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1. EUTHANASIA means… … … … … … … … … … … … … .. (a) mercy killing (b)ego trip (c) mantra (d) juju

2. AXIOLOGY branches off as… … … … … … … … … … .(a) ethics and aesthetics (b) ethics and medicines(c)

ethics and privileges (d) ethics and qualities

3. … … … … … … … .. is the systematic treatment of moral phenomenon and science of human conduct

(a)ethics (b)politics (c) mathematics (d)philosophy

4. Seek ye first the knowledge of … … … … … … … . And every other things shall be added unto you (a)

physics (b) mathematics (c)chemistry (d) philosophy

5. Notable philosopheers who have contributed immensely to philosophical researches include (a)

obafemi awolowo (b) nkruma Kwame (c) bodunrin (d) all of the above

6. … … … … … … … … … .. contenders that the proper contention should be how can Africa be useful to

philosophy (a) Oguejiofor (b)rene Descartes (c)Immanuel kant (d) john passmore

7. … … … … … … … … … . Affirms the existence of the supreme being (GOD) (a) theism (b) atheism

(c)agnosticism (d) impersonalism

8. Aesthetic universalism can be meaningfully contrasted with … … … … … … (a) pest culturalism

(b)aesthetic relativism (c) menism

9. … … … … … … … . as an intellectual perspectives derives its name from the centrally of African world-

views (a) afrocentrism (b)eurocentrism (c) anthropocentricm (d) ecofeminism

10. Issues bordering on the existence of God the immorality of the soul, the relationship between

faith and evil preoccupies the minds writings of philosophers during the … … … … … … … periods (a)

ancient (b)modern (c)contemporary (d) medieval

11. Reality, according to Parmenides is … … … … … … . (a) permanent (b)logical (c)everchanging (d)

statics

12. The mind-body problem is often associated with (a)rene descartes(b)barech

spinoza(c)plato(d)hegal

13. Epistemology deals with the study of… … … … … (a)knowledge(b)argument(c)morality(d)political

orientation\

14. … … … … … … .defines metaphysics as the study of being qua being (a)rene descartes(b)obfemi

awolowo(c) Aristotle (d) damming

15. … … … … … … .. as an aspect of philosophy deals with the science of critical reason argument and

evidence (a)logic(b)ethics(c)epistemology(d)aesthetic

16. Philosophy has traditionally been divided into… … … … … .(a)four(b)two(c)ten(d)six

17. … … … … … .. defines philosophy in terms of ideology(a)karl marx(b)socrates(c)Immanuel

kant(d)roussean

18. Philosophy was identified as a contemplative enterprises during the period of

(a)aristotle(b)hegel(c)socrates(d)plato

19. The… … … … … .. conceives of philosophy as individual believes about issues of life

(a)phiolosopher(b)politician(c)layman(d)scientist

20. The … … … … … . Conceived of individual beliefs about issues of life (a) philosopher (b) politician (c)

layman (d) scientist

21. … … … … … … can be true or false (a) a sentence (b) a language (c) a proposition (d) a unit

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22. … … … … … … . Is defined as the unit of language that expresses a complete thought (a) statement

(b) proposition (c) sentence (d) syntax

23. … … … … … . Posists that development implies increased skills and capacity, greater freedom,

creativity, self discipline,responsibility, and material well being (a) walter Rodney (b) engel f(c) f.

copleston (d) m. Heidegger

24. The UNDP puts forward a notion of sustainable human development made up of the following

key elements except (a) development by the people (b) development for the majority (c)

development of the people (d) development for the people

25. … … … … … … .. regard philosophy as something intermediate between theology and science (a)

Bertrand Russell (b) Aristotle (c) Democritus(d) hegal

26. Which of the following school of thoughts is American in origin (a) Theism (b) pragmatism (c)

atheism (d) empiricism

27. This is not identified with date , The argument here is not whether this period actually existed in

reality or not, those situation is about (a) the prephiolosophic age(b) the modern age (c) the

socratic age (d) the platonic age

28. … … … … … .. say that objects such as tables, trees, books, chair, and so on exist within our

perceptual environment and that the object can be known to exist as they are (a) Naïve realist

