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In the more than one hundred and fifty years since its advent, Darwinianscience has shaped the world far beyond its native biology; however, its influe

nce has more often than not manifested itself as a misappropriation of Darwins original intent. In fact, a substantial number of the most important political, social and economic theories and ideologies of the previous two centuries owe their genesis wholly or in large part to Darwinian science -- or a perversion of it. Firstly, Marxs work on Communism, and indeed that of Engels, was inspired by Da

rwins work, more so, of course, in spirit than in actual content. Secondly, Gilded Age economic and social theory, as well as the social disparities it propagated, drew their justification from Social Darwinism, one of the most perverse and insidious misapplications of Darwinian theory. Finally, and most tragically, eminently wrongful interpretations of Darwinism influenced twentieth century Fascistideologies, including that of the Nazi party. The pervasiveness and extent of Darwins influence on the course of history has repeatedly put paid to XXXXXXXXX Ashley Montagus statement in XXXX that next to the Bible no work has been quite as influential, in virtually every aspect of human thought, as [Darwins 1859 book] TheOrigin of Species#.

To begin, the writings Karl Marx and his partner Friedrich Engels, which

laid the foundations of Communism and Socialism -- theories which in their ownright dominated the cultural and political landscape of the twentieth century --were, in their authors own words, indebted to Darwin and his work. In his eulog

y at Marxs funeral in 1883, Engels compared the father of natural selection and the father of dialectic materialism by saying that Just as Darwin discovered the law of evolution in organic nature, so Marx discovered the law of evolution in human history.# Illustrated is the way in which Marxs desire for a scientific answer, or at least one grounded in reason, to the questions posed by history mirrored Darwins scientific answer to the question of the diversity of life, that is, the origin of species. One could argue, and many do, that what motivated Marxs philosophical musings was a Darwinian obsession with reconciling natural science with the class struggle in history.# To quote Marx, in his seminal XXXXXXX work Das Kapital:

Darwin has interested us in the history of Natures Technology, i.e., in the formation of the organs of plants and animals, which organs serve as instruments of production sustaining life. Does not the History of the productive organs of man,of organs that are the material basis of all social organizations, deserve equa

l attention?#

By doing away with the one aspect of teleology yet to be demolished#, and providing the basis in natural history of our view#, at least in the eyes of Marx, Darwinian science precipitated Communism and, if it did not go so far as to justify itsconclusions, did validate the means used to reach them.

Compared to the other two social movements which remain to be examined,

Marxs theories are remarkably in keeping with those of Darwin, due principally totheir having drawn their influence from Darwins methods and the concept of his a

ccomplishments, the discovery of laws governing the growth of a system, and notto the characteristics of Communism explicitly echoing those of biological evolution; that being said, claims that Marxs ideas are reinforced or somehow buttressed by Darwinian science are exaggerated if not entirely ill-founded . Darwindid not intend to see his work applied in any sense to human societies or socia

l organizations, in fact, in the whole of The Origin of Species the only mentionDarwin makes of an application of his theory of natural selection in a field ou

tside biology is one ambiguous line mentioning the possibility of his theory being applied to the nascent field of psychology#. Moreover, esteemed evolutionarybiologist Richard Dawkins has consistently pointed out the fallacy of trying toapply Darwins theory to groups of humans, The misunderstanding of the Darwinian st

ruggle for existence as a struggle between groups of individuals - the so-calledgroup selection fallacy- constantly resurfaces in amateur misinterpretations of Darwinism, and even among some professional biologists who should know better.# Th

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us, it is not that Darwins theory is opposed to the conclusions drawn by Marx, but instead that Darwins theory cannot, and with any kind of integrity, should not,be applied to the types of systems - that is, human societies - that Marx seeksto apply it to.

Secondly, Social Darwinism, one of the most successful, and least accurate

, theories to attempt to co-opt the legitimacy of Darwinism, was influential i

n shaping the economic and social theory of the nineteenth century and early twentieth century, particularly the Gilded Age. The Gilded Age, or the period lasting from approximately XXXXXXX to XXXXXX, and defined by XXXXXXXXX, saw the terms Social Darwinism and Survival of the Fittest - terms incidentally not coined by Darwin, but by sociologist and philosopher Herbert Spencer#- applied to the dominant laissez-fair capitalism of the time to make the prevailing exploitive economic system seem natural and right .# It would be erroneous however to say that Darwins theory was misapplied to Social Darwinism, it was in fact Social Darwinismthat was misapplied to Darwin. Indeed, the latter assertion is the more apt because Social Darwinism is a misnomer; it refers to a Lamarckian version of biological determinism, and not a Darwinian one, and thus should be more correctly termed Social Lamarckism or, after its initial theorist, Social Spencerism.# Whatever th

e rectitude of its etymology , Social Darwinism, its tenuous connection to Darwin included, was used to justify social inequality. Take for example the work ofWilliam Graham Summer, whose book, What Social Classes Owe to Each Other, did much to propagate and justify social inequality in the England of his lifetime,:In general, however, it may be said that those whom humanitarians and philanthropists call the weak are the ones through whom the productive and conservative forces of society are wasted. They constantly neutralize and destroy the finest efforts of the wise and industrious, and are a dead- weight on the society in allits struggles to realize better things.#

