelated to m" research !roect 0which was ironic ecause it is universit"usiness1$ This was done s!ecificall" when we made an" mention ofresearch !artici!ants, interviews, or the sharing of transcri!tions for cod9ing and record #ee!ing$ Fe did so ecause we elieved there was a rea9sonale !roailit" that our communications were eing monitored,and we sought to !rotect our research !artici!ants and their !rivac", aswell as the !rivac" of colleagues, cowor#ers, and student em!lo"ees$ Ialso decided to move the !roect@s !a!er archives to an off9site location, onthe advice of m" attorne", who made it clear that the authorities couldraid m" universit" or home office at an" time and remove materials for

scrutin" and return them at their leisure 0if at all1$

Then on une 5=, 3454, the De!artment of ustice as#ed the %niver9sit" of Minnesota@s +uman Research Protection Program for a co!" ofall human suects materials related to m" research !roect on environ9mental and animal rights activists$ This included m" interview uestion9naire and rationale for conducting research on this to!ic and variousuniversit" forms that would ensure the !rotection of m" research !ar9tici!ants$ The universit" informed me that the" would com!l" with thereuest and sent the information out !rom!tl"$ The De!artment of us9


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tice letter reads in !art. -The information we are reuesting includes,ut is not limited to, the stud" file, the a!!lication for the research !ro9ect, along with documentation to su!!ort the !lan, and the names of the!artici!ants in the !roect$- That last !art aout !artici!ants was wor9risome, ecause while onl" I !ossessed that information, I had !ledgedto hold it in confidence 0as reuired " m" !rofessional association@scode of ethics1$ 'ince the %niversit" of Minnesota is a !ulic institution,much of what is contained in the file is asicall" !ulic information$

Preface ;i;

+owever, the universit" informed me that the" would delete the namesof students and em!lo"ees wor#ing with me on the !roect, so that !rivac"would e !reserved$ As 'cott DeMuth had een wor#ing on the !roectwith me since earlier that "ear 034541, it a!!eared that this was a continu9ation of ongoing efforts to e;!lore !ossile connections etween him

and an" activists that we ma" or ma" not have interviewed for the stud"Ri# 'carce@s case is !erha!s the most infamous with regard to scholarsstud"ing animal and earth lieration movements$ +e is a !rofessor ofsociolog" at '#idmore 2ollege and a noted e;!ert on radical social move9ments$ +e is also the author of the classic oo# Eco9Farriors$ 'carces!ent five months in ail for contem!t of court when he refused to tes9tif" to a grand ur" in 5774 regarding an investigation of an unsolvedrea#9in at an animal research and testing la$ +e refused to testif" onthe grounds that his confidentialit" agreements associated with academicresearch !rotected him and his research !artici!ants ust as shield lawsdo for ournalists$ According to 'carce, u! until the time his own casemade headlines, the American 'ociological Association had !erha!s themost roust code of ethics of an" academic association 0which is not allthat great, considering that as of this writing, the American EconomicsAssociation has no code of ethics regarding !rotection of research !ar9tici!ants1$ )or e;am!le, section 55$ 4501 of the A'A 2ode of Ethics readsin !art.

2onfidential information !rovided " research !artici!ants, students,em!lo"ees, clients, or others is treated as such " sociologists even if thereis no legal !rotection or !rivilege to do so$ 'ociologists have an oligationto !rotect confidential information and not allow information gained inconfidence from eing used in wa"s that would unfairl" com!romise research!artici!ants, students, em!lo"ees, clients, or others$

This would seem to offer the strongest !ossile !rotection for scholarsand their research !artici!ants in the event of a coercive move " author9

ities to see# the identities or other !articulars of research informants$%nfortunatel", according to Ri# 'carce, soon after his case hit the news,the A'A 0with the vote of its national memershi!1 amended its code toadd 'ection 55$430a1, which reads. -'ociologists inform themselves full"aout all laws and rules which ma" limit or alter guarantees of confidential9it" and, as a!!ro!riate, inform research !artici!ants, students, em!lo"ees$

GG Preface


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clients or others of an" limitations to this guarantee at the outset$- Thisamendment had the clear effect of undoing the !rotections offered in the!revious section of the code, and 'carce was understandal" furious thatthis change sustantiall" wea#ened the code as well as the !rotectionssociologists can offer research !artici!ants$@

Inde!endent of the mi;ed messages from m" !rofessional association the A'A I chose not to coo!erate with federal authorities for a numerof reasons$ Aside from the clear historical documented evidence that the)BI has done its est to destro" nearl" ever" freedom movement that Ihave ever researched, taught aout, and su!!orted, the real issues hereare ensuring the !rotection of our stud" !artici!ants !articularl" thosewho reuested anon"mit" 0a small !ercentage of m" sam!le1, ensuringour ailit" to do future research and grant !artici!ants the right to con9fidentialit", and standing u! for the integrit" and future of the socialsciences$ The names of interviewees who did not reuest anon"mit" are!rinted in this oo#, ut to give their names and an" other information

to the authorities outside of the !arameters of m" research !lans woulde an ethical violation$ If the authorities can force an" scholar to give u!their records and the names of research !artici!ants, man" !eo!le wouldsensil" choose not to !artici!ate in future research studies, !otentiall"threatening the intellectual foundation of entire fields of #nowledge$

The %nited 'tates has a long and trouling histor" of silencing anddisci!lining academics whose research and teaching em!hasiCe the im9!ortance of collective efforts to effect radical social change$ In recent"ears,!rofessors stud"ing various !eo!les@ movements have een censored,demoted, fired, and ailed here in the %nited 'tates$@- This is an issue ofacademic freedom, and I elieve other scholars and the !ulic shouldsu!!ort such !eo!le ecause of the im!ortance of the #ind of wor# thesescholars do for rethin#ing our histor" and for reimagining what #ind offutures we can create for ourselves$

Ac#nowledgments

Numerous !eo!le contriuted to this oo# in innumerale wa"s, and Iam forever grateful to them. +o%ie N"seth Brehm, m" !rimar" researchassistant on this !roect and an e;traordinar" colleague and collaorator'cott DeMuth, m" research assistant, colleague, and !artner in crime

'te!hanie Burgess for transcriing countless interviews and conferencerecordings, and for hel!ing me thin# through some of the most criticalideas and conundrums that ve;ed me during the !rocess of researchingthis !roect atherine rueele and 'erge" Berg for their tireless tran9scri!tion and other #e" contriutions Miles 'wammi, Ellen 'chnee9erger, Fahutu 'iguru, and Dean 'elimovic for their critical researchassistance m" wonderful colleagues 0staff, facult", and students1 at the%niversit" of Minnesota@s De!artment of 'ociolog", including Michaeloldman, 2hris %ggen, Doug +artmann, LiC Bo"le, 2awo Adi, Rachel'churman, Teresa owan, Ron AminCade, Lisa 'un9+ee Par#, osh


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Page, Mar" Drew, +ilda Mor#, +o%is 'chnoonover, errie Deef, andAnn Miller ane Rhodes, L"nn +udson, Leslie B"ster, us '!eth, ohnPassacantando, Phil Radford, igar 'hah, the reen!eace %'A Boardof Directors and staff, Michelle Brown, Paul ellert, Roert Emmettones, Dama"anti Baneree, Asafa alata and the %niversit" of TennesseeDe!artment of 'ociolog", oni Adamson, Bill leason, Patric# Mc2ull"and the International Rivers Board of Directors and staff, Ann Faltnerand the facult" and staff of the %niversit" of Minnesota@s Institute forAdvanced 'tud" 0Efe l"ame, Ph"llis Messenger, 'usannah 'mith, Michaelaudio, (olanda Padilla, Ni#hil Anand, ath" /uic#, aren inoshita,Emil" Tuman, 'haden Tageldin, ar" ro%, Ra"'chultC, Murat Altun,

