d2-dopaminergic receptor and 5-ht3 serotoninergic receptor
TRANSCRIPT
Editorial boardEditor-in-Chief
Aida El-Azzouny
[email protected]+202 33371362/33371433+2 0100 52 54 161+202 33370931/3601877Complete professional affiliations:
Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Division,National Research Centre (NRC), Dokki-Cairo,12622-EgyptSpecialization: Medicinal and Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Deputy-Editors
Abdel-Hamid Zaki Abdel-Hamid Amer
[email protected].+201002020747Complete professional affiliation:
Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Division,National Research Centre (NRC), Dokki-Cairo,12622-EgyptSpecialization: Applied Biochemistry
Mohamed Ahmed Abdel-Naby
Egypt+202 24708049+201149921388+202 3370931/[email protected] professional affiliations:
Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Division,National Research Centre (NRC), Dokki-Cairo,12622-EgyptSpecialization: Professor of Biochemistry
Editorial Assistants
Hassan Abdel Zaher Mohamed Mohamed AMER
[email protected] professional affiliations:National Research CentreCenter of Excellence for Advanced Sciences,Dept of Natural and Microbial Products ChemistryDivision of Pharmaceutical and Drug IndustriesDokki, El-behoos StreetCairo, EgyptTel: +201227341899Specialization:Associate professor of bioorganic Chemistry
Mohammad H. A. Ibrahim
[email protected]+201150935326Complete professional affiliations:
Chemistry of Natural and Microbial Products Dept.,Pharmaceutical & Drugs Industries Research Division,National Research Centre, Al-Bohoos st., Dokki,12622 Cairo, EgyptSpecialization: Microbial Biotechnology, FermentationTechnology, Bioplastics
Mona E. Aboutabl
[email protected]+2011155 330 72Complete professional affiliations:
Researcher of Pharmacology, Room # 374, Medicinal andPharmaceutical Chemistry Department, Pharmaceutical andDrug Industries Research Division, National Research Center,El-bohous St., Dokki, Cairo, 12311 EgyptSpecialization: Pharmacology and Toxicology
EGYPTIAN PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL
Vol 12 No 1 June 2013
Table of contents
Review article1 D2-dopaminergic receptor and 5-HT3 serotoninergic receptor antagonists having antiemetic profile
Mohamed N. Aboul-Enein, Aida A. EL-Azzouny, Yousreya A. Maklad, Mohamed I. Attia, Mohamed Abd EL-Hamid Ismail andWalaa H.A. Abd EL-Hamid
Original articles11 Synthesis and DPPH radical-scavenging activity of some new 5-(N-substituted-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,
4-thiadiazole derivatives
Heba M. Abo-Salem, Manal Sh. Ebaid, Eslam R. El-Sawy, Abd El-Nasser El-Gendy and Adel H. Mandour
