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Froehlich, WalterMan in Space, Space in the Seventies.National Aeronautics and Space Administration,Washington, D.C.EP-B1Jan 7131p.Superintendent of Documents, U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 ($1.00)

EDRS Price MF-$0.35 HC riot Available from EDRS.Aerospace Technology, *Program rescriptions,*Resource Materials, *Space, *State AgenciesNational Aeronautics and Space Administration

ABSTRACTIncluded is a summary of the Apollo lunar program to

date. Projeed future NASA programs planned for the 1970's arediscussed under the headings Skylab, Space Shuttle, and SpaceStation. Possibilities for the 1980's are outlined in the finalsection. (Author/AL)

JUN 2 1

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MAN IN SPACESpace In The Seventies

National Aeronautics and Space Administration

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH, EDUCATION& WELFARE

OFFICE OF EDUCATIONTHIS DOCUMENT HAS SEEN REPRODUCEDEXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON ORORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. POINTS OFVIEW OR OPINIONS STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF EOUCATION POSITION OR POLICY

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SPACE IN THE SEVENTIES

Man has walked on the Moon, made scientificobservations there, and brought back to Earthsamples of the lunar surface.

Unmanned scientific spacecraft have probed forfacts about matter, radiation and magnetism inspace, and have collected data relating to theMoon, Venus, Mars, the Sun and some of the stars,and reported their findings to ground stationson Earth.

Spacecraft have been put into orbit around theEarth as weather observation stations, ascommunications relay stations for a world-widetelephone and television network, and as aids tonavigation,

In addition, the space program has acceleratedthe advance of technology for science and industry,contributing many new ideas, processes andmaterials.

All this took place in the decade of the Sixties.

What next? What may be expected of spareexploration in the Seventies?

HASA nas prepared a series of publications andmotion pictures to provide a look forward toSPACE IN THE SEVENTIES. The topics covered inthis series include: Earth orbital science; planetaryexploration; practical applications of satellites;technology utilization; man in space; andaeronautics. SPACE IN THE SEVENTIES presentsthe planned programs of NASA for the comingdecade.

January, 1971

COVER:

The components of Skylabworkshop, airlock, multipledocking adapter and the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM)are being checked out by the crew of a docked ApolloCommand/Service module.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

v INTRODUCTION

1 THE 1960's IN RETROSPECT:Man's Great Plunge Into Space

5 APOLLO:Man on the Moon in the 1970's

9 SKYLAB:A House in Orbit

11 THE SHUTTLE:Space liner of Tomorrow

13 SPACE. STATION/SPACE BASE:A City in Orbit

17 A LONG LOOK AHEAD:From the 1970's Into the 1980's

NOTE:Illustrations of Skylab, Lunar Rover,, SpaceStation, Space Shuttle, Lunar Surface Base, SpaceTug, Lunar Colony, and Planetary Base (Mars)are artist's interpretations of planned and proposedprograms.

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INTRODUCTIONThe endless frontier now lies open. Outer space

is accessible to Man in the 1970's. He gainedentrance to it in the 1960's. These first travelsbeyond the immediate vicinity of the Earthfulfilled an old dream. They culminated a pri-mordial human aspiration, and starteda movement that will never stop.

Daring and ingenious as were these first spacevoyages, they were only a beginning.In time, they will seem puny and primitive;ventures into the solar system will become increas-ingly sophisticated in the 1970's. Colossal as was theimpact of the recent missions on Man'simage of himself and of his Earth, even moreprofound implications are inherent in thespace ventures now in the making.

"Man on the Moon" became the theme ofthe 1960's. Building the capability for landingastronauts there and bringing them backwal., the prime objective of America's manned spaceexploration program in that decade.

No such single overriding focus exists for the197J's. In this new decade, U.S. space plannershave set multiple objectives. Perhaps themost promising among the new goals isdevelopment of facilities that would permitnon-astronauts to fly into space and perform researchwork there.

These new concepts and approaches are gen-erating new expectations and new opportunities.Hopefully, these visions will turn into newtriumphs, Hopefully too, from these will blossomnew knowledge, inspiration, technologicaladvances and economic and social benefitseven greater that those which emanated from theU.S. Moon exploration program in the 1960's.

These aims are not vain ambitions.Research and development for the U.S. spaceprogram of the 1970's is already far advanced.Many of the teams of scientists, engineers,astronauts and administrators who blue-printed theprojects to send astronauts to the Moonin the 1960's are planning the U.S. space thrustfor the 1970's.

President Nixon has announced these projectsas part of his comprehensive space programfor the next 10 years.

The Congress has approved and funded theinitial steps for that program.

This publication is a guided tour through theoutlines for Man in Space in the 1970's.

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Apollo 11 astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr. is photographed on the Moon by Neil Armstrong on July 20, 1969.