;;i

;;ii Ac#nowledgments

Fen"i uo, Ming"an Tang, 'haron )ischlowitC1, Louis MendoCa, the%niversit" of Minnesota Institute for Diversit", Euit", and Advocac"0IDEA1, Orrin Fil%ams, Isaelle Anguelovs#i, evin &an Meter, Nanc"+erther for eing a world9class lirarian$ Autumn 2avender9Filson,Bron Ta"lor, (uichiro Onishi, Ri# 'carce, Barara Ann Nimis 0for eingan amaCing attorne" and good friend1, and Fill Potter 0for su!!ort andguidance throughout1 m" colleagues at %niversit" of Minnesota Press.ason Feidemann, for cultivating and su!!orting this !roect earl" on,and Richard Morrison and Doug Armato for their enthusiasm 'tu 'ug9arman$ Luce uillen9ivens, 2arrie )eldman, 2laude Mar#s, $ Ton"'erra, Ricardo imeneC, arrett )itCgerald, Roert 2Cerni#, ude OrtiC,Donn", Panagioti, ohn Bellam" )oster, ari Norgaard, Odette Fil#ins,Anthon" Nocella and the Arissa Media rou! 2ollective 0im 'ocha,Rose Brewer, FaCi"atawin, Drew Finters, Matthew +ernandeC, 'arat2olling, and Travis 'tearns1, the Earth )irst ournal Editorial 2ollective,Earth Farriors are O 0EFO1, 'cholars for Academic ustice 0riss"+altinner, Ra!hi Rechits#", Meg rausch, Andrea 'trano1, the 'cott and2arrie 'u!!ort 2ommittee, the MAR' 2ollective at the Minnehaha )ree'!ace for !roviding me with a su!!ortive communit" of anarchists whoshared their #nowledge and ho!es for a etter world scott crow, 2ourt9ne" Bell for eing a shar! student who instantl" got the lin# etweenradical ecological !olitics and the !henomenon of racial deviance, ane2urran and Letta Fren Page 0a#a the argon 'la"er1 for their !henomenalwor# editing this !roect$ Rod )erguson, eorge +enderson, and BruceBraun$ )inall", I than# m" !arents for their instructive lessons on how

to alance scholarshi! with commitment in ho!es of oth causing andavoiding troule$

INTROD%2TION

All O!!ression Is Lin#ed


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Animal lieration is the ultimate freedom movement, the -final frontier$-

Roin Fe, British AL) Press Officer, in 'teven Best and

Anthon" Nocella II, Terrorists or )reedom )ightersH Reflections on theLieration of Animals

Fe should alwa"s e war" of tal#ing of -the last remaining form ofdiscrimination$-

Peter 'inger, Animal Lieration. A New Ethics for Our Treatment of Animals

A usiness card$ +ow innocuous$ But when it@s the usiness card of an)BI s!ecial agent, sli!!ed nonchalantl" into "our mailo; at wor# m"mailo; at wor# it ta#es on a little e;tra heft$ That morning in A!ril34I4, I was !rett" sure what the agent wanted to tal# aout, ut a staffmemer@s note -Re. student- ac#ed u! m" sus!icions, as did the voice

mail that greeted me when I got to m" office at the %niversit" of Min9nesota, where I am a !rofessor of sociolog"$ The agent reiterated that he@dli#e to interview me and as#ed that I return his call$ Instead, I calledlaw"ers and activists$ Two da"s later, I received a message on m" home!hone. -I@d li#e to as# "ou a cou!le of uestions aout one of "our stu9dents "ou are the advisor for at the %, 'cott DeMuth$ I@d li#e to as# "oua cou!le of uestions aout the research that "ou do and the researchthat he does for "ou$-

M" research, since 344=, has included a focus on radical ecologicalmovements$ Man" movements egin with a grievance or a critiue, utwhat sustains them and !ushes !eo!le out into the streets 0or under9ground1 is often a vision, a dream of something etter$ In other words,movements are driven and sustained " ideas$@ This oo# is aout the!ower of ideas and how movements for social change are some of themost im!ortant intellectual forces in societ"$ That !ers!ective a!!lies to

I

3 Introduction

ever" other movement I have studied and researched, taught m" studentsaout, and su!!orted or o!!osed$ That hst includes the movements forenvironmental ustice$ Indigenous sovereignt", women@s rights, humanrights, laor rights, racial ustice, slaver" aolition, and radical environ9mental and animal lieration$

In the !ages that follow, I e;!lore the origins and social significanceof the earth and animal lieration movements and consider how the"s!ea# to and gra!!le with uestions of social change, ineualit", andre!ression$ I do so " elaorating on what I call the -total lieration-


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framewor# and reveal how its adherents a!!roach issues of hierarch",state violence, and ca!italism, and how the" wor# to challenge the inter9twined crises of ecos"stem decline, nonhuman s!ecies e;!loitation ande;tinction, and human o!!ression$ Those challenges range from articu9lations of visions of another world to veral and written !rotests, anddirect action targeting individuals, institutions, and ideas that !er!etuatesocioecological ineualities$ Predictal", those actions have caught theattention of government and cor!orate leaders, resulting in a forcefulres!onse that has included surveillance, infiltration, wireta!!ing, harass9ment, entra!ment, ail or !rison time, and new legislation targeting thesemovements$ I consider the im!lications of state and cor!orate re!ressionfor these movements and for the future of civil lierties and other free9dom struggles and what this all means for the uncomfortale, underl"9ing truths that must e confronted to address ineualit" in all of itsmanifestations$ )ortunatel", m" discomforting encounter with the )BInever went e"ond their re!eated reuests for information and m" refusalto s!ea# with them$ Other activists and scholars have not een so luc#"$

Radical Movements and Radical Ideas

In ul" of 344I, Earth Lieration )ront 0EL)1 activists nailed metals!i#es into hundreds of trees in the ifford Pinchot National )orest 0inFashington 'tate1$ The" were !rotesting the %$'$ )orest 'ervice@s deci9sion to sell the trees to a timer com!an"$ Activists sent a communiueto several media outlets that read, in !art.

This timer sale contains 77 acres of old growth and is home to at least ?!airs of s!otted owls, griCCl" ear, l"n;, wolf, goshaw#, ust to name a fewof its man" inhaitants$ This is trul" a eautiful area, unfortunatel" one ofthe last of its #ind ecause of the s"stem we all live under$ Fe want to e

Introduction ?

clear that all o!!ression is lin#ed, ust as we are all lin#ed, and we elievein a diversit" of tactics to sto! earth ra!e and end all domination$ Togetherwe can destro" this !atriarchal mHlmC, which is currentl" in the form oftechno9industrial gloal ca!italismV

The emergence of the Earth and Animal Lieration )ronts 0EL) andAL)1 in the %nited 'tates in the 57=4s and 5774s mar#ed a new stage inthe evolution of ecological !olitics in the countr"$H This moment was!unctuated " a discourse of radical anal"sis and action rarel" seen inenvironmental or animal rights movements !reviousl"$ B" the late 5774s

and earl" 3444s, segments of these movements were converging aroundnew ideas and tactics, !roducing a roader discourse that lin#ed ecolog",social ustice, anti9o!!ression, and animal lieration, ta#ing hold of andtransforming grou!s li#e Earth )irst 0E)1, which had historicall" eenhostile to such ideas$

As a sociologist concerned with social movements and !ersonall"involved in the environmental ustice movement, I egan ta#ing notice$The first uestion I had was to what e;tent are radical environmentaland animal lieration movements also struggles over social ineualit"V