20 Synthesis and antihypertensive activity of certain substituted dihydropyridines and pyrimidinones
Wageeh S. El-Hamouly, Kamelia M. Amine, Hanaa A. Tawfik and Dina H. Dawood
28 Immobilization of Mucor racemosus NRRL 3631 lipase and characterization of silica-coated magnetite (Fe3O4)
nanoparticles
Abeer A. El-Hadi, Hesham I. Saleh, Samia A. Moustafa and Hanan M. Ahmed
36 Extracellular polysaccharides produced by the newly discovered source Scopularis spp.
Siham A. Ismail
40 Biotransformation of soybean saponin to soyasapogenol B by Aspergillus parasiticus
Hala A. Amin, Yousseria M. Hassan and Soad M. Yehia
46 Characterization of ternary solid dispersions of nimesulide with Inutec SP1 and b-cyclodextrin and evaluation of
anti-inflammatory efficiency in rats
Rawia M. Khalil, Mamdouh M. Ghorab, Noha Abd El Rahman and Silvia Kocova El-Arini
57 DNA fingerprinting and profile of phenolics in root and root calli of Arctium lappa L. grown in Egypt
Elsayed A. Aboutabl, Mona El-Tantawy, Nadia Sokkar and Manal M. Shams
63 Influence of formulation parameters on the physicochemical properties of meloxicam-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles
Rawia M. Khalil, Ahmed Abd El-Bary, Mahfoz A. Kassem, Mamdouh M. Ghorab and Mona Basha
73 Effect of pollution on the chemical content and secondary metabolites of Zygophyllum coccineum and Tamarix nilotica
Hanan E. Osman and Reham K. Badawy
83 Optimization of growth conditions and continuous production of inulinase using immobilized Aspergillus niger cells
Nagwa A. Atwa and Enas N. Danial
Short communication90 Chemical constituents from the aerial parts of Salsola inermis
Fatma S. Elsharabasy and Ahlam M. Hosney
EGYPTIAN PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL
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EGYPTIAN PHARMACEUTICAL JOURNAL
Vol 12 No 1 June 2013
D2-dopaminergic receptor and 5-HT3 serotoninergic receptor
antagonists having antiemetic profileMohamed N. Aboul-Eneina, Aida A. EL-Azzounya, Yousreya A. Maklada,Mohamed I. Attiaa,b, Mohamed Abd EL-Hamid Ismailc
and Walaa H.A. Abd EL-Hamidd
aDepartment of Medicinal and PharmaceuticalChemistry, Pharmaceutical and Drug IndustriesResearch Division, National Research Centre, Giza,bDepartment of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, College ofPharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia,cDepartment of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Facultyof Pharmacy, Ain Shams University, Cairo anddDepartment of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty ofPharmacy, Misr University for Science &Technology,6th of October City, Egypt
Correspondence to Mohamed N. Aboul-Enein,Department of Medicinal and PharmaceuticalChemistry, Pharmaceutical and Drug IndustriesResearch Division, National Research Centre,12622 Dokki, Giza, EgyptTel: + 20 012 216 8624; fax: + 20 233370931;e-mail: [email protected]
Received 15 January 2013Accepted 11 March 2013
Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
2013, 12:1–10
Metoclopramide is the prototype of the orthopramide family and is used clinically as a
stimulant of upper gastrointestinal motility and as an antiemetic. Its antiemetic potential
is attributed mainly to the antagonist activity at D2-dopaminergic receptors in the
chemoreceptor trigger zone of the central nervous system. Besides, ondansetron was
the first selective 5-HT3 serotoninergic receptor antagonist used in clinics as an
antiemetic. Herein, the antiemetic profile of different chemical classes of D2-
dopaminergic receptor and 5-HT3 serotoninergic receptor antagonists will be
discussed, which may be helpful in the development of potent antiemetic agents.
Keywords:
antagonists, antiemetic, D2-dopaminergic receptor, 5-HT3 serotoninergic receptor
Egypt Pharm J 12:1–10& 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre1687-4315
IntroductionVomiting is the forceful repulsion of the contents of one’s
stomach through the mouth and sometimes the nose and
it may result from many causes, ranging from gastritis or
poisoning to brain tumor or elevated intracranial pressure.
It is generally considered to be a protective mechanism by
which undesirable substances are evacuated quickly from
the gastrointestinal tract. Vomiting is different from
regurgitation, although the two terms are often used
interchangeably. Regurgitation is the return of undigested
food back up the esophagus to the mouth, without the
force and displeasure associated with vomiting. Nausea,
which also has an impact on the gastrointestinal tract, is
the sensation of discomfort in the upper stomach with the
urge to vomit [1]. Persistent nausea may lead to loss of
appetite and reduction of food uptake until the point of
malnutrition and debilitation. Gastrointestinal infections
(37%) and food poisoning are the most common causes of
nausea and vomiting besides side effects from medications
(3%) and pregnancy [1,2]. In 10% of people the cause
remains unknown [2]. Prolonged and severe vomiting leads
to hypochloremia, hypokalemia, alkalosis, and dehydration;
it can even cause death, especially in children. Therefore,
treatment should be directed mainly toward elimi-
nating the causes of illness. This review focuses on the
antiemetic agents that potentially act as antagonists to the
D2-dopaminergic and 5-HT3 serotoninergic receptors.