THE 1960'sIN RETROSPECT:Man's Great Plunge into Space

After eons of longingly gazing up at it,men finally looked down on the Moon during the1960's. Thwarted since time began by distanceand the intractability of Earth's gravity,men solved the problems by 1969. They wentto the Moon, picked up pieces of it, and carried themback to Earth for scientific examination.

Investigation so far suggests that no life existedon the Moon until the astronauts arrived.

When the 1960's began, no human had everflown above the atmosphere. At the decade's end,U.S. astronauts had orbited the Earth 959 timesand the Moon 116 times. In 22 flights theyspent 5,834 man-hours in space, the equal ofone man living in space for eight months.In one flight, two men remained in Earth orbit fornearly two weeks. Four astronauts lived on theMoon for a total of 106 man-hours and spentmore than 20 man-hours outside theirlanding craft.

The 1960's were years of almost incredibleachievement. Inspired by the manned Moonlandings, newspapers ran headlines: "The FutureHas Commenced" and "Farewell, Science Fiction."Terms like "countdown," "launch" and "orbit"became household words. A formerly obscure

"We choose to go to the Moon in this decadeand to do other things, not because they are easy,but because they are hard, because that goalwill serve to organize and measure the bestof our energies and shills."

President John F. Kennedy as he proposedthe U.S. Man-to-the-Moon programin May 1961.

"Through You, We Touched the Moon"Inscription on hand-lettered sign held by ayoungster watching Apollo 11 astronautsin a New York motorcade, August 1969.

point in the universe was named "Tranquility Base,"to be known by that designation for all generationsto come as the first landing site of men in aplace other than Earth.

That first manned landing on the Moon took placeat 4:17 p.m., (EDT), Sunday, July 20, 1969,on a lunar plain known to astronomersas Mare Tranquillitatis, the Sea of Tranquility.A little over six hours later at 10:56 p.m.,(0256 GMT, July 21) came one of history'smonumental moments. A 38-year-old American,Apollo 11 Commander Neil A. Armstrong, loweredhis left foot from the landing pad of thelanding craft. As the sole of his boot madecontact with the surface below, he became the firsthuman to stand upon another celestial body.

A few minutes later, he was joined in his"Moon walk" by Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr.Alone, as these two men were, nearly 250,000 milesfrom Earth, they were simultaneously the mostwidely observed human beings in history.More than 500 million persons in almost everycountry watched the astronauts on televisionor listened by radio to their conversations.The two astronauts spoke with Mission Control inHouston, Texas, and with their colleague, astronaut

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Michael Collins, who was piloting the Command/Service Module in Moon orbit awaiting thelanding craft's return.

A similar Moon landing was successfully carriedout in November 1969 by Apollo 12 astronautsCharles Conrad, Jr., and Alan L. Bean inthe lunar Ocean of Storms. They became thethird and fourth humans to live and walk onthe Moon while astronaut Richard F. Gordon, Jr.,tended to the Command Module in Moon orbit.

In 1961, President Kennedy had proposed thatthe United States 'n'tiate a national project to placeman on the Moon "before this decade is out."Subsequently, about 500,000 persons wereemployed in the U.S. manned space effort. Theydesigned, built and tested the world's mightiestrocket, the 28-story-tall Saturn V, and theyconceived and built the eight-story-tali Apollospacecraft with its three million components.They constructed a myriad of associatedequipment, helped train the astronauts, and pre-

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reared the vehicles for launch. They erectedand manned the ground tracking and communications stations, arid they managed whatcame to be the most massive science and engineeringproject of all time.

Six flights in the one-man Mercury capsulebetween 1961 and 1963 proved men could survivein space. Ten Earth-orbital flights in the twomanGemini craft in 1965 and 1966 demonstratedthat men could steer their craft in space andlink up with other orbiting objects. In theApollo 7 and 9 flights of 1968 and 1969, astronautstested the new three-man spacecraft in Earthorbit. In the Apollo 8 and 10 missions in thosesame years, other astronauts tried out thecraft in Moon orbit in preparation for the Moonlanding flights.

There were setbacks too. Mishaps and malfunc-tions in several flights provided tense momentsof drama and danger. Three astronauts died in aspacecraft fire during a mission rehearsal on

Faith 7 astronaut L. Gordon Cooper being assisted from the Mercury spacecraft after recovery on May 16, 1963.

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First rendezvous of two manned spacecraft in Earth orbit is achieved by Gemini V11 and Gemini VI on December 15, 1965.

the launch pad at Cape Kennedy in January 1967.From these accumulated experiences in success

and adversity emerged techniques and toolsuseful also for non-space endeavors. Such"spin-offs" contributed to progress and stimulatedinnovation in almost every field of human activity.Machines and processes derived from thedemands of the space program were borrowedor adapted for use in medicine, aviation, industry,transportation, communication, educationand large-project management.

Perhaps the most significant by-product of spaceexploration was the "psychological fall-out"the influence on men's minds. Having attainedwhat had seemed impossible, men became instilledwith a belief that other apparently unyieldingproblems could also be overcome through similarlysingle-mirlded, dedicated effort. Men gainedconfidence in their own ability to cope with suchtraditionally obstinate predicaments as war,

poverty, excessive population growth andenvironmental pollution.