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activists with mainstream ecological movements@ orientation, values, andtactics$ These generall" include a lac# of awareness of and commitment toanti9o!!ression !olitics, an emrace of state9centric and mar#et9oriented-solutions,- and a reection of aggressive direct action tactics$ Radicalactiv9ists see these as insider strategies, and so the" ecome more li#el" to chal9lenge the racial, gender, se;ual, and class !rivileges of ecologicalmovements,and more willing to ris# !ersonal freedom in !ursuit of social change$

As for mining the histor" of social movements in radicaliCing contem!o9rar" efforts, im!ortant influences on radical earth and animal lierationmovements include discourses around the !olitics of social ustice$ These

Introduction 8

influences have !ermeated other social movements, social change orga9niCations, and academic disci!lines on universit" cam!uses across the%nited 'tates$ 2once!ts such as intersectionalit" 0the idea that o!!res9sion cannot e reduced to one fundamental t"!e of ineualit"1 and dis9courses that were critical of social !rivilege too# hold in man" of theses!aces eginning in the 5774s and aflHected the language and !racticesof social movements in the %nited 'tates, including environmental andanimal rights causes$

The idea that we can no longer understand, anal"Ce, or resist a singleform of o!!ression in isolation from other forms materialiCed in feministand antiracist movements and academic circles gloall", and radical ani9mal rights and environmental activists followed suit and moved awa"from a language of single issues$ The" ecame concerned with the rightsand lieration of human and nonhuman s!ecies, ecos"stems, and soci9eties$ These ideas were comined with tactics and language ins!ired "!revious generations@ lieration movements. the Diggers and Levellersof Britain, slaver" aolitionists, the Luddites, anarchist movements, theIndustrial For#ers of the Forld 0IFF1, movements for civil rights,lac# !ower, Puerto Rican inde!endence, the American Indian Move9ment, the Feather %nderground, the AID' 2oalition to %nleash Power0A2T %P1, and man" others$

)rom Euro!e to Australia, Latin America, 2anada, and the %nited'tates, radical earth and animal lieration movements gained visiilit"and notoriet"$ More direct and flagrant actions made headlines. signifi9cant !ro!ert" damage and economic damage to laoratories, slaughter9

houses, !ower lines, elite housing develo!ments, s#i resorts, fur farms,and industrial agricultural and !oultr" facilities through arson, saotage0also #nown as ecotage1, animal rescue:lieration, and vandalism$ Throughthese actions and the discourse that su!!orts them, toda"@s activists ues9tion what the" view as the violence of ca!italism, state !ower, multi!leforms of o!!ression within human communities, s!eciesism 0the eliefthat one s!ecies is su!erior to another1, and ecological destruction$ Andwhile these movements often reflect difiHerent em!hases, there is a !rimeconvergence around the discourse of -total lieration- of ecos"stems,nonhuman s!ecies, and humans$


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The conce!t of total lieration stems from a determination to under9stand and comat all forms of ineualit" and o!!ression$ I !ro!ose thatit com!rises four !illars. 0i1 an ethic of ustice and anti9o!!ressioninclusive

> Introduction

of humans, nonhuman animals, and ecos"stems 031 anarchism 0?1 anti9ca!itahsm and 061 an emrace of direct action tactics$ This framewor#animates earth and animal lieration movements, and I e;!lore it through9out this oo#$

The Nature of Ineualit" and Its 2onseuences

The !rolem of ineualit" is rightl" an osession for man" sociologists$

+owever, most of us thin# aout, stud", and teach the suect within a!articular and therefore limited framewor#$ This might include eco9nomic, !olitical, institutional, racial, gender, se;ual, s!atial, and nationalineualities, all of which are im!ortant for understanding how social s"s9tems wor# to the enefit of some grou!s and to the disadvantage of others$But " focusing !rimaril" on human ineualit", we miss a great deal withregard to how far and wide ineualities actuall" e;tend$ Accordingl", oneof this oo#@s threads is a stor" of ineualit", its man" forms and far9reaching conseuences, as well as unconventional efforts to challenge it$M" research has alwa"s focused on the intersection of social ineualitiesand ecological !olitics, and m" goal here is to e;!and our understandingof ineualit" " ma#ing sense of the often tense and violent relationshi!samong humans, ecos"stems, and nonhuman animal s!ecies$ B" doing so,we might achieve a etter gras! of ineualit"@s ramifications while alsodee!ening our understanding of the nature of ineualit" itself

'o I sus!ect I should start at the eginning. what is ineualit" and wh"does it matterV At its most asic level, ineualit" means that if "ou are-on to!- of, or higher on the social ladder than someone else, then "ou!ossess or have access to greater resources, wealth, and social !rivileges$But more im!ortantl" and from the stand!oint of ecological !olitics "our elevation aove others also means that "our life is of greater valuethan others living within that social s"stem$ (ou li#el" own or controland afl;ct more of the !lanet and its constituent ecos"stems than others,"ou li#el" own or control and affect more living eings 0and thereforeli#el" !roduce more death1 than others, and "ou li#el" control and enefitfrom the ideational s"stems that give meaning and legitimac" to such

d"namics$@ Ineualit" is a means of ordering the human and nonhumanworlds for the relative enefit of some and to the detriment of others$

Life e;!ectanc", moridit", mortalit", and well9eing are highl" cor9related with #e" measures of human ineualit"$@@ In the case of environ9mental ineualit" and environmental racism, wor#ing9class !eo!le, !eo!le

Introduction


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of color, women, immigrants, and Indigenous !ersons are more li#el" toface health ris#s as a result of environmental racism and ineualit" theuneven e;!osure to environmental harm that social and institutionalforces routinel" !er!etrate 0!ractices that are rooted in multi!le forms ofsocial ineualit" and hierarch"1 :Thus, social or human ineualities derivetheir e;istence through ineualities that also divide, ran#, and e;ert con9trol over nonhumans and ecos"stems$ Ineualit" is, aove all, unnaturalin the sense that it does not -ust ha!!en- it reuires a great deal ofenerg", laor, and institutional effort to !roduce and maintain uneualsocieties$H This !oint is crucial ecause there is also so much energ"invested into ma#ing ineualities seem li#e a natural state of affairs$ Asecofeminist reta aard writes, -A!!eals to nature have often een usedto ustif" social norms, to the detriment of women, nature, ueers, and!ersons of color$-@ Ineualit" is not ust an imalance of resources or!ower ut is freuentl" e;!erienced as unearned !rivileges made !ossile" domination and inustice$ It is also routinel" resisted " those whosuffer its conseuences$

E;tending Environmental Ineualit".Toward 'ocioecological Ineualit"

This is the foundation of what I call socioecological ineualit" that is, thewa"s in which humans, nonhumans, and ecos"stems intersect to !roducehierarchies !rivileges and disadvantages within and across s!ecies ands!ace that ultimatel" !lace each at great ris#$ 'ocioecological ineualit"0'EI1, as a research a!!roach, uilds u!on environmental ineualit" in anumer of wa"s$ Fhile environmental ineualit" highlights the lin#setween threats to humans and ecos"stems with a !rimar" em!hasis onhuman well9eing, the focus of 'EI is on the hierarchical relationshi!samong humans, ecos"stems, and nonhuman animals that !roduce harmsacross each s!here$ In this wa", socioecological ineualit" underscores thathumans, ecos"stems, and nonhumans are intertwined in the !roductionof ineualit" and violence and that relationshi!s that might !rivilegehumans in the short run ma" also !lace them in eo!ard" in the longterm$ 'EI also moves e"ond the human: environment or culture: natureinar" emedded in man" environmental studies conce!ts such as theEnvironmental ustice Paradigm 0EP1 and the New Ecological Paradigm0NEP1$ Instead, within the 'EI, we see that humans, nonhumans, eco9s"stems, and even uilt environments are characteriCed " an enormous