Mechanism of emesisThe act of emesis is very complicated and involves a
series of coordinated activities and changes in the
respiratory and gastrointestinal musculature. It is usually
preceded by salivation, nausea, malaise, lassitude, weak-
ness, retching movements, and characteristic postures
of the head and body adopted to final expulsion of
vomitus [3,4]. This order of events indicates the
existence of at least two central areas concerned with
the vomiting act, namely, the chemoreceptor trigger zone
(CTZ), which can be stimulated by chemical agents such
as the dopaminergic apomorphine and transmits impulses
to the vomiting centre itself, which is located in the
reticular core of the medulla [2].
The latter center lies in proximity to the other centers
such as inspiratory and expiratory centers, the vasomotor
center, salivary nuclei, and vestibular nuclei. The action
of all these centers may manifest as the act of
vomiting [2]. Impulses from all these centers pass
through the CTZ to the vomiting center, resulting in
emesis [5–7].
Sites other than the CTZ may be effective in the
stimulation of emesis. Thus, visceral afferent impulses
mediated through the parasympathetic and sympathetic
routes transmit to the vomiting center impulses that
result in the genesis of vomiting [8,9].
Antiemetic agentsAntiemetic agents are drugs that are used for the
prophylaxis, control, and prevention of nausea and
vomiting. Emesis is the main symptom for motion
sickness, during the first trimester in pregnancy, in the
case of hyperemesis gravidarum, and of radiation sickness
Review article 1
1687-4315 & 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre
DOI: 10.7123/01.EPJ.0000428875.20180.de
resulting during the treatment of tumors by irradiation
and using cytotoxic drugs. In addition, postoperative
vomiting can also occur, which may be due to the use of
general anesthetics and opiate analgesics after surgical
operations. Gastrointestinal irritation because of peptic
ulcer and ulcerative colitis also leads to nausea and
vomiting. Antiemetics include various classes and groups
of drugs with versatile pharmacological mechanisms.
Dopaminergic antagonists
The neurotransmitter dopamine plays an important role
in neural functions involving reward processes, approach
behavior, economic decision making, adaptive behavior,
motion, and cognition [10]. Dopamine receptors belong
to two subclasses, with D1 and D5 receptors sharing
homology and coupling with Gs and D2, D3, and D4
receptors coupling with Gi.
Selective D1-receptor antagonists have been studied as
potential therapeutics for Parkinson’s disease, psychotic
behavior, substance abuse, and obesity [11] in animal
models and in human clinical trials [12].
D2-receptor antagonists were the first antiemetics used;
these drugs are currently primarily used as rescue
antiemetics. The primary reason for the ignorance of
these drugs is frequent induction of extrapyramidal side
effects such as akinesia, akathisia, and acute dystonic
reactions. Domperidone 1 and metopimazine 2 are
examples of D2-receptor antagonists that are effective
against nausea, which is a more troublesome chemother-
apy-induced side effect than vomiting; these do not cause
extrapyramidal side effects (Fig. 1) [13].
Phenothiazines
Phenothiazine was first synthesized by Bernthsen in
1883. In 1934 [14], it was found to possess insecticidal
properties. Later, Hardwood et al. [15] discovered the
anthelmintic activity of this compound in swine ascar-
idosis. In 1946, Halpern and Ducrot [16] screened various
phenothiazine compounds for antihistaminic properties.
The first compound with definite therapeutic value was
promethazine 3, which has proven antihistaminic as well
as sedative and hypnotic properties [17].
In 1950, the first neuroleptic phenothiazine prototype,
chlorpromazine 4, was introduced. It possesses a large
number of pharmacological activities such as adrenolytic,
antidopaminergic, antihistaminic, antiserotonin, antimus-
carinic, and antiemetic properties [18–22]. Subsequently,
numerous phenothiazines have been introduced such as
antiemetics with increased antiemetic potency, reduced
cardiovascular effects, milder tranquilizing action, and
decreased extrapyramidal side effects [23–25].
The difference in antiemetic activities between the
neuroleptic phenothiazines is because of differences in
the site of their sequestration in the central nervous
system; however, they act predominantly on the CTZ.
Phenothiazines are classified into three groups according
to the substituents on nitrogen: (i) aliphatic analogues,
which bear acyclic groups; (ii) piperidines, which contain
piperidine-derived groups; (iii) piperazine, which incor-
porate piperazine-derived substituents. The most rele-
vant antiemetic phenothiazines (3–15) are illustrated
in Table 1.