As men looked for the first time at the Moonat close range, they also saw the Earth and themselves in a new perspecti...a. As viewed fromthe vicinity of the Moon, the Earth appears as asmall, bluish sphere suspended against thevelvety black backdrop of the vast universe.Through such pictures of the Earth brought backby astronauts, men began to see each other,in the words of poet Archibald MacLeish, as"riders on the Earth together."

As most other happenings of the 1960's becomesubmerged in the continuing flow of history,these first travels by men into space will beunforgettable occurrences. No matter how deeplymen penetrate space in the decades and centuriesahead, or how much they perfect the methodsand machines for space travel, the 1960's will heremembered forever as the time when it all began.

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An Apollo 12 astronaut unfurls the American flag on the surface of the Moon November 19, 1969.

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APOLLO:Man on the Moon in the 1970's

The Moona mere three-day journey fromEarthlends itself more readily to exploration thandid the continents when they were weeks or evenmonths apart by the best means of transportationthen at hand. Scientific investigations arethe main objectives of manned Moon explorationin the 1970's.

The wealth which men are likely to carryfrom the Moon in this new decade is not of amaterial kind. The matchless treasure to beretrieved from the Moon in the 1970's is knowledge.The Moon reveals solid clues to the historyof the solar system. Nature may have hiddencoded messages into Moon rocks about theevolution of that neighborhood of the universeof which the Earth is a part. From rocks onthe Moon, man may be assisted in learning abouthis origin and his destiny. He may discover cluesfor answers to his questions, "Where did I comefrom?" and "Why am I here?"

In the 1970's, men will stay on the Moon longer,dig deeper below its surface, move farther fromtheir landing craft, and explore more extensivelyand intensively than they could in the 1960's.Astronauts will gather and bring to Earth largerquantities of Moen rocks, and they will set upnetworks of automated scientific instruments on thelunar surface. To the rapidly increasing numberof human bootprints on the Moon will be addedtire tracks.

Astronauts will transport equipment and rocksamples across the Moon on vehicles ratherthan carry these items as they had to do duringtheir two Moon landing expeditions in 1969.With vehicles, astronauts,will be able to usemore and heavier equipment and cover largerareas on the Moon.

"The journey of the astronauts is more than atechnical achievement. It is the reachingout of the human spirit."

President Richard Nixon, June 4, 1969

Apollo 13, the first planned Moon landing flightof the 1970's failed to reach its destination.An oxygen tank ruptured, blew a panel out of theService Module and deprived Apollo 13 of itsmain power supply. The Lunar Module hadto be pressed into service as a "life boat."In a dramatic, suspenseful, highly complex seriesof improvised maneuvers, Mission Control onthe ground and the astronauts in Apollo wereable to return the sticken craft to Earth afterlooping once around the Moon withoutattempting a landing.

Apollo 14, delayed until early in 1971, wasre-programmed to carry out Apollo 13's assignment.The flight plan called for exploration in thescientifically promising Fra Mauro region, a hillyupland area believed to be covered with rocks farmore ancient than men have ever seen. To make theirrock gathering and other explorations easier, Apollo14 would take with it a 21-pound cart. Named byengineers "Modular Equipment Transporter" (MET),the two-wheeled, hand-pulled conveyance is morefamiliarly known to astronauts as a "rickshaw."It can hold hand tools, cameras, spare filmmagazines, scientific instruments, and Moon rockcontainers. It can also double as a mobileworkbench.

Beginning with Apollo 15, astronauts will rideon the Moon in a Rover, a four-wheel, battery-drivenMoon car. The 440-pound, jeep-like vehicle will becarried in the Moon landing craft and can veryeasily be extrac'ed after the landing.Rover's top speed is ten miles an hour and itsrange about 65 miles. Astronauts will drive it in awide circle around their base camp remainingwithin walking distance of the landing craftif Rover should become disabled.

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A prototype of the Modular Equipment Transporter (MET) that increases mobility of Apollo 14 astrona its on the lunar surface.MET, called "rickshaw" by its astronaut pullers, is a hand drawn vehicle that serves as a portable wokbench,a camera mount, and as a platform for the Lunar Portable Magnetometer experiment.

Also beginning with Apollo 15, a modifiedMoon landing craft will be used that offers increasedstorage capacity for food, oxygen, and atmosphere-purifying lithium hydroxide. These additionalprovisions will allow the astronauts to extend theirstay on the Moon to more than 66 hours,double the maximum 33 hours permissiblewith the present craft. Astronauts can thenextend their excursions on the Moon outside thelanding craft to 40 man-hours, more than doublethe present limit. The men will tour the Moonon three separate excursions of about 6 hourseach outside the landing vehicle.