This is rightfully abhorrent, all the more so for its bastardization of Darwinstheory. Summer makes the same mistake as Marx in overextending Darwins theory toapply it to human social groups. Furthermore, if one ill-advisedly endeavoured

to divine social or economic advice from Darwin, confusing, as Scottish philosopher David Hume would say, an is for an ought#, ones findings would be overwhelmingly against those of Summer. In The Descent of Man Darwin argues that natural selection actually promotes altruism and favours the genetic survival, though hewould not have used the term, of altruistic traits.Any animal whatever, endowed with well marked social instincts, the parental andfilial affectations being here included, would inevitably acquire a moral senseor conscience, as soon as its intellectual powers had become as well, or nearlyas well developed, as in man. For, firstly, the social instincts lead an animalto take pleasure in the society of its fellows, to feel a certain amount of sym

pathy for them, and to perform various services for them.#Though hardly efficient in his characteristic phrasing, Darwin effectively provides ample evidence to disprove any claims that his work could justify draconianopinions such as those held by Summer. He viewed altruism as inherently human and natural, and not, as the proponents of Social Darwinism did, as an obstacle inthe path of human improvement. In brief, despite its superficial connection to

Darwin, Social Darwinism, which catalyzed and upheld the dichotomy between classesof the late nineteenth century and beyond, was, in actuality, diametrically opp

osed to Darwinian Science.

Lastly, the final ideology to be influenced by Darwinism, again throughthe near blasphemy that is Social Darwinism, is twentieth century Fascism, specifically that of the Nazi party. Traditionally, the asinine fatuity that naturalselection as a theory should be rendered null due to the role it is perceived t

o have played in the Final Solution is the last ditch argument of a Creationist

in his or her death throes. And rightfully so, the poverty of this argument issuch that it does not stand up to the slightest of scrutiny. Ideologues of theIntelligent Design variety blame Darwin for racism, Communism, Fascism and 1960s

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radicalism, despite the fact that Darwinism offers no scientific support for these ideas;# presumably, they blame global warming and the economic downturn on him as well. And though Social Darwinist rhetoric was undoubtedly used to furnish Nazism with some inkling of scientific credibility, its brand of racism and anti-Semitism is fundamentally un-Darwinian, and is justified by misinterpretations and the pseudo-science of Social Darwinism. On the illusory and perfidious nature of the connection between Darwin and Hitler, Richard Dawkins says:

The popular canard about Hitler being inspired by Darwin comes partly from the fact that both Hitler and Darwin were impressed by something that everybody has known for centuries: you can breed animals for desired qualities. Hitler aspiredto turn this common knowledge to the human species. Darwin didnt.#

Thus the assertion that Darwinism somehow promotes eugenics, be it the system put into practice in Nazi Germany or those tentatively proposed in nineteenth andtwentieth century United States and England, is baseless and without merit. Notonly does the principle addressed in the above quotation predate Darwin, but eugenics itself does -- by thousands of years. In ancient Sparta, XXXXXXXXXXXXXXXXX#, and one would be hard pressed to prove that an accurate formulation of Darwinism inspired this Spartan practice. Thus, since its vernacular served useful rhe

torical purposes and its semblance of scientific credibility legitimized theirracist attitudes and practices, the ideology of Nazism can be said to have beeninfluenced and by Social Darwinism. Darwinian science however, that is mainstream, empirical Darwinian science, does not promote the hateful credo of the Nazisor any racist or eugenist doctrine.

In conclusion, misinterpretations of Darwinian theory -- often radical-- have shaped or helped birth a number of the major political and social theories that have arisen since the theorys own advent. The Communism of Marx, the Social Darwinism of the Gilded Age and the racism and Fascism of the Nazis have all drawn some inspiration or justification from erroneous readings of Darwinian science. However, these misapplications should not discount the incredible boon Darwinian Science has been to society, especially in its incalculable effect on the

transformation of humanitys view of the world and its unshackling of the minds and imaginations of humankind. So long as his theories are applied in their intended domain and in an empirical and impartial way, they are a powerful tool of knowledge and betterment. British polemicist Christopher Hitchens astutely illustrated Darwins legacy with his comparison that Charles Darwin was born in 1809, on the very same day as Abraham Lincoln, and there is no doubt which of them has proved to be the greater emancipator#