Butyrophenones
Neuroleptic drugs like droperidol 16 and haloperidol 17
are major tranquillizing drugs, which possess significant
antiemetic activity as a result of their D2-receptor
antagonist properties, especially when administered
through the intravenous and intramuscular routes [43].
However, side effects [44,45] such as drowsiness,
dysphoria, delayed discharge, extrapyramidal reactions,
restlessness, and anxiety after discharge have led to the
current reluctance to use these agents in the outpatient
setting. The structures of the commonly used antiemetic
butyrophenones are depicted in Table 2.
Benzamides
Metoclopramide hydrochloride monohydrate (Primperan
21; Table 3) is a benzamide derivative related to
orthopramides class that belongs to the neuropsycho-
tropic, antipsychotic neuroleptics (Table 3). It is a
derivative of procainamide but it is virtually devoid of
antiarrhythmic or local anesthetic activity in clinical
doses [67]. It shows both central and peripheral
Figure 1
Dompridone(Motillum ®) Metopimazine
21
Cl
NHN
O
NNHN
O
N
S
O
H2N
SO
O
Examples of D2-receptor antagonist.
2 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
antiemetic activities. It is rapidly absorbed orally but has
a wide range of oral bioavailability. It has a plasma half life
of 4–6 h. In addition to its ability to block dopaminergic
receptors at the CTZ, metoclopramide increases lower
esophageal sphincter tone and enhances gastric and small
bowel motility, thereby preventing delayed gastric
emptying caused by opioid analgesics [68]. Although it
is not effective in controlling motion sickness, metoclo-
pramide has some peripheral cholinergic actions.
High doses of metoclopramide (1–2 mg/kg) are effective
in managing chemotherapy-induced emesis [69]; how-
ever, this is associated with high incidence of dystonic
reactions and extrapyramidal side effects.
It has been successfully used to treat dyspepsia,
gastrointestinal disorders, including irritable colon syn-
drome, and spastic constipation [67].
This gastroprokinetic activity is attributed to the release
of acetylcholine upon stimulation of 5-HT4 receptors,
whereas the antiemetic activity is attributed to the
antagonistic activity at both 5-HT3 serotoninergic and
D2-dopaminergic receptors in the CTZ of the central
nervous system. In addition, it stimulates orthograde
peristalsis, leading to suppression of the bile reflux, with
subsequent promotion of healing of gastric ulcers and
prevention of relapse. However, metoclopramide does not
accelerate healing of duodenal ulcers [70].
The antiemetic activity of metoclopramide as an
antiapomorphine drug is 35 times greater and more
selective than that of chlorpromazine [71]. Further, it
shows no sedative action at its antiemetic doses [71].
However, at large doses it produces extrapyramidal
side effects. It exerts its antiemetic activity through
Table 1 Antiemetic phenothiazines (3–15)
N
S
R1
R2
Name R1 R2 References
Aliphatic analogues Promethazine (3, Phenergan) –CH2-CH(CH3)N(CH3)2 H Couvoisier and colleagues [26,27]Chlorpromazine (4, Largactil) –(CH2)3N(CH3)2 Cl Delay and colleagues [28,29]Promazine (5, Sparine) –(CH2)3N(CH3)2 CF3 Wirth [30]Triflupromazine (6, Vesprin) –(CH2)3N(CH3)2 H Yale and colleagues [31,32]
Piperidines Pipamazine (7, Mornidine)
N(H2C)3 C
O
NH2
Cl Dobkin and Purkin [33]
Mepazine (8, Pacatal)
N
CH3
H2C
H Bowes [34]
Metopimazine (9, Compazine)
N(H2C)3 CONH2
SO2CH3 Jacob and colleagues [35,36]
Piperazines Trifluoperazine (10, Stelazine)
(H2C)3 CH3N N
CF3 Tedeschi et al. [37]
Thiethylperazine (11, Torecan)
(H2C)3 CH3N N
SCH2CH3 Bourquin et al. [38]
Perphenazine (12, Trilafon)
(H2C)3 CH2 CH2 OHN N
Cl Hotovy and Kapff-Walter [39]
Prochlorperazine (13, Campizine )
(H2C)3 CH3N N
Cl Gralla et al. [40]
Fluphenazine (14, Prolixin)
(H2C)3 CH3N N
CF3 Kline and Simpson [41]
Thiopropazate (15, Dartal)
N N(H2C)3 CH2 CH2 COCH3
Cl Toldy et al. [42]
Receptors antagonists as antiemetics Aboul-Enein et al. 3
central [72,73] and peripheral [74] dopamine receptor
antagonism. Moreover, metoclopramide is ineffective
against motion sickness and emesis occurring in labyr-
inthine episodes [71].