Design improvements in the main spacecraftthe Command and Service Moduleswill allowcrews to increase the present standard10-day round-trip to 16 days. The men will spendmost of that extra time in lunar orbit, conductingscientific experiments there. Increased weight-carrying capacity will allow installation ofresearch equipment in the Service Module.The astronauts will be able to release a smallsatellite into Moon orbit. This satellite, whichcan measure the Moon's magnetic properties,

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can remain in orbit and continue to reportmeasurements long after the astronauts havereturned to Earth.

Other research devices in the equipment bayof the Service Module will permit precisemeasurements so that exact heights of lunarmountains and depths of craters can be determined.Cameras from the bay will record the Moon inthe invisible and visible radiation spectrums.Astronauts will "walk" thr Dugh space outside theorbiting craft to retrieve exposed film fromthe Service Module for return to Earth.

Some flights will be targeted to difficult-to-reachlanding sites at considerable distances north andsouth of the Moon's equator. At the new outposts,the astronauts will install moonquake recorders,radiation sensors, atomic particle countersand various other devices from ALSEP--the ApolloLunar Surface Experiments Package, The nuclear-powered instruments automatically relay theirfindings by radio to Earth.

In the 1970's, the Moon is destined to become aspace island of the Earth, a sister world that is almostthe Earth's eighth continent.

A two-man, electrically powered Lunar Rover Vehicle will extend the area of exploration for astronauts on thelater Apollo missions.

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Deployment of the Passive Seismic Experiment by an Apollo 11 astronaut on the surface of the Moon July 20, 1969.

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SKYLAB:A House in Orbit

A cylindrical aluminum container as big as afive-room house is to be launched into Earth orbitlate in 1972 to become America's first experi-mental space station. Inside the 28-ton structurefar larger than any spacecraft launched so farare a small bedroom, a kitchen, a bathroom, and amedium-sized combination laboratory-workshop.

About one day after the station is launchedand has stabilized in its orbital path, threeastronauts will arrive near it in an Apollo craft.That is the same type of craft which carriesastronauts to the Moon and back. But this Apollowill be minus the Lunar Module, which is not neededin Earth orbital operation. The astronauts will steerthe craft for rendezvous with the station and dockwith it.

Then, the astronauts will crawl through aconnecting tunnel (a multiple docking adapter)into an airlock and from these into the station.They will live and work in it for several weeks.Finally, the crew will crawl back into the Apollospacecraft and return to Earth, leaving thestation in orbit for similar use by subsequent crews.

This is Skylab, the next major advance in Earthorbital operations in the U.S. manned spaceexploration program. It is a project for carryingout the most elaborate scientific investigationsyet attempted in Earth orbit. Skylab willallow astronauts to remain in space longer, livethere more comfortably, and employ more.intricate research equipment than they have beenable to do in space until now.

The first three-man crew to enter Skylab isexpected to live and work in it for 28 days, more timethan anyone has remained continuously in space.After that crew has left Skylab, a second crew is toarrive in an Apollo craft, probably early in 1973.After docking, these three astronauts will also enterSkylab and remain in it for 56 daystwice as long asthe first crew.

"The peaceful conquest of space is the onlyform. of conquest in which modern man canproudly and profitably engage. In this struggle allmen are allies, and the only enemy is a hostileenvironment."

President Lyndon B. Johnson, 1965.

After the departure of the second crew, a thirdcrew will take over and operate for eightweeks, in about mid-1973.

Skylab resembles a large vacuum bottle.The airlock, a cylinder-shaped protrusion, representsthe bottle's neck. The main workshop cylinderis 48 feet long and has a diameter of 21.6 feet.Once Skylab is in orbit, panels extend fromits sides. These panels are covered withsolar cells which convert sunlight into electricityfor Skylab's operation. Also moving into place,attached to and at a right angle to the airlock,will be a large section resembling a windmill.It is the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM),an astronomical observatory for use by the crew.The "windmill's" main section houses thetelescopes and related instruments. Its paddlesconsist of solar cell arrays to power theseinstruments. These are designed for studies ofthe Sun from this vantage point, free fromatmospheric absorption of the Sun's radiations.Periodically, one of the astronauts will leaveSkylab through the airlock and "walk" throughspace to the outside of the telescope mountto exchange film cartridges and carry outother work.

Scientists hope that from this work will emergea better understanding of the Sun and, especially,its profound influence as the Earth's majorenergy supplier.

Inside Skylab, the crew will perform a varietyof industrial experiments. On Earth, the heaviercomponents of fluid mixtures settle duringcooling and solidification. In orbital zero gravity,the distribution remains consi^,tent. The astronautswill test and assess possible manufacturingprocesses which could eventually lead to spacefactories creating entirely new materials.In space, it may be possible to produce lenses,bearings, electronic devices and possibly

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Another view of Skylab with the Apollo Telescope Mount (ATM) locked in place

vaccines of now unattainable quality.From their lofty perch in the sky, the astronauts

will test Earth observation techniques that couldlead to vastly improved mapping, surveyingand prospecting; inspection of agricultural andforest growth; air and water pollution detection;and the charting of fish distribution, snowrunoff, and glacier and iceberg movements.