= Introduction

internal variation and diversit"$ Moreover, 'EI uilds on while alsode!arting from the NEP, dee! ecolog", social ecolog", ecofeminism,the EP, and !olitical econom" in that it does not claim a !rimar" sourceor origin of our ecological crises, such as racism, ca!italism, classism,!atriarch", androcentrism, dominionism, or Festern culture$@- Rather,'EI argues that there are varied and multi!le forms of ineualit" andhierarch" driving our socioecological crises, revealing the im!ortance ofintersectionalit"$


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There are three !rimar" vectors through which this relationshi! cane e;!ressed, ut it is im!ortant to #ee! in mind that the" are, in fact,interchangeale.

humans e;!loiting ecos"stems can !roduce harm to oth nonhuman ani9mals and humans, es!eciall" those de!endent u!on and:or living in ornear those ecos"stems$ )or e;am!le. 0i1 the construction and o!erationof h"droelectric dams inflict e;tensive damage on river s"stems, fish!o!ulations, and estuaries, while often threatening the livelihoods ofhuman communities that rel" on rivers for sustenance- 031 industrialcoal, gold, and coltan mining o!erations destro" rivers, threaten numer9ous nonhuman s!ecies, and are often accom!anied " unhealth" andviolent wor#ing conditions for human em!lo"ees and threats to thestailit" of their communities$@H

humans e;!loiting other humans can !roduce harm to oth nonhumananimals and ecos"stems$ )or e;am!le, an oil e;traction or !etrochemi9cal facilit" located in a communit" of color or Indigenous communit"0a traditional environmental ustice concern1 that involves haCardous

wor#ing conditions for human em!lo"ees, the !roduction and distriu9tion of haCardous effluence within the surrounding communit" wherehumans and nonhumans reside, and the !ollution of air, land, andwater s"stems$@H

humans e;!loiting nonhuman animals can !roduce harm to oth humansand ecos"stems$ )or e;am!le, industrial ranching and farming o!era9tions designed to harvest livestoc# or !lant cro!s that dis!lace or endan9ger Indigenous human settlements lead to deforestation and watersource !ollution,@@@ while a slaughterhouse where human wor#ers com9monl" e;!erience high levels of occu!ational haCards in the #illing ofnonhumans for mass consum!tion also !ollutes water tales and su!9!orts industrial ranching o!erations$-

Introduction 7

Fhether the e;am!le is a slaughterhouse, a !etrochemical facilit", indus9trial agriculture, a h"droelectric dam, or a mining o!eration, each revealsthe wa"s in which humans e;!loit and !roduce harm among other humans,nonhuman animals, and ecos"stems$ Fhile these forms of hierarch" andviolence are uniuel" e;!erienced across s!ecies and s!ace, the" are inse!9arale and interrelated$ The" necessaril" egin and end with human actorsimagining and giving meaning to these ehaviors$ It is that cultural frame9

wor# that ma#es socioecological ineualities !ossile and legitimate$

Radical environmental and animal rights movements are not the first!eo!le who come to mind when most of us thin# aout the !olitics ofsocial ineualit" and social ustice$ But this is a logical site for such astud" !recisel" ecause man" activists are develo!ing new wa"s to imag9ine a societ" free of o!!ression and hierarch"$ After all, these movementsare !osing one of the most fundamental uestions one could contem9!late. what does it mean to e humanV Over the centuries and acrossman" societies, the answer to that uestion has included the right to


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dominate all other s!ecies and ecos"stems, no matter the conseuences$The facts of s!eciesism and dominionism have een considered the irth9right of +omo sa!iens " man" scholars, !olitical and religious leaders,dominant institutions, and ever"da" !eo!le for most of modern histor"$In other words, to e human has often meant to emrace and enefitfrom hierarch" and the !rivilege of memershi! in a !articular s!ecies$To e human has also meant to !artici!ate in various s"stems of hierar9ch" that ran# and sort !eo!le " social categories 0e$g$, nationalit", class,gender, se;ualit", race, ailit", and age1 to distriute !ower and !rivilegeunevenl"$ Earth and animal lieration activists are calling into uestionthese ideas and !ractices ecause the" see them as a threat to the futureof all s!ecies, including our own$

Fhat it means to e human is u! for discussion, deate, and transfor9mation$ But radical social change is e;ceedingl" difficult and fraught withits own challenges$ 'o as earth and animal lieration movement activ9ists confront various forms of hierarch", the" also freuentl" re!roducee;isting ineualities and sometimes !roduce new ones$ Des!ite these andother shortcomings, for some !eo!le these movements re!resent ho!efor a etter world in that the" threaten those institutions dee!l" invested

in ineualit"$ The" see# to confront social s"stems that !roduce and main9tain hierarchies in an interconnected world of humans, nonhumans, andenvironments$

54 Introduction

Not onl" does 'EI hel! e;!lain wh" the activists I stud" are so com9mitted to their wor#, ut, more criticall", it also suggests wh" the rest ofus might also e concerned. ineualit" is a form of domination and con9trol over !eo!le, nonhumans, ecos"stems, the !lanet, and life itself Ris9ing ineualit" means that most of us are losing control over our ailit"to influence our own destinies and !rotect the !eo!le and nonhumanrelations we care aout$ Radical animal lieration and environmentalactivists ma" indeed e on the !olitical fringe, ut the" offer crucial les9sons for wh" the rest of us might !a" closer attention to ineualit" in itsmulti!le forms$

It is not ust the !ractice of ineualit" that contriutes to environmen9tal and transs!ecies violence it is the construction and !ersistence ofideas that maintain these ineualities$ It is the inter!la" among the mate9rial structures, !ractices, and ideas associated with ineualit" that I findmost !roductive to understanding our socioecological crises$ More to the!oint, I find that the ideas that legitimate and su!!ort ineualit" are ust

as conseuential, if not more so, as material ineualit" itself Those ideasare ultimatel" what these social movements are comating$ 2onversel",the re!ression that states and cor!orations visit u!on these movementsis directed less at the !h"sical moiliCation of !eo!le and direct actionsof activists than at the ideas and discourses the" articulate and see# su!9!ort for$

'ocial scientists stud" the material fact of ineualit" and the notionthat ineualit" is a set of relations that is variousl" im!osed, emraced, orcontested$ I concur with these a!!roaches, ut m" em!hases here include


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ineualit" as a material realit", a relational !henomenon, and an ideathat is constructed and deated$ That is, in addition to understandingineualit" as a state of eing uneual and as a set of relationshi!s amonguneual grou!s, I am also interested in e;!loring the cultural s"molsand s"stems of meaning that !roduce, reinforce, and disru!t hierarchies$I ho!e to advance a more com!rehensive and sociologicall" roust wa"of theoriCing activism and !olitics through a !ers!ective that reflects theramscian view that struggles over meaning are as much material con9flicts as the" are discursive$-H

Returning to total lieration, it is clear from m" research that theactivists featured in this oo# elieve there are multi!le, interloc#ing,and reinforcing s"stems of ineualit" and domination that give rise toour socioecological crises, including statecraft, ca!italism, s!eciesism$

Introduction ii

dominionism, !atriarch", heterose;ism, racism, and classism$ These activ9ists maintain that ecological crises cannot e reduced to an" one 0or two1of these s"stems of domination rather, the" wor# together to contriuteto the !rolem$ I draw this conclusion ased on m" interviews withactivists, m" oservations of movement gatherings, and anal"ses of thou9sands of !ages of documents !roduced " radical earth and animal lier9ation activists$ Total lieration sees ineualit" as a threat to life itself foro!!ressed !eo!les, s!ecies, and ecos"stems and is organiCed around thestruggle for life$ These movements organiCe and moiliCe in favor of s"m9ols, meta!hors, language, signs, re!resentations, !ractices, and struc9tures of eualit" and ustice to do what social movements have alwa"sdone. to imagine and create a etter world$ Onl" this world would eased on the idea that ineualit" and unfreedom in all their #nown man9ifestations should e eradicated$