(b) refined ideologist (c) epistemological nativist (d) rationalist

29. … … … … … method relies solely on reasoning faculty in its approach to philosophical problem (a)

analytical (b) prescriptive (c) speculative(d) economic

30. … … … … … . Is concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge (a) epistemology (b)

metaphysics (c) ethic (d) logic

31. During the socratic period philosophy came to be identified with (a) ideological enterprise (b)

contemplative enterprise (c) discussive enterprise (d) business enterprise

32. Sometimes, philosophy is defined as ideology. This seems to represent… … … position (a) karl

marx (b) Aristotle (c) Einstein (d) washmans

33. American is in a great country. Dickson is an American, Therefore Dickson is great. This is an

example of which fallacy (a) invicible ignorance (b) mavalism (c) division (d) accent

34. The fallacy that occurs when the propositions of an argument are badly constructed, hence the

meanings may be ambiguous or unclear is (a) amphiboly (b) accent (c) division (d) genetic

35. It is only when we are dealing with an … … … … … .. argument that we have premises without a

conclusion (a) inductive (b) enthymemic (c) deductive (d) conditional

36. The purpose of philosop[hy in languages is for (a) clarification(b) adjuctification (c) argument (d)

learning

37. The philosophy of time was a conglomeration many traditions, especially the jewish, Christians,

islam and paganic traditions. This statement give reference to (a) the medieval period(b) the

modern period (c) the jewish period (d) the renaissance

38. The apostle of philosophy of change is (a) Socrates (b) plato (c) Heraclitus (d) Anaxagoras

39. The problrm of mind and body was brought to limelight by (a) Socrates(b) Plato (c) Heraclitus(d)

Descartes



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40. The… … … … … . However, contends that man has no control over the belief worldviews and actions

he holds (a) Determinist (b) Libertarian (c) Liberian (d) God

41. Is knowledge the same as belief? (a) yes (b) no (b) True and False (d) Yes and no

42. … … … … ..is the act of inducing painless death on a person for a reason assuming to be merciful (a)

mercy (b) inducement (c) euthanasia (d) painlessness

43. … … … … . Is the period when philosophy changed from being cosmo- centric to being

anthropocentric (a) the Socrates (b) the academy age(c) the cosmo- centric (d) The Eve of Dark

Age

44. The Language game theory was developed by (a) Plato (b) Locke (c) Wittgenstein (d) Quine

45. … … … … can be defibe as the increase in per – capital income plus positive changes in all sector of

a countrys economy (a) Financial growth (b) Capitalism (c) development (d) Socialism

46. … … … . Is discourse in which certain things being stated something higher than what is stated

follows of necessity from their being so (a) syllogism (b) Argument(c) Reasoning (d) Deductivism

47. … … … … .. formulated the principle of identity and non – contradiction (a) Perminides (b)

Heraclitus (c) Plato (d) Locke

48. The law maintaining that if a statement is true then it is true (a) Law of Nume (b) Law of truth (c)

Law of truth (d) Law of non-contradiction

49. To… … … … .., the meaning of any particular word is locatable in the speakers mind (a) Locke (b)

Hobbies (c) Heraclitus (d) Plato

50. The following are the attributes of language except (a) Self-critiquing (b) contexuality (c)

Universality (d) Destruction

51. … … … … . Is everyday language which is or can be spoken and written by person who wither have

been born into the cultural language, or have learnt and acquired the use of the language (a)

Natural language (b) Artificial language(c) Personal language (d) Impersonal language

52. … … … … .is the definition that has an established reasoning (a) ostensive (b) persuasive (c) lexical

(d) stipulated

53. Which of the laws of thought maintains that if a statement is true, the it is true ? (a) Law of non-

contradiction ( b) law of identity (c) excluded middle (d) directive

54. … … … … .. Means explaining the meaning of a word with the view to providing a clearer picture of

word (a) language (b) definition(c) philosophy (d) clarity

55. All these are functions of language except (a) Aromtic(b) informative(c) expressive(d) directive\

56. … … … … … sentence may serve the ceremonial or expressive function (a) categotical (b)

declarative (c) imperative (d) exclamatory

57. A book ia book is a good example of … … … … … reasoning (a) a priori (b) synthetic (c) a posteriori

(d) synthetic analytic

58. … … … … has been defined as a system of sounds, words, patterns, and symbols used by human

beings to communicate thought and feelings (a) Logic (b) Epistemology (c) Linguistics (d)