But the most important research objects arethe astronauts themselves. A key objectiveof Skylab is medical and biological research.

Scientists want to know the effects on bodyfunctions of prolonged exposure to weight-lessness. Other scientists are eager to learn aboutthe psychological impact, if any, resulting fromthe absence of normal day-night cycles.This knowledge would assist designers of lengthyspace missions in the future, and would addto the understanding of the human system inhealth and illness and, perhaps, lead to bettertreatments of certain disease conditions.

Skylab will be boosted into a 235-nautical mile

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circular orbit by a Saturn V, the same type of launchvehicle that sends U.S. astronauts to the Moon.But for Skylab, only the lower two stages are to befueled. The third, or uppermost stage, the SIVBrocket, remains free of fuel. It is this rocketstage that gives Moon-bound astronauts a finalpush for insertion into Earth orbit and, later,shoves them out of orbit and into a trajectorytoward the Moon. But for Skylab the emptySIVB is outfitted before launch as the astronauts'living and working quartersthe basic Skylabcylinder.

Its more than 10,000-cubic-foot interioraccommodates the astronauts' sleeping compart-ments, food preparation section, sanitary andwaste disposal units, and the orbital workshop andscientific research installations.

Skylab is a forerunner of the larger space stationsto be established later in the 1970's, and the stillmore massive and spectacular space basesenvisioned for the 1980's.

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THE SHUTTLE:Space liner of Tomorrow

As far as anyone can foresee now, the singlemost significant contribution to the advancementof space travel in the 1970's will be a revolutionaryvehicle known as the Space Shuttle,

When it makes its first flight, in 1977 or shortlythereafter, the shuttle will expedite the trans-formation of spaceflight from the spectacularo today to the routine that air travelbecame long ago.

Besides a cockpit for its astronaut crew, theshuttle will have seats for about 12 passengersplus cargo space. While the astronauts pilotthe craft, the passengers will relax incomfort comparable to flight in today's jetliners.

Passengers need not wear space-suits or otherspecial garments. They will need no specialtraining or physical conditioning as astronautsdo today. The cabin will maintain a "shirtsleeveenvironment." Eventually shuttles may fly intospace on timetables like those of buses,trains, ships and airliners.

But what makes the shuttle even more of asignificant and economical innovation is that,like all common conveyances, it can be usedfor numerous trips. This is the main reason whythe shuttle is expected to drastically reducethe cost of a space journey in comparison withtoday's missions.

These advantages are expected to make space-flight desirable and feasible for selected non-astronauts. Seats will remain too scarce to admitthe general public. But scientists, physicians,engineers, technicians, photographers andother specialists whose work can benefit throughresearch in space may get an opportunity to gothere. Scientific and technological experiments willbenefit from the fact that the shuttle is steerable.It can be maneuvered into any desired near-Earthorbit, and can remain in space continuouslyfor as long as 7 days.

The shuttle can insert unmanned satellites intoorbit simply by releasing them in flight.

"We stand at the start of a new era which will seespace flight become as safe, co reliable and aseconomical as aircraft flight through the atmos-phere is today."

Dr. Thomas 0. Paine, Administrator,National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration, I lovember 1969

These satellites will the remain in orbit after theshuttle leaves. It can catch up with satelliteswhich need maintenance or repair and canresupply them with film, batteries or otherneeded equipment. If desired, the shuttle canretrieve an orbiting satellite and bring itback to Earth.

One of the shuttle's major tasks will be tocommute between Earth and space stations toexchange personnel, resupply the stations,and pick up and return to Earth the instrumentsand records of completed experiments. As thenumber of space stations increases, the demandfor shuttle commuter service is bound togrow accordingly. For passengers, a shuttle tripto or from space stations may be similar to abusiness trip by air to a distant city.

The shuttle's reusability, for perhaps 100missions or more, will become possible throughshielding materials which are quickly replaceable orcan withstand atmospheric friction during reentryinto the Earth's air envelope. Studies and researchfor such materials and for the shuttle's best bodydesign have been underway for several years.

Research is also continuing on the shuttle'srocket propulsion system, whose enginesmust be able to vary their thrust and startand stop as many times as the pilots desire.

As now envisioned, the shuttle would weighabout 1,700 tons at launch and combine thefunctions and appearance of rockets, airplanesand spacecraft. It would fly at speeds rangingfrom subsonic (slower than the speed of sound)through sonic and supersonic to hypersonic(many times the speed of sound). It would haveto be able to withstand the stresses of launch,engage in maneuverable orbital flight andbe suitable for high-altitude gliding and low-altitudepowered descent.