Orthopramides possess three common structural elements
required for binding to the receptor site: an aromatic
moiety, a carbonyl group or carbonyl group bioisosteres,
and a basic nitrogen atom. The weak affinity and lack of
selectivity of metoclopramide for dopaminergic and
serotoninergic receptors can be explained by the large
number of permissible conformers because of the
flexibility of its amino chain. Accordingly, Aboul-Enein
and colleagues [75,76] studied certain molecular modifica-
tions of metoclopramide, which imply (i) a change in the
substituents of the aromatic ring, (ii) structural variations
in the amine moiety, and (iii) an increase in the
lipophilicity through a change in the vicinal carbon atom
of the basic nitrogen to a cyclohexane ring (22–24; Fig. 2).
These compounds were evaluated for their dopamine
D2-receptor antagonistic activity in vivo by measuring
their ability to inhibit apomorphine-induced chewing
‘‘Zwansgnagen’’ in rats. Among these compound, 24
possessed an ED50 of 5.94 mmol/kg, being nearly two-fold
more potent than the previously reported cyclohexane-
based dopamine D2-receptor antagonist 23 (ED50 =
11.66 mmol/kg). Molecular simulation study of 24,
including fitting to the three-dimensional model of
dopamine D2-receptor antagonists using Discovery Stu-
dio 2.5 programs showed high-fit values [75]. The
experimental dopamine D2-receptor antagonistic activity
was consistent with the findings of the molecular
modeling study. Other substituted benzamides (Table 3)
that have been evaluated as antiemetics include
trimethobenzamide (25, Tigan), clebopride (27), cisa-
pride (30), and alizapride (39) [77]. Trimethobenzamide
is an antiemetic having some structural similarities to
both reserpine and antihistamines [78] as well as to
orthopramides. It possesses one-tenth to one-twentieth
of the antiemetic activity of chlorpromazine. Its antiemetic
action is primarily on the CTZ. Trimethobenzamide does
not cause depression at very high doses. It has no sedative,
hypotensive, or extrapyramidal effects; moreover, it shows
no antihistaminic activity, and it proved effective against
vomiting from various causes [79,80].
Cisapride 30 has a greater ability than metoclopramide to
reverse morphine-induced gastric stasis and is not
associated with extrapyramidal side effects. However,
cisapride does not prevent the decrease in lower
esophageal tone following antagonism by neostigmine in
the form of neuromuscular blockade and has lesser
antiemetic activity than metoclopramide.