In the !ages ahead I offer a critical assessment of the total lierationframewor#, its origins, nuances, and a!!lications$ I come to three roadconclusions. earth and animal lieration movements are indeed strugglesover social ineualit" within and across s!ecies, including a !articularfocus on human lieration these movements rel" on a!!roaches thatoth challenge and re!roduce longstanding forms of o!!ression and the-terrorist- lael im!osed on these movements reveals not onl" re!ressionagainst a !oliticall" radical -other- ut also a momentar" designation ofthese movements as !oliticall" racial others !eo!le who are criminal9iCed ecause their ideas and actions are at odds with white su!remac"

and human su!remac"$@H These movements are of sociological and !olit9ical significance ecause the" simultaneousl" confront and emrace s"s9tems of ineualit" that reflect the dominant social order$

The emergence of the total lieration framewor# is a res!onse tosocioecological ineualities, ut to realiCe its !romise, earth and animallieration movements must confront hierarch" oth outside and withintheir ran#s$ The struggle is necessaril" human centered led " humansand directed at other human eings, institutions, !ractices, and ideas suchas social categories of difference and o!!ression, s!eciesism, dominion9


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ism, ca!italism, the state, and im!erialism$ As the iologist Barr" 2om9moner once wrote. -The earth is !olluted neither ecause man is some#ind of es!eciall" dirt" animal nor ecause there are too man" of us$ Thefault lies with human societ" with the wa"s in which societ" has electedto win, distriute, and use the wealth that has een e;tracted " human

53 Introduction

laor from the !lanet@s resources$ Once the social origins of the crisisecome clear, we can egin to design a!!ro!riate social actions to resolveit$-@H The wa"s in which nonhuman animal s!ecies and ecos"stems areimagined and defined are necessaril" authored " humans$- Therefore,ironicall", much of the fight against o!!ressive social s"stems must ta#e!lace within these movements themselves, as the" gra!!le with the rac9ism, !atriarch", heteronormativit", nativism, classism, and im!erialismthat have traditionall" !ermeated and haunted environmental and ani9

mal rights causes$ +ence one of the man" s!aces of contention occurs onterrain occu!ied " a !articular #ind of human, ecause these move9ments are largel" white, middle class, and heterose;ual$

These movements also reflect struggles over !articular #inds of non9human natures ones that are cast as vulnerale, in need of rescue, ande;uding an innocence and !urit" found nowhere else$ In that sense, non9human s!ecies and ecos"stems ecome im!ortant s"mols imued witha !ower that mediates and gives meaning to an otherwise largel" anthro9!ocentric !olitical force$

Re!ression and Its 2onseuences.Privileged Radicals and Racial Deviants

'tate and cor!orate re!ression directed at radical environmental andanimal rights movements has een !articularl" harsh in recent "ears,!rom!ting com!arisons to histories of re!ression against other freedommovements, including the American Indian Movement, Blac# PantherPart", Blac# Lieration Arm", and Puerto Rican Inde!endence Move9ment$ I argue that the discourse and legal a!!aratus that defines radicalecological movements as -ecoterrorism- wor#s to !lace activists outsidethe realm of citiCenshi! in order to successfull" lael them as threats tothe nation and facilitate their neutraliCation$ +ence, the re!ressive treat9ment of these activists might also e thought of as !art of a state tradi9tion of !roducing racial deviants those whites who refuse to conformto cultural, !olitical, and social disci!linar" norms and are laeled as not9uite9white within the !olitico9legal discourse of -terrorism$-H- In other

words, these are white !eo!le unwilling to adhere entirel" to the normsof whiteness, and are therefore racialiCed as -!roationar" whites,- evenif momentaril"$

+istoricall", !roationar" whites have included militant wor#ing9classand !oor !ersons, feminists, ga"s and lesians, !rostitutes, ews, Irish

Introduction 5?


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immigrants, criminals, alcoholics, anarchists, the chronicall" ill, and thementall" disaled, viewed as -atavistic throwac#s to a !rimitive momentin human !rehistor", surviving ominousl" in the heart of the modern,im!erial metro!olis$-H@ These -degenerate classes- also reuired !olicingand regulation since the" were viewed as threats to the moral, economic,and !olitical faric of &ictorian England during a time of great socialu!heavals$ This !rocess of racialiCation and regulation occurred in other!laces as well$ )or e;am!le, the %nited 'tates@ own immigration !oliciesreveal the !ractice of !olicing and e;!elling man" -degenerate- whitesusing laws originall" devised to e;clude 2hinese and other Asian immi9grants$HH As historian Mai Ngai writes, -the first federal immigration lawsestalished ualitative criteria for selective or individual e;clusion thate;9!ressed normative definitions of social desirailit" those not welcomeincluded criminals, !rostitutes, !au!ers, the diseased, and anarchists, aswell as 2hinese laorers$-HH According to the dictates of immigration lawin decades !ast, these -aliens- could e summaril" de!orted$ Radical

earth and animal lieration activists are under no illusion aout the factthat the" are mostl" white movements, ut their re!ressive treatment "state and cor!orate institutions can remind activists that racial !rivilegescan e revo#ed, even if onl" tem!oraril"$ Fhen white activists e;!resssolidarit" with othered !o!ulations, should the" e;!ect to fare differentl"VThus, earth and animal lieration activists are, in some wa"s, -gettingwhat the" as#ed for- when the" cast their lot with o!!ressed humans andnonhumans$ The" are racial deviants and are !unished as such$

These activists are also racial deviants ecause the" refuse to conformto the e;!ectations and enefits of human su!remac"$ That is, the" reecta humanism rooted in s!eciesism and dominionism that are, for mostof us, the une;amined and unearned !rivileges of memershi! in thehuman race$ And ust as the state has treated these activists as !roation9ar" whites, the" have also made it clear that their ver" humanness isconditional$ Threats of ail time means !rivileged activists ris# facingsome of the -suhuman- treatment that the maorit" wor#ing9class and!eo!le of color !rison !o!ulation faces ever"da"$ These radicals then areracw: deviants in two wa"s. as white activists who are laeled -terrorists-and as human activists who are antihumanist and antidominionist$

'everal other conce!ts are hel!ful for e;!loring the character and con9seuences of re!ression directed at these movements, as well as activists@res!onses.

56 Introduction

ecologies of re!ression 0the ri!!le effects of re!ression that e;tend e"ondthe immediate targets to include "standers, would9e future activists,and su!!orters and would9e su!!orters of other social change move9ments, as well as nonhuman natures1

cultures of re!ression 0the discourses, ideas, language, and ehaviors oth


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e;!licit and im!licit that !ulics !ractice wherein resistance move9ments and dissent are discounted, refused, disallowed, misrecogniCed,and devalued this can also e a source of division within social move9ments, !articularl" etween mainstream and radical wings1

re!ression as a science 0re!ression as more than ust a series of acts ofrute force,ut a series of !ractices rooted in a desire to #now and to develo! andde!lo" #nowledge for the advancement of !articular interests$ This #nowl9edge results from careful, em!irical oservation, e;!erimentation, datagathering and anal"sis and follows the logic of )oucault@s idea that #nowl9edge of a !o!ulation often leads to !ower and control over that grou!1

cultures of resistance 0shared understandings, ideas, and #nowledge thatinform and su!!ort individual and collective !ractices of resistancethese !ractices are often motivated and aided " inter!ellation on the!art of nonhuman animals and ecos"stems1$

Together these conce!ts e;!and e;isting scholarshi! on re!ression andresistance " viewing oth !henomena as d"namic, ada!tive, and involv9

ing multi!le modes of e;!ression that im!act oth !eo!le and nonhu9mans oth inside and outside of social movement communities$HH