Tentative designs picture the shuttle as con-sisting of two distinct sectionsa booster and anorbitereach piloted by two astronauts. Driven

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A space shuttle unloads a supply module at an orbiting space © National Geographic Societystation, 280 miles above the Earth's surface.

by the booster's engines, the combinationcraft would lift itself off its launch pad verticallylike a rocket. After reaching the speed ofabout 6,500 miles an hour and an altitude of about40 miles, the booster would detach itself.The booster's pilots would return with it to Earth,landing it horizontally like an airplane on aconventional airport runway. After refueling, thebooster would be ready to lift another orbiterinto the sky.

Meanwhile, the pilots of the orbiter section,with passengers and cargo aboard would havestarted their section's owii engines to provideacceleration to orbital speed and altitude.After completing its space mission, the orbiterwould be landed by its crew horizontallyon an airport runway (similar to the boostersec:ion). After refueling and routine maintenance(which might include rebuilding burned sectionsof the reentry heat shielda process whichcould take up to two weeks), the orbiter wouldbe ready for another space mission. Ground per-sonnel for the shuttle would be comparable to amaintenance group for airliners. The shuttle wouldrequire no elaborate launch preparations andno recovery forces as do today's rocketsand spacecraft. Monitoring devices in the cockpit

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allow the crew to conduct its own countdown.These qualities allow the shuttle to be launched

on short noticeperhaps within hoursif theneed should arise. Present rockers require weeksof preparation and several days of final countdownbefore launch. This fast availability would qualifythe shuttle as a space rescue vehicle to fetchmarooned or injured astronauts from space orbring relief supplies to a stricken craft.

Parts or all of the shuttle's passengercompartment can be convert.d for cargo wheneverdesired. Passenger and cargo compartmentshave a combined diameter of 15 feet and a combinedlength of 60 feet. Together they offer more cubicfeet of usable space than an average railroadfreight car.

The shuttle principle may later lend itself totransporting passengers and cargo from one pointon Earth to another in very short'travel times.Orbiters could reenter the atmosphere and landbefore completing their first orbit. Thus, they couldcarry passengers and cargo between such placesas New York and Sydney or Tokyo and Paris in lessthan one hour. in that way, the shuttle, the harbingerof a new kind of space travel, could also inaugurate anew epoch in Earth transportation.

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"Exploration really is the essence of the humanspirit, and to pause, to falter, to turn backon the quest for knowledge, is to perish."

Astronaut Frank Borman in address toCongress January 9, 1969, 13 days afterreturning to Earth from man's first flight tovicinity of the Moon.

SPACE STATION/SPACE BASE:A City in Orbit

A bustling space city, suspended high in the sky,may well come within the realm of possibilitiesthrough research in the 1970's. The trend ofdevelopments points to eventual construction of aspace base, the ultimate in orbital installations.It would presumably be a combination hotel andresearch center. In it, 100 or more scientists,physicians, research experts, technicians,statisticians, photographers, miters, and otheroccupational specialists would simultaneously beconducting wide varieties of projects encompassingalmost every scientific discipline and technologicalspecialty.

Some of these men and women ,r, ould come tothe space base for stays of a few hours or daysor weeks, depending on their particular assignments.Others might be semi-permanent residents. Theywould return to Earth only on their weekendsand vacations and for occasional conferences orshopping trips. Supplementing these professionalspace base staffs would be cooks, waiters,telephone and radio operators, computer operators,clerks, maintenance and repair men and otherauxiliary personnel to operate the restaurant anddormitory and the numerous other on-board servicefacilities. Laboratories of many kinds might beavailable. These would be staffed by experttechnicians trained to run tests and experimentsin the vacuum and zero-to-low gravity spaceenvironment.

Such a space base would be the logical outgrowthof Project Skylab. How soon such a space basewould come about, and what its specific design

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will be, depends largely on the experiences of thefirst American experimental space stations.Project Skylab, in 1972 and 1973, is to be followedin the 1970's by larger space stationsaccommodating crews of 6, 12, and later, up to50 men.

Centralized permanent space stations cansupport many diverse activities, can be modifiedand expanded as required, and can be operated atmuch lower unit costs because of the economyinherent in large-scale operations. These spacestations would be national research, developmentand operations centers in space, comparable tomajor Earth-bound government, university andindustrial laboratories.

They would provide pilot plants for theintroduction of commercial activities in space inline with the precedents set in the 1960s in the areaof communications satellites, thus returningfurther direct dividends from the space investment.The program would bring together and make thebest use of skills in designing both mannedspacecraft and automated satellites. New modesof support and control of space activities would beinvestigated. Finally, the Space Station will be avital link in a space transportation system extendingoutward to permit the exploration of the Moonand the planets.

As now envisioned, a space base would encompassa cluster of such space stationsor modulesindividually launched into orbit and assembled inspace around a hub or core. Passengers arrivingin a shuttle would enter the hub through hatches

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A cutaway view of a 12-man, triple-decked, space station,

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1..;;Aauseir, 'An expanded space station with two specialized experiment modules attached, while one module floats freelynearby. The wing-like arrays of solar panels provide electric power.

and from there walk or ride to any attached stationor module through the hub's corridors andconnecting tunnels. To receive additional :itationsor modules, the hub is surrounded by berth-likemultiple docking adapters similar to those to betested in Skylab.