Language

59. … … … .. argues that language is intrinstically social and not private (a) Locke(b) Ludwig

wittgenstein (c) Apollo (d) Rusell



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60. The supportive proposition of an argument is called (a) analogy (b) claim (c) premises (d)

conclusion

61. Validity and invalidity is associated with … … … … .. argument (a) inductive (b) Logical (c) deductive

(d) speculative

62. Informal fallacy can be categorized into … … … … categories (a) 5( b) 2 (c) 8 (d) 3

63. I wonder why my father quarrel with my smoking habit, when he too smokes, is an example of

… … … .. fallacy (a) Tuquoque (b) conversive accident (c) accident (d) appeal to pity

64. Priori is one whose meaning can be known or whose truth value can be determine without

recourse to … … … … .. (a) Understanding (b) reasoning(c) Sense experience (d) Value

65. Language perform the following functions except (a) Organizing function (b) expressing function

(c) directive function (d) informative

66. … … … … … defines logic as the study of the methods and principle used to distinguish correct good

from bad reasoning (a) I.V copi (b) I.M copi (c) I.R copi (d) I.J copi

67. … … … . Holds that knowledge is acquired through reasoning from first principles which are self

evident (a) theism (b) rationalism (c) ultuism (d) Selflessness

68. Philosophy relates to the basic theme that something can out of nothing (a) Lockes (b) Poppers

(c) johns (d) Laktos

69. … … … . Is a school of thought that is often linked to the Danish philosopher –Soren kiekegaard (a)

Pragmatism (b) exentialism(c) innovatism (d) afrocentism

70. That a man is free and self determined individual who has unique personality not to be

duplicated in any other person. This statement vividly describes (a) Freedom (b) individual

(c)extentialism (d) determinism

71. The america major contribution to modern philosophy is (a) rationalism (b) emprism (c)

Pragmatism (d) theism

72. Who wrote how Europe under developed Africa (a) Walter Rodney (b) I.M Copi (c) Popper (d)

None of the above

73. The empiricist contend that knowledge begins with sense experience (a) Yes (b) No (c) Yes and

No (d) True and False

74. Which of the following is not an age in the Greek era? (a) pre- socratic Age (b) The Academy Age

(c) The socratic Age (d) None of the above

75. When the premises provide conclusive evidence for the conclusion, which type of argument is

this (a) Deductive argument (b) Inductive argument (c) Sound argument (d) Unsound argument

76. If God exists, the atheists are in trouble. God exists, therefore atheists are in trouble. What type

of argument is this? (a) Inductive (b) Sound (c) Valid (d) Deductive

77. All humans are animals.(T). All animals are mortals (T). Therefore all humans are mortals (T). is

this argument unsound (a) yes (b) No (c) All of the above (d) None of the above

78. All soldiers are corrupt, therefore all politicians should be killed the fallacy committed is … … … …

(a) accident (b) non sequitur (c) petition principia (d) ingnoratio elenchi

79. What you bought yesterday, you eat today. You bought raw meat yesterday. Therefore you eat

raw meat today. The fallacy committed is … … … … … . (a) accident (b) Non sequitor (c) petition



principia (d) idnoratio elenchi



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80. … … … … is characterized by attempts to know the reality behind our world. (a) ethics (b)

metaphysics (c) logic (d) epistemology

81. … … … … . Defines ethics as the theory of right and wrong (a) plato (b) Aristotle (c) Joad (d)Locke