These movements are ultimatel" aimed at human lieration, and thatis what ma#es earth and animal lieration movements of interest to an"9one outside of these activist communities and is what threatens dominantinstitutions$ If, as these activists contend, violence against ecos"stemsand nonhuman animals is lin#ed to and rooted in ineualities amonghuman eings, then human lieration is the #e" to total lieration$+uman lieration must involve emanci!ation from the long list of o!9!ressions that e;ist in societ", including the shac#les of humanism itself,which constrains us to live in wa"s that are ecologicall" unsustainale,dominionist with res!ect to nonhuman natures, and sociall" unust$

Theories of 'ocioecological Politics

The idea of total lieration must e !laced in its !ro!er conte;t, so hereI consider its relationshi! to some of the most im!ortant !olitical and

Introduction 58

intellectual movements associated with ecological !olitics in recent his9tor", man" of which have alread" een referenced$

The New Ecological Paradigm 0NEP1 is a !o!ular worldview in the%nited 'tates that, since the 57>4s, has emraced the call for ecologicalconservation in the face of concerns aout s!ecies e;tinction, haitatloss, and rising gloal !ollution levels$ The NEP was a res!onse to theDominant Festern Forldview 0DFF1, which !laced human societ"@sneeds aove those of all other s!ecies$ The NEP sought to achieve aalance among these com!eting needs$ As groundrea#ing as it was atthe time of its emergence, the NEP is also restrictive in its critiue ofecological crises and in its vision of a sustainale future ecause it sto!s


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short of confronting a host of hierarchical and anti9ecological s"stems thatmaintain ineualities within human societ" and across s!ecies, includ9ing class domination, racism, !atriarch", and s!eciesism$ Moreover, theNEP advances little more than a reformist critiue of state formation andca!italism$H@@

Pushing further the desire to address ecological crises, dee! ecolog" re9ects the anthro!ocentricism im!licit and inherent in the NEP " argu9ing that humans are ust one of man" s!ecies on Earth and have nouniue value aove an" other !o!ulation$ Dee! ecolog" refuses the ideo9logical orientation that the !reservation of human societ" is our !rimar"goal and !romotes a iocentric !olitics. all s!ecies are interconnectedand criticall" im!ortant to the we of life$ The decentering of humans isthis framewor#@s most im!ortant and lasting contriution$ +owever,dee! ecolog" and the NEP share a fi;ation with the ecological im!actsof human !o!ulation growth, which tends to reveal a Festern culturalias in that the !olic" !rescri!tions that usuall" follow from this !ers!ec9tive !lace the lame for gloal ecological decline on non9Festern nationsand often s!ecificall" on the re!roductive ca!acities and !ractices of non9Festern women and families$

These limitations of the NEP and dee! ecolog" were a maor reasonfor the emergence of ecofeminism, which addresses oth ecological un9sustainailit" and !atriarch"$ Ecofeminism or ecological feminism is anumrella term that enca!sulates a range of !ers!ectives whose -asic!remise is that the ideolog" which authoriCes o!!ressions such as thoseased on race, class, gender, se;ualit", !h"sical ailities, and s!ecies isthesame ideolog" which sanctions the o!!ression of nature$ -HH )urthermore,ecofeminism -calls for an end to all o!!ressions, arguing that no attem!t

i> Introduction

to lierate women 0or an" other o!!ressed grou!1 will e successfulwithout an eual attem!t to lierate nature$-H@ Fhat ma#es ecofemin9ism a distinct od" of ideas is its !osition that nonhuman nature anddominionism 0that is, the domination of nonhuman nature1 are feministconcerns$H-

Ecofeminism is an e;traordinaril" diverse od" of theor" and !olitics,ma#ing generaliCations aout it difficult 0if not im!ossile1$H@ Its variousorigins include the antimilitarist and !eace movements, the women@shealth movement, the laor movement, and the feminist reellion within

environmental and animal lieration movements and the academ"$HHFhile dominated " white women, ecofeminism has, from the start, em9raced antiracism,HH aleit often through !rolematic a!!roaches thatsometimes im!ose ecofeminism on women of color environmental activ9ists and romanticiCe Indigenous women@s lives$ 'ome scholars view eco9feminism as the leading edge of the third wave of feminist theor" and!olitics ecause it uestions the logic of domination that its !ro!onentselieve undergirds all forms of o!!ression rooted in dualistic thought,thus offering a framewor# that might conceival" unite !eo!le acrossnumerous social and cultural divides$H@ Fhile ecofeminists have not con9


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sistentl" incor!orated nonhuman animals into their anal"ses,HJ- man" haveins!ired scholars and activists to e;!and the sco!e of the logic of domi9nation across s!ecies$

Murra" Boo#chin was the most !rominent scholar associated withthe conce!t of social ecolog"$ According to Boo#chin, hierarch" withinhuman societies !redates and is at the root of the human domination andcontrol of nature$ Thus social ecolog" calls for the eradication of hier9arch" in order to !roduce ecologicall" sustainale societies$ Boo#chin@ssocial ecolog" is strongl" antica!italist and anarchist,HH ut he was clearin reecting what he viewed as the irrationalit" of the !ersonal, individu9alist, and s!iritual rand of anarcho9!rimitivism associated with man"earl" Earth )irstlers and dee! ecologists$ +e insisted that all environmen9tal !rolems are social !rolems and must e confronted collectivel"$

Ecofeminist scholars have challenged social ecolog" for eing lessattentive to gender, race, and other forms of social difference that are fre9uentl" not res!ected in the #inds of small communal grou!s Boo#chinenvisions as ecologicall" sustainale social formations$H@ Moreover, Boo#9chin@s writings are, for some critics, !rolematic in their overall mascu9

linist orientation$H- Other feminist scholars ta#e Boo#chin to tas# for his

Introduction 5<

anarchist !olitics$ +e a!!eared to set u! the onl" choice for societ" aseither !ro9state or no state, ignoring the fact that states have made it !os9sile for man" women to !artici!ate in !ulic life and laor mar#ets$--)urthermore, Boo#chin@s commitment to the su!remac" of Festern !hil9oso!hical rationalit" does not sit well with some critics$ &al Plumwoodwrites that -these critics of o!!ositional and coloniCing forms of reasonhave not sought to reect reason as such, ut rather to reect its traditionalFestern @rationalist@ construction as inferioriCing, o!!osing, and con9trolling other areas of human and nonhuman life 0usuall" those countedas @nature@1

Political economic !ers!ectives emodied in the wor# of sociologistssuch as O@2onnor, )aer, )oster, and 'chnaierg and ould focus onthe devastating effects of ca!italism on socioecological d"namics$JH Thesestudies reveal a Mar;ist view!oint in that when struggles over the meansof !roduction tend to favor the ca!italist classes, the" also !roduce greaterecological damage and mass social suffering$ Relatedl", some social scien9tists have !roduced studies demonstrating that general measures of socialand !olitical ineualit" are correlated with and contriute to greater lev9

els of ecological harm$-JH )or e;am!le, ames Bo"ce finds that the level ofegalitarianism in a societ" ma" e one of the strongest !redictors of thegeneral degree of environmental harm in that societ"$ That is, societiese;hiiting higher levels of economic and !olitical ineualit" are charac9teriCed " higher overall ecological harm, and the reverse is true for soci9eties with greater egalitarian structures$@J@ This od" of research is ofgreatim!ortance for lin#ing ineualit" to ecological harm$ Even so, much ofit is focused on economic or !olitical measures of ineualit" that fallshort of ca!turing the com!le; wa"s in which ineualit" also functions


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ments challenging socioecological ineualities$ As noted aove, the totallieration frame com!rises four com!onents. 0i1 an ethic of ustice andanti9o!!ression inclusive of humans, nonhuman animals, and ecos"stems