Tne interior of one attached module might beoutfitted asa physics laboratory for the study offundamental particles. Another module mightcontain a biological laboratory for long-durationstudies of the effects of zero gravity on small animalsor plants over several generations. Still othermodules might be equipped and staffed forcommunications experiments, meteorologicalobservations which can best be done at extremealtitudes, and astronomical work requiring theabsence of atmospheric distortion and obstruction.

The space cityorbiting between 100 and 300miles above the Earthmight also have suburbs.Because certain experiments require freedom fromvibration or contamination, or because a modulemight have to remain pointed precisely in the samedirection for a long period of time, some modulesmight remain detached from the base. They wouldremain free-floating in the base's neighborhood, closeenough to draw on the base's facilities when needed.

As some equipment became obsolete, an entiremodule could be replaced by a newly outfitted

2_4

one shipped from Earth. Thus the base wouldrenew itself to meet current needs. The base'slifetime could extend for 10 years or more.

Several bases could eventually be establishedat varying altitudes and in different orbital paths togive researchers a choice related to the needs oftheir particular research projects. Some modulesmight be equipped as repair, supply andmaintenance stations for stop-overs by mannedand unmanned satellites and spacecraft on the wayto or from the Moon or other solar systemdestinations. An onboard nuclear reactor wouldprovide ample electric power for all base needs.

Rotating the entire base at a steady rate aroundits hub would create varying levels of artificialgravity, the pull of artificial gravity increasing withdistance from the center. Experiments could becarried out at locations in the base providing thedesired gravity levels. For the comfort of baseresidents, living quarters could be located at adistance from the hub where artificial gravity wouldequal normal gravity on Earth.

The flow of information and discoveries from aspace base would enrich the store of knowledgeabout the Earth, its resources, its environment andthe life upon it. In turn, that new knowledge wouldprovide foundations for improving the quality oflife and for building a better world.

151

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This lunar surface base will permit extensive exploration of the Moon and the establishment later of a permanent lunar base.

16

A LONG LOOK AHEAD:From the 1970's into the 1980's

The bridge men built to the Moon in the 1960'sis only the first step into the infinite universe.Because of that bridge, neither the Moon nor manwill ever be the same again.

The Moonwhich in the past was subject onlyto brute, inanimate forces such as meteoroids,radiation, temperature extremes and vulcanismis the object now of a very different force, theintellect and will of man. In time, man will probablyleave as formidable an imprint on the Moon ashave the mute, harsh forces of nature. The evidenceof man's presence may become as tangible on theface of the Moon as it has become on the faceof the Earth.

For man, that bridge is his first possible escapefrom the confines of the Earth where he has been aprisoner since his creation. For the first time inhis long history, man has the tools to leave Earth toexplore companion worlds. Judging by history,it is not man's nature, nor in his long-term interest,to let these tools lie idle.

In his long sojourn on Earth, man's advance upto 10,000 years ago had gone no further thanlearning to use skins of animals to cover himself.Then he emerged from the cave to construct otherkinds of shelter. It was about 5,000 years ago

"The great explorations of history, carried out bymany nations, have always opened up newvistas of the possible. And the sights of all menhave been raised and their hearts inspired.The exploration of space is in that great tradition."

Dr. Thomas 0. Paine, Administrator,National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration, November, 1969

that man learned to write and use a cart withwheels; 500 years ago movable type came into use;about 200 years ago the steam engine first providedusable power, and only in this century didelectricity, automobiles and airplanes become morethan curiosities. Only in the last 25 years haveatomic energy and television been turned to publicuse, and just in the last 10 years has technologyadvanced to open space beyond the atmospherefor exploration by men.

During the 1960's, men first overcame the bondof gravity that had always chained them close tothe Earth's surface. On July 20, 1969, two menbecame the first of their species to set foot uponthe Moon. In November 1969, two other menrepeated that achievement.

More Moon landing flights are planned for the1970's.

The United States is building Skylab and designinga Space Shuttle to be followed by a SpaceStation and Space Base. In the foreseeable future,space will open to many non-astronauts, althoughprobably not to the public at large. The economiesof long-lasting reusable vehicles will lower the costof space travel to one-tenth of what it is withtoday's expendable vehicles.

17

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A semi-permanent lunar base that includes an inflatable laboratory,

As shuttles begin to ferry passengers andequipment in frequent runs on a timetable, perhapsbeginning early in the 1980's, the convenience andreliability of this service is bound to attract manyvisitors into space.

As the load-carrying capacity of spacecraftincreases, many desirable space research projectswill become feasible. The demand for spacefacilities will rise.