82. The applied branches of philosophy include philosophy of (a) law (b) science (c) mathematics (d)

All of the above

83. John Locke resolved experience into sensation and … … … … . (a) reflection (b) deflection (c)

abrasion (d) importance

84. Which of these philosopher contends that reality is permanent (a) Heraclitus (b) Plato (c) Hegel

(d) Schelling

85. Which of these philosophers believe that reality is changing? (a) Fitche (b) schelling (c) hegel (d)

all of the above

86. To … … … … . Physical world comprises two elements which are matter and form? (a) Heraclitus (b)

Hegel (c) Plato (d) Aristotle

87. Which age of the Greek era was mainly cosmo- centric? (a) pre- socratic Age (b) The socratic

Age (c) Academy Age (d) the eve of the dark

88. The period spanning between the first century A.D to 550 A.D is … … … … . (a) pre- socratic Age (b)

The Socratic Age (c) The Academy Age (d) the eve of the dark

89. A blank clean slate on which nothing has been imprinted is called … … … … (a) Slate (b) Tabula

rasa (c) taba rasa (d) Plain table

90. One of the plato original doctrines is the theory of … … … … .. and … … … … … . (a) Good and bad (b)

ideas and forms (c) Mind and body (d) Soul and mind

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(4) Karl marx’s stand o the fact that philosophy may help the individual to understand their social and political environments.

(5) By nature philosophy is abstract and general, rigorous and self critical and it’s a second-order subject.

(6) Philosophy is classified into (i) traditional (ii) Applied branch (7) The traditional branches include- logic, metaphysics, epistemology and

ethics. (8) Logic is defined as the science of critical reasoning which stipulated rules

and principals that guild human reasoning

CHAPTER ONE (MEANING, SCOPE, BRANCHES AND METHODS)

1. Philosophers with analytic mind tend to approach philosophical enquires

through evaluation, analytic and clarification

2. Philosophy may be define in terms of WISDOM

3. During the Socratic period, philosophy came to be identified with the

contemplative enterprise i.e during the Socratic period came to be

identified with the reasoning faculty.

4. In the process of contemplative enterprise i.e think ‘to consider’ or ‘to

examine’ philosophy becomes an instrument with which men search for the

truth above life and the universe.

5. Philosophy’s main function is the contemplative approach is an

examination of the USE and MEANING of our words and concept in the

language we use.

6. Karl Max’s support Philosophy can be defined in terms of ideology.

7. Karl Max appreciates the fact that philosophy may help individuals to

understand their social and political environments.

8. Karl Max categorized the understanding as GOALS or ENDS.

9. Joad claimed philosophy is interested in everything that exists.

10. By nature philosophy is self critical, rigorous, general and abstract.

11. Philosophy by its nature is classified as second order subject.

12. Philosophy does not rely on the scientific methods i.e. observations and

experiments, rather it proceeds by way of rational process and justification

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i.e philosophy examines the science assumptions and tend to justify it by

rational process i.e based on reason or logic.

13. Philosophy as an academic discipline is classified into two branches, which

are TRADITIONAL and APPLIED BRANCHES.

14. Traditional branches include Logic, Metaphysics, Epistemology and Ethics or

Axiology while applied branches include philosophy of science, law,

language, religion, history, mathematics, e. t. c.

15. The problems associated with the traditional branches are nature of reality,

about the common belief that objects are known as they are (native

realism), that wrong and right are relative terms and so on.

16. LOGIC is the science of critical reasoning and which specify rules and

principles that guide human reasoning.

17. Metaphysics originated from Greek word ‘Meta ta physka’ meaning the

book after the book of nature.

18. Aristotle defines metaphysics as being qua being i. e. the study of existence

or reality as such.

19. Epistemology is described as attempts to know the reality behind our

world.

20. Ethics deals with the issue that relate to moral obligations, duties we owe

to fellow human beings.

21. Joad defined ethics as the theory of right or wrong.

22. Analytic method of philosophy is used to clarify, evaluate, claims about

concept, beliefs or assumptions.

23. Speculative method is the method o philosophy that integrate various

ideas that arises out of philosophy discourse.

24. Prescriptive method is used in terms of choice e.g. choice to make in

political arrangement.

CHAPTER TWO (SOME TYPICAL PHILOSOPHY PROBLEMS)

1. Philosophers unlike the scientific classified problems as puzzle in need of

clarification

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2. The Liberation i. e. the people that believed that people should have the

freedom to do and think as they like holds that mans conscious acts are

autonomous choices among a number of real possibilities pen to him.

3. Determinist i. e. people that belief that people are not free to do as they

wish contends that every including man’s conscious acts are caused by

factors external to us.