Introduction 57

031 anarchism 0?1 antica!italism and 061 an emrace of direct actiontactics$ This new frame is mar#ed " ideas, discourses, and !racticesfocused on intrahuman communit" d"namics and relationshi!s amonghuman and nonhuman s!ecies and ecos"stems$ The narrative thatemerges from this stud" of earth and animal lieration movements is aframewor# that sees the e;!loitation of ecos"stems and nonhuman ani9mals as necessaril" lin#ed to the ineualities within human societ", andthat recogniCes there can e no lieration of one without the other$ Ie;!lore the !rolems, limitations, and !ossiilities of the total lierationframewor# throughout the following cha!ters and conclude that these

data and this emergent movement framewor# suggest a numer of newdirections in ecological !olitics that are relevant to scholars wor#ing inthe fields of environmental studies, environmental ustice studies, socialmovements, critical animal studies, and ethnic and gender studies$

Most other !rominent scholarl" and social movements that focus onecological !olitics have sto!!ed short of lin#ing s"stems of o!!ressionand ineualit" across s!ecies and have generall" onl" called for moderatereform of !olitical and economic institutions$ Thus, the total lierationframe challenges 0among other !aradigms and framewor#s1 the Environ9mental ustice Paradigm to emrace anti9o!!ression !olitics across mul9ti!le categories of difference 0not ust race, class, and occasionall" genderand se;ualit"1, including s!ecies and nonhuman natures$ Through itsanarchist and antica!italist orientation, total lieration challenges theEP@s reformist emrace of state and mar#et9ased strategies for address9ing socioecological ineualit"$ And in its su!!ort for direct action ofall #inds 0oth legall" sanctioned and illegal1, the total lieration frameunsettles the EP@s generall" reformist a!!roach to tactical choices$

The total lieration frame also s!ea#s to #e" issues in ethnic and genderstudies ecause it invo#es and e;!ands on the conce!t of intersectionalit"$2ritical legal theorist imerle 2renshaw@s conce!t of intersectionalit"reminds us that various forms of ineualit" such as race, class, ailit",gender, and se;ualit" interrelate and wor# together to !roduce advan9tages and disadvantages for individuals and grou!s$ Race, class, ailit",gender, and se;ualit" are also what feminist theorist Anne Mc2lintoc#calls -articulated categories- that is, we define each of these categories

through the others$@- Fhile scholars have done an admirale o of !ur9suing this line of theoriCing among and across the aove categories, thereremains little wor# on how we might e;!and this conce!t$@- )or e;am!le$

34 Introduction


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categories such as nonhuman animal, land, and nonhuman nature or eco9s"stems are virtuall" asent from this literature and might e useful fordee!ening our anal"sis of intersectionalit" Fe can then consider whatha!!ens when we e;tend this conce!t to include nonhuman catego9ries, !articularl" when we thin# aout them as -articulated categories$-)or e;am!le, if we define race, class, ailit", gender, and se;ualit" througheach other, do we not also define these categories " drawing on imagesand !o!ular understandings of nature, land, and nonhuman animal s!e9ciesV Decades of research reveal that we tend to naturaliCe those categoriesand the social difference associated with them " im!licitl" or e;!licitl"lin#ing them to iological and nonhuman !rocesses and actors$@@

The total lieration frame suggests that if intersectionalit" egins andends with humans, then that conce!t is unnecessaril" restrictive$ Total li9eration activists contend that one cannot full" gras! the foundations ofracism, classism, aleism, heterose;ism, and !atriarch" without also under9standing s!eciesism and dominionism ecause the" are all ideologies and!ractices rooted in hierarch" and the creation of o!!ositional su!eriorand inferior suects$ The total lieration frame lin#s o!!ression and!rivileges across s!ecies, ecos"stems, and human !o!ulations, suggesting

a theor" and !ath toward ustice and freedom something missing intraditional models of intersectionalit"$ Thus, the conce!t of total liera9tion reveals oth the com!le;it" of various s"stems of hierarch" whilealso suggesting !oints of intervention, transformative change, solidarit",and coalition uilding across grou! oundaries$ Total lieration is, aoveall, a cultural force ecause its greatest !ower lies in the strength andaudacit" of its vision$ And while it ma" never gain wides!read a!!eal, itis sociologicall" significant ecause the ideas emodied in this conce!tconstitute a threat to the core of socioecological ineualities$

As an environmental ustice scholar, I have often as#ed m"self wh"I ecame interested in these largel" white, middle9class, and relativel"!rivileged radical movements$ There are two reasons. first, I was drawnto the radical tactical and direct action wor# these activists !racticedsince that !ushed the envelo!e well e"ond what I had seen in the Emovement in the %nited 'tates$ On that note, some !eo!le have arguedthat !eo!le of color do not eno" the !rivileges and !rotections to e aleto ta#e similar actions, ut that claim is challenged " the rich historiesof slave insurrections, immigrant rights movements, farm wor#er move9ments, the Blac# Power movement, Asian American movement, 2hicana: o

Introduction 35

movement, gender ustice movements, and the ever"da" wor# of othercivil rights and human rights activists who, " sim!l" engaging in !ulicnonviolent !rotests, !lace their freedom and lives in eo!ard"$ The sec9ond reason I ecame attracted to these movements was that after I eganstud"ing them, I realiCed that some certainl" not all or even most ofthese activists were articulating a serious critiue of hierarch" and o!!res9sion in all forms$ Des!ite its man" shortcomings 0see the conclusion1,that comination of radical anal"sis and action was remar#ale$

I am careful not to romanticiCe these movements$ M" !osition is this.


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I am !resenting data and anal"sis that underscore wh" these movementsare sociologicall" significant and of !ossile interest to an"one concernedwith ecological !olitics$ I am also critical of these movements for theirman" shortcomings ut ma#e those critiues from a !osition of solidar9it"$ That has alwa"s een m" !osition on the environmental ustice move9ment, and in that regard, this stud" is no different$


2+APTER I

Never A!ologiCe for (our Rage

Radical Origins and OrganiCing

No one in his right mind can honestl" state that the !o!ularenvironmental movement using state9sanctioned tactics has eensuccessful$ It is ver" ovious something more is needed$

Eartli Lieration )ront statement in Leslie ames Pic#ering,The Earth Lieration )ront. i!!3443

'ocial movements do not form s!ontaneousl"$ Accordingl", in this cha!9ter I investigate what energiCes earth and animal lieration movements,how these activists ecame radicaliCed, and how the total lieration frame9wor# has ta#en hold in these evolving movements$

I egin with the stories of several activists to !rovide a sense of howsome individuals move toward activism outside the mainstream$ I thenconsider the wider social and historical forces and conte;ts that have!ushed entire grou!s of !eo!le into radical activism, creating movementsfor transformative change$ I then !roe the conflicts and tensions e9tween radicals and mainstream grou!s and discourses, concluding withsome thoughts aout what actuall" constitutes -radical- !olitics$ I offerno definitive answers, ho!ing onl" to !rovide some clarit" and suggestnew uestions$

Radical Lives

Radical environmental and animal rights activists can e found in ever"corner of the %nited 'tates and around the world as well$@ Man" activistsI interviewed indicated that the" develo!ed a strong sense of fairnessand ustice in their earl" "ears and that general orientation to the worldtranslated into their earth and animal lieration wor#$ Others too# awhile longer to develo! their !olitical views and gained a new conscious9ness through e;!osure to radical ideas during earl" adulthood the" were


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3?