It is worth mentioning that metoclopramide and its
congeners, besides being potent antiemetics, show
neuroleptic, antidyskinetic, and antiulcer effects, also
Table 2 The commonly used antiemetic butyrophenones (16–20)
Name Structure References
Benperidol 16
NH
N
N
O
O
F
Bobon et al. [46]
Droperidol 17
F
ON
N
HN O
Domino et al. [47]
Haloperidol 18F
ON
OH
ClGranger and Albu [48]
Lenperone 19
F
ON
F
O Nakra et al. [49]
Melperone 20
F
NO
Grozinger et al. [50]
4 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
Table 3 Antiemetic benzamides 25–39 (orthopramides)
Name Structure References
Trimethobenzamide 25
C
OCH3OCH3
H3CO
ONH
O NCH3
CH3
Report of the Workgroup on Vaccines [51]
Bromopride 23
C NH
NC2H5
C2H5
O
NH2
Br
OCH3
Fontaine and Reuse [52]
Clebopride 27
Cl
H2N
NH
N
OCH3
O Cuena Boy and Macia Martinez [53]
Tiapide 28
C
S
NH
O
OH3C
NC2H5
C2H5
O
NH2
OCH3
Fontaine and colleagues [52,54]
Dazopride 29
Cl
H2N
NH
OCH3
ON
N
C2H5
C2H5
Lunsford and Cale [55]
Cisapride 30
OCH3
NH2
Cl
CO NH
N(CH2)3H3CO O
F
Van Daele and colleagues [56,57]
Troxipide 31
OCH3
OCH3H3CO
CONHNH
Burnton and colleagues [58,59]
Sulpiride 32
COOCH3
SO
OH2N
NH CH2N
C2H5 Laville and Margarit [60]
Sultopride 33
COOCH3
SC2H5
NH CH2N
C2H5
O
O
Bruguerolle et al. [61]
Amisulpride 34
COOCH3
SO
OC2H5
NH CH2N
C2H5
NH2
Florvall and Oegren [62]
Receptors antagonists as antiemetics Aboul-Enein et al. 5
being useful as nonhormonal therapeutic agents in severe
cases of menopausal disorders [67,81].
5-HT3 serotoninergic receptor antagonists
5-HT3 antagonists are a class of medications that act as
receptor antagonists at the 5-HT3 receptor, a subtype of
the serotonin receptors found at the terminal ends of the
vagus nerve and in certain areas of the brain. They are
used as antiemetics in the prevention and treatment of
nausea and vomiting. They are particularly effective in
controlling nausea and vomiting caused by cancer
chemotherapy and are considered the gold standard for
this purpose [82].
5-HT3 receptors are present at several critical sites
involved in emesis, including vagal afferents, the solitary
Name Structure References
Itopride 35
NH
O
ON
OCH3
OCH3
Florvall et al. [63]
Raclopride 36
COOCH3
NH CH2
N
C2H5
Cl
HO
Cl
Florvall and colleagues [63,64]
Remoxipride 37
COOCH3
NH CH2
N
C2H5
Br
H3CO
Florvall et al. [63]
Veralipride 38
COOCH3
NH CH2N
SO
OH2N
OCH3
Thominet et al. [65]
Alizapride 39
COOCH3N
NNH
NH CH2
NBleiberg et al. [66]
Figure 2
NNH
H2N
O
C2H5 C2H5
C2H5C2H5
OMe
Cl
H2N
O
OMe
NH
NCl
Metoclopramide21 22
24
23
NNH
NO
Cl
OMe
OMe
OMe
NNH
N RO
OCH3H2N
Cl
R = C2H5
R = CH2C6H5
R = CH2C6H2(OCH3)3R = CH(C6H5)2
Metoclopramide and structurally related compounds.
6 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
tract nucleus, and the area postrema itself. Serotonin is
released by the enterochromaffin cells of the small
intestine in response to chemotherapeutic agents and
may stimulate the vagal afferents (through the 5-HT3
receptor) to initiate the vomiting reflux. 5-HT3 receptor
antagonists suppress vomiting and nausea by preventing
serotonin from binding to the 5-HT3 receptors. The
highest concentration of 5-HT3 receptors in the central
nervous system is found in the solitary tract nucleus and
CTZ, and 5-HT3 antagonists may also suppress vomiting
and nausea by acting at these sites [59].
5-HT3 serotoninergic receptor
5-HT3 antagonists are most effective in prevention and
treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting
(CINV), especially that caused by highly emetogenic
drugs such as cisplatin. When used for prevention and
treatment of CINV, they may be administered alone or,
more frequently, in combination with a glucocorticoid,
usually dexamethasone. They are usually administrated
intravenously, shortly before administration of the che-
motherapeutic agent [60], although some authors have
argued that oral administration may be preferred [83].
The concomitant administration of an NK1 receptor
antagonist, such as aprepitant, significantly increases the
efficacy of 5-HT3 antagonists in preventing both acute
and delayed CINV [84].
5-HT3 antagonists are also indicated in the prevention
and treatment of radiation-induced nausea and vomiting,
when needed, and postoperative nausea and vomiting.