4. Libertarian belief that man is rational being capable of making choice.

5. Determinist argues that our environment culture, social and politic often

determines how we live our lives.

6. The body is said to be physical i. e. a material entity which occupies space

and time while the mind is said to be mental, a non material entity that

does not occupy space.

7. Descartes argued that mind and body do not interact.

8. Theories like psychophysical, parallelism, double aspect theory, bundle

theory, identity theory, epiphenomenalism was postulated to dissolve the

mind and body problems, all these theories is reduced into two monism

and dualism.

9. Sense data theory is also called indirect realism.

10. Heraclitus, Fichte, Schelling and Hegel are of the opinion that reality is

changing.

11. Philosophers such as Parmenides, Socrates and Plato contend that reality is

permanent.

12. Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Democritus and Aristotle believe that both

permanence and change exist in harmony.

13. Heraclitus argues that nothing is permanent.

14. Euthanasia means mercy killing “which is the act of inducing painless death

on a person for reason assumed to be merciful”.

15. One of the Plato original doctrine is the theory of Ideas and forms.

16. Aristotle first developed the doctrine of universal as alternative to Plato’s

theory of Ideas or Forms.

17. The problem between universal and particulars is that universal can exist

independently of particulars.


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18. Socrates Philosopher is known for any written text.

CHAPTER THREE (PERIODIZATION OF PHILOSOPHY)

1. The Philosophy of the Pre-Socratic age(about the 6th

century BC) was

predominately Cosmo-centric.

2. The first of the philosophers of the pre-Socratic age was Thales often

referred to us as Thales of Miletus and argued to be of Phoenician birth.

3. Alexandria academy came to existence in the pre-Socratic period

4. Thales suggested ‘hydro’ water as the main stuff of the universe.

5. Anaximander suggested an indeterminate boundless called APEIRON.

6. Anaximenes thought of air and the original stuff of the universe.

7. Zenophanes (between 570-475BC) argues that human knowledge cannot

arrive at certain truth, but only at mere opinion.

8. Protagoras is known for his mathematical theory called Pythagoras theory.

9. Democritus and his master Leucippus set the foundations of science by

identifying atom as the smallest indivisible particles of an element.

10. The Socratic age (469-322BC) is the period when philosophy changed from

being cosmo-centric i. e. “universe” to anthropocentric i. e. Human.

11. The Sophists is the first Philosophy of his period (Socratic age).

12. Socrates (469-399BC) said to have reacted to the negativist philosophy of

the sophists.

13. Socrates is best known for his ideas that an unexamined life is not worth

living.

14. The most important philosophers of Socratic age were Plato (427-347BC)

and Aristotle (384-322BC).

15. Socrates is the master of Plato, whereas Plato is the master of Aristotle.

16. Philosophy in the Socratic age was predominantly speculative.

17. Plato is known for his political and epistemological contributions while

Aristotle is Metaphysics.


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18. Academic age is the period the peripatetic school introduced by Aristotle

became well known.

19. Epicurus founded the Epicurean garden in Athens.

20. The Leno founded the Stoa (a Greek term for porch).

21. Early Skepticism was referred to as pyrohonism or academics.

22. The Philosophy of the medieval period is Theocentric.

23. In the medieval period, St. Anselm of Canterbury was famous for his

Ontological argument for God’s existence.

24. St. Bonaventre original name was Giovanni Fidanza and made a rigid

destruction between Philosophy and theology.

25. In the medieval period Avicenna (Ibn sina) a Persian and Averrois, a

Spaniard were the important figures of the Islamic Philosophic traditions

though they are not Arabs but they wrote in Arabic language.

26. The modern period is also referred to as the age of the science.

27. Age of renaissance is also called an age of adventure.

28. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) opines that application of scientific method is

keys to knowledge.

29. The difference between the mind of man and the mind of animal is that

man is able to form sign and names to describe their sensations.

30. At the period of modern foundationalist school age, the church has

considerably lost its hold on people mind’s and mode of thinking.

31. The medieval thinkers wrote in Latin while the modern philosophers wrote

in different vernaculars. The medieval Philosophers wrote commentaries.

Modern Philosophers wrote original works.