36 Never A!ologiCe for (our Rage

transformed from !assive consumers to active !roducers of #nowledgeand !artici!ants in collective !olitical !roects$ e" influences in theseactivists@ awa#enings include their !arents, friends, music, oo#s, teach9ers, !rofessors, travel aroad, and !ast social movements, ut for some,their turn toward more radical a!!roaches to change grew out of wor# inmore conservative, mainstream grou!s$ The" saw the de!ths of the !ro9lems facing nonhuman natures and concluded those !rolems reuiredmore transformative a!!roaches to change$

ina L"nn is a nationall" #nown animal lieration activist who servedail time for refusing to s!ea# to a grand ur" aout Animal Lieration)ront 0AL)1 actions on the Fest 2oast$ I met L"nn in 3447 when she

was giving a !ulic !resentation on the fourth anniversar" of what radi9cal animal lieration activists call the reen 'care the eginning of anew era of heightened state re!ression directed at the movement$ 'he has!artici!ated in illegal animal rescues, including the release of two hun9dred chic#ens from an egg farm, and had wor#ed as an animal lierationactivist -36:< for fifteen "ears- efore she was called to a federal court9house to testif" aout an alleged arson attriuted to the AL)$

L"nn told me how she came to the realiCation that nonhumans shoulde defended from those who might harm them.

I alwa"s loved animals as a #id$ M" mom loves to tell the stor" of $ $ $ whatwe reall" consider m" first -action$- I was $ $ $ aout four or five "ears oldand we went down to the !ier$ And there were !eo!le that were fishing offthe !ier$ And I@d never seen a dead animal efore$ I had never seen an"onedead efore, and I saw these men ust !ulling fish out of the water andcho!!ing them u! right there on the !ier$ And I was asolutel" horrified,and I do rememer ust eing disgusted, and I couldn@t elieve what I wasseeing$ And I, literall", all the wa" down to the end of the !ier and all thewa" ac#, I went u! to ever" single fisherman and said. -+ow would "ouli#e it if someod" too# "ou out of "our home and awa" from "our fam9il"V +ow would "ou li#e eing cho!!ed u!V- $ $ $ WMX" sister, who was in astroller $ $ $ never said much$ 'he was asolutel" uiet the whole time$ Andthen she finall" loo#s and she goes, -ina, wh" don@t "ou shut u!V- 'o Iguess one could sa" that@s how I got started$H

L"nn also rememers reading -A Mother@s Tale- " ames Agee$ L"nn

recalled that this stor" -was a ig influence- and said she is astonishedthat so -man" animal rights !eo!le are familiar with it$- 'he continued.

Never A!ologiCe for (our Rage 38

It@s the stor" of a mother cow, as told to her a" cow, aout the tri! to


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slaughter $ $ $ the stor"@s een !assed down through generations of cows$(ou #now, that@s the wa" the stor" is written$ And so the mother cow istelling her a" cow, -This is what it@s li#e$ (ou get shoved onto a truc#$-And, I mean, all the rutal details, #nowing that her a" cow is going toma"e ma#e this tri!$ And it ust tore m" heart out$ But I thin# I waseleven when I read that$ I read it in school, actuall", and it asolutel" torem" heart out$ I cried for da"s$ And then I totall" rememer going to arestaurant with m" famil", and I ordered a hamurger$ And the" !ut it infront of me, and I was li#e, -That@s that a" cow$- And, li#e, that was it$ Ididn@t eat meat an"more$ 'o I would sa", that was, li#e, one of the iggestinfluences on me$H

(ears later, L"nn would stage two hunger stri#es while in ail for refus9ing to coo!erate with grand uries see#ing indictments against AL) activ9ists$ +er stor" is a good e;am!le of an activist who is devoted e;clusivel"to animal lieration activism and is willing to resist the state@s efforts tocontain that movement$

im Mar#s is someone who t"!ifies the wa"s in which, for man"activists, animal lieration and earth lieration come together$ Fhen I

as#ed aout her ac#ground, Mar#s egan her stor" " descriing herforest defense wor# in the Pacific Northwest$ 'he told me that she -hadan animal rights ac#ground- and was an avid ac#!ac#er with a love ofold9growth forests$ 'he moved to Oregon in 5776 and witnessed first9hand the massive clear cuts the federal government enaled !rivate tim9er cor!orations to underta#e$ 'he oined a grou! of activists wor#ingon salmon !rotection and strengthening the Endangered '!ecies Act, andshe was disma"ed when -the 2linton administration $ $ $ ust o!ened u!logging- to !rivate com!anies$ That was a turning !oint for her, cement9ing her view that see#ing change through !ulic institutions was a fool@serrand.

That was definitel" a moment where I was li#e, -Fhoa$ Putting "our ho!esin the government is ust not going to wor#$- $ $ $ W+Xonestl", all we had inour tool ag was direct action to save our forests$ And so, that@s what we didnight and da" for aout a "ear and a half Fe wor#ed at the Farner 2ree#road loc#ades for months, at the time, the longest standing road loc#adein the %$'$ And it ust #e!t going from there$ The direct action movementwas strong, and we were aiming for a fight$@@

3> Never A!ologiCe for (our Rage

Mar#s continued " recalling how she uilt on her animal rights e;!eri9

ence to emrace a multi9issue a!!roach to social change.

I did some animal rights stuff in high school$ +onestl", m" middle schoolteacher was the one that got me interested in animal rights$ 'he educated meaout cosmetic testing on animals$ And we started an animal rights grou!in high school$ $ $ $ WTXhe !rolem for me was, "ou #now, I saw what Dian)osse" Wthe famous !rimatologist who studied and advocated for endangeredgorillasX was doing as animal rights, and forest !rotection as animal rights$And the animal rights grou!s I was wor#ing with couldn@t ma#e the lin#etween the destruction of the animals@ home in the forest eing aout ani9


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mals andhrests$ $ $ $ And so, that was m" um!$ That was where I #ind of lefta lot of the vertical organiCing around animal rights ehind$ I felt ver"disa!9!ointed$ The fol#s that wor#ed so hard on sto!!ing cruelt" to animals don@tunderstand where the loss of their entire haitat would ran# in their cam9!aign$ And the animal rights grou!s deemed it as a se!arate issue$ And, "ou#now, I ust thin# that $ $ $ the single9issue activism isn@t what@s gonnawin$H

In addition to lending environmental and animal lieration !olitics andinsisting that effective activism must e multi9issue, Mar#s shared L"nn@slac# of faith in government as a trusted guardian$

Enna@s 0a !seudon"m1 lifewor# uilds nicel" on L"nn@s and Mar#s@sin the sense that she is an animal rights activist with a strong anarchistorientation who e;tends her !olitics into the realm of social ustice forLBT/ 0lesian, ga", ise;ual, transgender, ueer1 !o!ulations$ 'he haseen a vegetarian since age fourteen and a vegan since seventeen 0a co9wor#er gave her a leaflet with -images of cows and chic#ens in dair" andfactor" farm settings,- and Enna immediatel" decided to -sto! !artici!at9

ing in an" form of animal suffering or as much as I could control withinm" own life-1$ 'he egan volunteering for an animal rights grou!, doingtaling and !ulic outreach at festivals and schools, and attending dem9onstrations around issues li#e fur, vivisection, and factor" farming$

Enna too# her anal"sis and actions a ste! further as she egan enter9taining -more radical thoughts in m" mind, ust ma#ing the connectionsetween different forms of o!!ression, and #nowing that ig usinessand ig cor!orations were not onl" contriuting to animal suffering, utthen also the !eo!le wor#ing in those conditions were also suffering andnot eing treated fairl"$ I ust started to do more research and loo# at all

Never A!ologiCe for (our Rage 3<

forms of o!!ression and how the"@re %n#ed together$-H Through her ani9mal rights wor# she met a numer of other activists who were -ma#ingthe connections to other social ustice concerns,- and she soon eganwor#ing for a grou! called the 'eattle Lesian Avengers.

There@s difl)erent cha!ters of the Lesian Avengers, and this grou! was mostl"anti!atriarch", ueer, vegan, mostl" women, ut we had honorar" !eo!lewho weren@t orn women or who weren@t ueers ecause the" thought the"were ehind our !olitics so the" definitel" elonged within our grou!$ Fe

made connections of how cor!o

david naguib

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