Work is continuing on the development of anuclear rocketproject NERVA (Nuclear Enginefor Rocket Vehicle Application). NERVA is expectedto deliver more total thrust over long periods thanpresent chemical rockets of equal size and weight.The planned 75,000-pound-thrust engine can bethrottled and restarted repeatedly. It is to be usedmainly as an upper stage for moving orbitalvehicles onto deep-space trajectories and forcontrolling the velocities of these vehicles deep inspace.

A concept is also under consideration for aspace tug intended for taxiing between points inspace. The tug would hop from orbit to orbit toreposition or otherwise service manned andunmanned satellites; ferry persons and equipmentbetween Moon bases and Moon-orbiting craft, and

18

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a workshop and a control center.

help assemble space bases and largeMars-bound craft which would be put togetherin Earth orbit from sections delivered from theground.

Unmanned craft, which traditionally precede manon space missions are to be launched in the1970's toward the vicinity of every planet in thesolar system. At least two such craft will be sentinto Mars orbit. Each of these craft will release alanding vehicle to set down softly on Mars' surfaceand relay its findings to Earth.

Land lies abundant in the sky. Men will almostcertainly learn to reach it and adapt there, Themachines, techniques and skills to be developed inthe 1970's will bring closer the time of aspacefaring world. By the end of the 1970's, Marsand perhaps other celestial destinations will havebecome more realistic objectives for space voyagesin the 1980's.

Instead of looking upward, we can now lookoutward. From a tenant on Earth, man is turninginto a citizen of the solar system. From a merespectator he is maturing into a participant in theuniverse. Whatever man's destiny may be, spaceexploration is now certain to be a part of it.

1'

A permanent lunar base. The crew quarters and control center are in the right foreground and the laboratories,telescope and car modules are in the background.

The ferrying of men and supplies between an orbiting batellite, a space shuttle and a space station will beeffected by the Space Tug/Crew Module. 19 19

A temporary Mars base might develop as shown in thisillustration. Included are Mars Excursion Modules (MEMs)

and pressurized Mars Rover Vehicles (MRVs) for long-distance mobility.

20

WHAT'S AHEAD INU.S MANNED SPACE EXPLORATIONIN THE 1970'sMOON JOURNEYSApollo 14 through 17 in 1971-72 will extend mannedMoon exploration. In Apollo 14 a hand-pulled, two-wheel cart, nicknamed "rickshaw," will helpastronauts transport equipment and collected Moonrocks over greater distances. Beginning with Apollo15, later in 1971, astronauts will drive across theMoon in a batterypowered, four-wheel Rover with arange of about 65 miles. Improved life-supportequipment will permit astronauts on the latermissions to live on the Moon for 66 hours and remainoutside the landing craft for a total of 40 man hours.The spacecraft will have a greater life supportcapacity to extend the standard Moon roundtrip to16 days, thus allowing the crews to carry on morescientific research.

SKYLABThe first American experimental space station,

Skylab, is to be launched into Earth orbit in 1972.As big as a five-room house, it will provide livingand working quarters for a crew of three astronauts.The first crew will remain in the station for 28 days.After that crew has departed another crew will arrive,also in an Apollo spacecraft, and remain in the station56 days. A third crew will later repeat that visit. Themen will study the Sun with an on-board solarlaboratory, conduct Earth observations, carry onindustrial research requiring vacuum and zero-gravity conditions, and test their own reactions tolengthy exposure to space conditions. They willassess tools and furnishings for possible use in laterlong-duration manned space missions.

SHUTTLEA vehicle piloted by astronauts that can take up to12 non-astronauts into space is to make its maidenflight in 1977 or shortly thereafter. The shuttle landshorizontally like an airplane and can be used fornumerous flierts, thus drastically reducing the costof space trave . Scientists and other specialistswithout astrcmaut training will be able to carry onresearch in Earth orbit from the shuttle or fly in it toorbiting space stations. Shuttle passengers can wearconventional clothes and need no special trainingamid the "shirtsleeve environment" of the cabinthat will resemble the passenger compartment ofmodern airliners.

A LOOK AHEADA combination hotel and research center withaccommodations for 100 persons or more mayeventually emerge from research and experiments inthe 1970's. This space base in the 1980's wouldpermit large varieties of in-space work over longperiods. Scientists and other specialists could liveand work in the base for years, if desired, and makeperiodic visits to Earth by shuttle. The base wouldconsist of smaller space stations assembled arounda hub. Also considered are space tugs whichlikeferry boats on the ocean of spacewould move fromorbit to orbit carrying men and equipment betweensmall satellites, space stations and space bases.

21

AdditionalReading

For titles of books and teaching aids related to thesubjects discussed in this booklet, see NASA'seducational publication EP-48, AerospaceBibliography.

Produced by the Office of Public AffairsNational Aeronautics and Space Administration

*U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFHCE:1971 0-414-947

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing OfficeWashington, 33.C. 20402 - Price $1

EP-81

MAN IN SPACE

SpaceInTheSeventies

National Aeronautics and Space Administration