32. Descartes is of the opinion that mind and the mechanical material world

are related.

33. David Hume, George Berkley and John Locke were the philosophers of

empirism.

34. John Locke a realist believes that the external world exist independent of

the mind.

35. David Hume a skeptic tries to bring empiricism to a consistent logical

conclusion.


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36. William Amo, a Ghanian (1700-1769) of the idealist school wrote “Dejure

Maurorum in Europa”

37. The contemporary period is characterized as the age of the method and

analysis, age of language, words, symbol and concepts.

CHAPTER FOUR (A SYSTEMATIC SURVEY OF SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

ON PHILOSOPHY)

1. The Afrocentrism is viewed from the perspective of the African person.

2. Karl Popper contends that human reason is unlimited with regard to

criticism yet limited to the regard with its power of prediction.

3. The most important idea of Popper’s Philosophy relates to the basic theme

that something can come out of nothing.

4. Popper maintained that values cannot be reduced to facts: mind cannot be

reduced to machines.

5. Existentialism is the Philosophy of existence.

6. Existentialism as a school of thought is often linked to the Danish

Philosophy “Soren Kiekegaard”

7. Existentialism is concerned with the concrete experiences of the individual,

the quality of life, th choices we make. etc.

8. One general belief of the existential school of thought is that A man has

freedom and self-determining individual who has unique personality.

9. Jean Paul Satre opines that man is nothing else but what he makes of

himself.

10. Existentialism is a message of hope in a rather hopeless world.

11. The message of the Existentialists to Nigerians is that things can be changed

but the change has to be done by individual Nigerians.

12. John Dewey, Sanders Pierce and William James are the major supporters of

the school of Pragmatism.

13. Pragmatists defined man as an experiencing organism that cannot properly

exist without interacting with his environment.

14. Theism is a school of thought that supports the existence of God.

15. Rationalism holds that knowledge is attained through reasoning.


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16. Empiricists contend that knowledge begins with sense experience.

17. John Locke holds that the human mind at birth is a ‘Tabula Rasa’ i. e. “A

blank” clean state on which nothing has been imprinted.

18. John Locke resolved experience into sensation and reflection.

19. The Rationalist and Empiricists explained the source of human knowledge.

20. David Hume declares that sense of impression is the only original sources of

human.

21. The main subject of the existentialist is freedom, logical analysis and

existence.

22. Ludwig Wittgenestein developed language theory game.

23. Rationalism as a school of thought upholds support i. e. the denial of the

possibility of knowledge.

24. Instrumentalism is an old Philosophical theory.

CHAPTER FIVE (PHILOSOPHY AND DEVELOPMENT)

1. Philosophy is associated with criticism and argument.

2. John Dewey says Philosophy is criticism of criticism and as an organ for

dealing with the social and moral strives within the society.

3. Karl Popper says criticism is the growth of knowledge.

4. The primary objective of philosophy is to influence and transform

individuals and society positively and to enhance the quality of life.

5. Bertrand Russel regards Philosophy as something intermediate between

theory and science.

6. Philosophy makes use of logic and analysis.

7. Socrates became the first Philosopher martyr.

8. Socrates is the father of western moral Philosophy.

9. Rene Descartes is regarded as the father of modern Philosophy.

10. Descartes argued that beliefs are need to be subjected in order to know

the one clear and distinct.

11. The Philosophers of Plato and the stoics has influenced on the people of

the post-Aristotelian period.

12. David Hume does not support the scientific theories.


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13. Jeremy Bentham’s idea has influence on the G8 countries e.g. Japan,

Canada, Great Britain, etc.

14. Jeremy Bentham’s idea that the best society is the one that produces the

great amount of happiness.

15. Modernization is the application of the results of modern science for the

improvement of human life says; Kwasi Wiredu.

16. Development does have a simple meaning due to the lack of definitional

agreement between scholars.

CHAPTER SIX (MEANING, NATURE AND PURPOSE OF LOGIC)

1. Bernard Russell defined logic as legitimate way of reasoning.

2. Copi, I.M (1982) defines logic as the study of methods and principles used

to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning.

3. A. R Lacey observed that logic deals with valid reasoning.

4. Logic is regarded as both Science as Art.

5. Logic as science possesses the truth Art possesses utility.

6. Logic assists the students to improve their own power of cogent reasoning.

7. History has it that Aristotle was the first scholar to develop LOGIC as an

academic discipline.

8. One important aspect of Aristotle logic is SYLLOGISM.

9. A syllogism is an argument in which a conclusion is drawn from two

statements a major and a minor premise.

10. Okafor (1990) postulated that thinking is a natural attribute of man and

everyone can reason to an extent concerning certain things.

11. The ancient Greek organized the art of reasoning into a logical reasoning

into a logical system of rules, principle and laws.

12. Parmenides formulated the principles of identity and non- contradiction.

13. Zeno a follower of Parmenides comes about the idea of logical paradoxes

i. e. explaining the contradicting statement in a way following the rules of

logic.

14. Logic is study to show that it does not only deal with reasoning.


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15. Logic is used to express ideas clearly and to analyze arguments for correct

reasoning.

16. There are three laws of thought (i) Law of identity (ii) Law of non-

contradiction (iii) The law of excluded middle.

17. Law of identity states that what is true is true i. e. (A is A).

18. Law of non-contradiction states that it is impossible for the same thing to

happen at the same time i. e. ~(P ~ P)

19. Law of excluded middle states that there is no middle point in an argument

or statement is either ‘true or false’

20. A sentence is defined as the unit of language that expresses a complete

thought.

21. A priori sentence is a way of knowing the truth value or meaning of a

statement by message.

22. A posteriori statement is a way of knowing the truth value or meaning of a

statement by sense experience.

23. A proposition is a type of logical meaning of which affirmation or denial is

possible

24. Propositions have to be true or false.

25. There are two kinds of statements, Analytic and Synthetic.

26. In a analytical propositions, the logical predicate of a sentence is contained

in the sentence e. g. RCF is a church.

27. Synthetic proposition is known by sense experience.

28. Synthetic propositions are knowable to a Posteriori while Analytic

propositions are knowable to A Prior.

29. Example of a synthetic proposition “It is raining”.

30. A statement can also be proposition.

CHAPTER SEVEN (LOGIC, LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY)

1. Logic is defined as the idea method in techniques of reasoning.

2. Aristotle says “man is a rational animal”

3. The natural capacity and disposition is referred to as informal logic and

natural logic.


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4. Everything concerning the activity of man originates in thought.

5. Formal logic is guided by formulated rules.

6. Giles St. Aubyn write up is synonymous to formal logic.

7. Gottlob Frege, Bertrand Russell, Alfred North Whitehead developed formal

logic.

8. Wittgenstein defines language as the totality of propositions which pictures

reality.

9. Language can be divided into two namely VERBAL i. e . Oral, vocal or

spoken, medium and non-medium and NON-VERBAL e.g. drum language,

trumpet language and sign language.

10. John Locke says “all meaning of words is private”.

11. Ludwig Wittgenstein’s says language is intrinsically social and not private.

12. Language is an invention that is unique to man.

13. Ordinary or natural language is the everyday language that we speak while

ideal language involves signs, symbols to clearly express ideas e.g. logic,

jurisprudence, chemistry, etc.

14. Aigbodioh classified pidgin English, creolized language and Esperanto as

“Artificial-natural language”.

15. Language is a by-product of communication.

16. Language is used for communication.

17. Stipulated definition refers to as nominal or verbal definition i.e. “the

meaning given to a new term when introduce the first term” it has no true

value.

18. The word Ostensive is derived from the Latin word “Osteridere” which

means to show.

19. Ostensive definition deals with demonstrated, pointing or referring.

20. Russell says there are two kinds of words, object word and dictionary word.

Objective word haa ostensive definition.

21. Persuasive definition is an expression of emotion to influencing attitude to

an issue or event.

22. Précising definition is a definition that requires specificity.


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23. Atomic proposition is a proposition that states that a certain thing has a

certain quality e.g JAMES is a student of AAUA.

24. Logic is derived from Greek word “Logikos” which means belonging to

speech or speaking or belonging to the reason or rational.

25. Thinking makes use of Language of Thought (L.O.T).

26. German philosopher J.G. Hamann says reason is language.

27. According to Durmett language operates as a code of thought.

28. Chomsky opines that language is a tool of thought.

29. Sapir says language does not exist independently of culture.

30. Logic, language and society are Man-centered.

CHAPTER EIGHT (MEANING AND NATURE OF ARGUMENTS)

1. An argument is described as group of propositions providing support for a

claim.

2. In an argument, there are two sets of propositions “PREMISE” and

“CONCLUSION”. A Premise is the supportive proposition while Conclusion is

the proposition that enjoys the support.

3. An argument can be described as a chain of reasoning in which conclusion

is inferred from a premise.

4. Indicators are English words either preceding the reason for making a claim

or claim being made.

5. Premise indicators include because, since, for, as , WHILE conclusion

indicators include so, therefore, hence, thus, it follows that, we may infer

that, we may conclude that.

6. The supportive preposition is called PREMISE while the preposition that

enjoys the support is the CONCLUSION.

7. The combination of premise and conclusion makes up Argument.

8. The rule for supplying missing proposition is called the principle of charity.

9. There are two types of argument namely; Deductive and Inductive

Argument.

10. A deductive argument is an argument in which the premises provide a

conclusive evidence for the conclusion.


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11. A deduction argument may be syllogistic or conditional.

12. Enthymemic argument is an argument that will have premises without a

conclusion.

13. A deductive argument is either valid or invalid.

14. An argument is said to be valid if the conclusion follows entirely from its

premises, while it is invalid if its conclusion does not follow entirely from

the premises.

15. The validity of an argument is not determined by the truth or falsity of its

preposition.

16. A sound argument is a deductively valid argument in which all its premises

and conclusion are true while unsound argument is the one in which the

premises only provide support for conclusion. Inductive argument is one in

which the premises only provide support for conclusion.

17. An inference is an act of drawing as conclusion from one or more premises.

CHAPTER NINE (CATEGORICAL PREPOSITIONS AND KINDS OF

INFERENCES)

1. A categorical proposition is one in which is either an affirmation i.e.

something is the case or negation i.e. denying that is the case.

2. An inference is immediate when conclusion is drawn from one premise.

3. An inference drawn from a premise through the mediation of another

premise or some other set of premises is called Mediate Inference.

4. The traditional square of opposition provides examples of immediate

inference.

5. If two proposition s are contradictories then it follows that they cannot be

false together.

6. Propositions that are contraries cannot be true together but can be false

together.

CHAPTER TEN (syllogistic Arguments and Venn Diagram

Technique)

1. Syllogisms are special deductive kind of arguments.


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2. A syllogistic argument contains three propositions two of which are

premises are usually stated while the last is conclusion

3. In syllogistic argument, the Major premise is stated first followed by minor

premise then conclusion.

4. Venn was a logician that introduced ways of representing categorical

proposition in terms of equations and inequalities.

5. In a syllogistic argument the Major premise is stated first followed by minor

premise then conclusion

6. In syllogistic argument, the two premises are usually stated while in

conclusion comes last in the series.

7. A term or class is a collection of things.

8. If a class is such that it has no member, such a class is said to be an empty

class.

9. The complement of a class refers to all things that do not belong to a class.

CHAPTER ELEVEN (Fallacies)

1. Fallacy is used to refer to any mistaken idea or false belief.

2. Any form of incorrect argument is a fallacy

3. Any incorrect argument is an argument that does not follow the rules of

Logic.

4. Irvin Copi (1987) defines fallacy as an argument that may be psychologically

persuasive i.e an argument seems to be correct but not.

5. Fallacy is divided into two namely formal and formally fallacies

6. Formal fallacy denotes certain pattern or form of illogical inference i.e the

conclusion is based on sound reasoning.

7. Informal fallacy denotes an error in reasoning.

8. Informally fallacy can be categorized into i.e fallacy of relevance and fallacy

of ambiguity.

9. ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM (Abusive) is the type of fallacy of relevance

i.e when a person’s character or ability is attacked.

10. ARGUMENTUM AD HOMINEM ( Circumstantial) is a fallacy that a person’s

belief or circumstances is argued.


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