Although they are highly effective at controlling CINV –
they stop symptoms altogether in up to 70% of people
and reduce them in the remaining 30% – they are only as
effective as other agents in controlling postoperative
nausea and vomiting.
Current evidence suggests that 5-HT3 antagonists are
ineffective in controlling motion sickness [85]. A ran-
domized, placebo-controlled trial of ondansetron 40 to
treat motion sickness in air ambulance personnel showed
subjective improvement, but it was statistically insignificant.
Chemical structures of the first generation 5-HT3
receptor antagonists [86] can be categorized into three
main classes (Table 4).
Carbazole derivatives
Ondansetron 40 was the first 5-HT3 antagonist; it was
developed by Glaxo around 1984. Its efficacy was first
established in 1987 in animal models [90]. Several
studies have demonstrated that ondansetron produces
an antiemetic effect equal to or superior to that of high
doses of metoclopramide; however, ondansetron has a
superior toxicity profile compared with dopaminergic
antagonist agents [88,91]. Ondansetron (0.15 mg/kg) is
administered intravenously 15–30 min before chemother-
apy, and this dose is repeated every 4 h for two additional
doses.
Ondansetron is not approved for use in children younger
than 4 years. Its clearance is diminished in patients
with severe hepatic insufficiency; therefore, such
patients should receive a single injectable or oral dose
no higher than 8 mg. The major adverse effects of
ondansetron include headache, constipation or diarrhea,
fatigue, dry mouth, and transient asymptomatic elevation
Table 4 The 5-HT3 receptor antagonists commonly used as antiemetics
Name Structure References
Ondansetron (40, Zofran)
N
N N
O Gan [86]
Granisetron (41, Kytril)
NCH3 NH
O NN CH3 Gebbia et al. [87]
Dolasetron (42, Anzemet)
NH
O
ONO
Hainsworth et al. [88]
Ramosetron (43, Nasea)
N
N
HN
O Rabasseda [89]
Palonosetron (44, Aloxi)
N
O
H
N Gebbia et al. [87]
Receptors antagonists as antiemetics Aboul-Enein et al. 7
in liver function tests (alanine and aspartate transami-
nases), which may be related to concurrent cisplatin
administration.
Indole derivatives
Dolasetron 42 was first mentioned in the literature in
1989 [92]. Both oral and injectable formulations of dolasetron
are administered for the prevention of nausea and vomiting
associated with moderately emetogenic cancer chemother-
apy, including initial and repeat courses. Dolasetron should
be administered intravenously or orally at 1.8 mg/kg as a
single dose B30 min before chemotherapy [87].
Indazole derivatives
Granisetron 41 was developed around 1988 [93]. It has
demonstrated the same efficacy and safety margin as
ondansetron in preventing and controlling nausea and
vomiting at broad-range doses (e.g. 10–80 mg/kg and
empirically 3 mg/dose) especially in patients receiving
emetogenic chemotherapy, including a high dose of
cisplatin [94].
Ramosetron 43 is only available in Japan and certain
Southeast Asian countries as of 2008. It has a higher affinity
for the 5-HT3 receptors than do the older 5-HT3
antagonists, and it maintains its effects over 2 days. It is
therefore significantly more effective against delayed
CINV [89]. In animal studies, ramosetron was also effective
against irritable bowel syndrome-like symptoms [95].
Palonosetron 44 is the newest 5-HT3 receptor antago-
nist. It shows antiemetic activity at both central and
gastrointestinal sites. In comparison with the older
5-HT3 antagonists, it has a higher binding affinity to
the 5-HT3 receptors, a higher potency, a significantly
longer half life (B40 h; four to five times longer than that
of dolasetron, granisetron, or ondansetron), and an
excellent safety profile. A dose finding study demon-
strated that the effective dose was 0.25 mg or slightly
higher [87].
ConclusionAntiemetics include various classes and groups having
versatile pharmacological mechanisms. This review deals
with D2-dopaminergic receptor and 5-HT3 serotoninergic
receptor antagonists possessing antiemetic potential,
which could be considered as biocandidates in the
development of new antiemetics or targets for extensive
molecular modifications in order to accentuate some
of their effects and attenuate or abolish side effects.
AcknowledgementsConflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest.
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10 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
Synthesis and DPPH radical-scavenging activity of some new
5-(N-substituted-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazole
derivativesHeba M. Abo-Salema, Manal Sh. Ebaida, Eslam R. El-Sawya,Abd El-Nasser El-Gendyb and Adel H. Mandoura
aChemistry Department of Natural Compoundsand bMedicinal and Aromatic Plants Department,
National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt
Correspondence to Eslam R. El-Sawy, ChemistryDepartment of Natural Compounds, National ResearchCentre, Dokki 12311, Giza, EgyptTel: + 20 23 833 939 4; fax: + 20 33 370 931;e-mail: [email protected]
Received 7 October 2012Accepted 3 January 2013
Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
2013,12:11–19
Background and objectives
Heterocyclic systems with thiadiazole nucleus show a wide spectrum of biological
activities such as antioxidant, analgesic, antitumor, and anti-inflammatory activities.
The aim of this study is to describe the synthesis of some new 5-(N-substituted-1H-indol-
3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazole derivatives and to evaluate their antioxidant
activity using 2,20-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging activity.
Materials and methods
A one-pot reaction of N-substituted-1H-indol-3-carboxaldehyde 1a,b with thioglycolic
acid and thiosemicarbazide in concentrated sulfuric acid yielded novel 2-amino-5-(N-
substituted-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazoles 2a,b. The reaction of
2a,b with some benzenesulfonyl chlorides and/or benzoyl chlorides yielded sulfonamides
3a,b and 4a,b and benzamide 5a,b and 6a,b derivatives, respectively, whereas, the
reaction of 2a,b with chloroacetyl chloride yielded chloroacetamide derivatives 7a,b,
which, on cyclization with potassium thiocyanate, yielded thiazolidinone derivatives 8a,b.
The reaction of 2a,b with sodium azide yielded tetrazole derivatives 9a,b. However, the
reaction of 2a,b with benzaldehyde yielded Schiff bases 10a,b, which cyclized with
chloroacetyl chloride and/or phenacyl bromide to yield azetidinone derivatives 11a,b and
12a,b, respectively. However, the reaction of 10a,b with sodium cyanide, followed by
acid hydrolysis yielded the a-amino acid derivatives 14a,b. Diazotization of 2a,b yielded
diazonium salt A, which, on coupling with sodium azide, yielded the azido derivatives
15a,b. Cyclization of 15a,b with ethylacetoacetate yielded tetrazole derivatives 16a,b,
whereas the coupling reaction of A with malononitrile yielded dicyano derivatives 17a,b,
which, on cyclization with hydrazine hydrate, yielded 3,5-diaminopyrazole derivatives
18a,b. The newly synthesized compounds were screened for their antioxidant activity
using 2,20-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging activity.
Results and conclusion
4-{5-[(1H-Indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]diazo}-1H-pyrazole-3,5-
diamine (18a) was highly active with radical-scavenging activity (IC50 of 69.14mg/ml)
compared with ascorbic acid (IC50 of 6.50 mg/ml).
Keywords:
DPPH radical-scavenging activity, indole-3-carboxaldehyde, synthesis, tetrazole,
thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazole
Egypt Pharm J 12:11–19& 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research, National Research Centre1687-4315
IntroductionThiadiazole is a versatile moiety that shows a wide variety
of biological activities, viz, antioxidant, analgesic, antic-
onvulsant, anti-hepatitis B, antitubercular, antitumor, anti-
depressant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and anti-
Helicobacter pylori [1–6]. Besides these, fused 5H-thiazo-
lo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazoles have been prepared and be-
come a substance among 1,3,4-thiadiazoles that has drawn
the attention of researchers [7–9]. Moreover, indole, which
is the potent basic pharmacodynamic nucleus, has been
reported to have a wide variety of biological properties, viz,
antioxidant [10], anti-inflammatory [11,12], anti-cancer
[13], and antimicrobial activities [12,14]. On the basis of
the above observations and as a part of our continuous work
on the preparation of new poly-heterocycles with pharma-
ceutical values [11–16], the present study focuses on the
synthesis of some new N-substituted-3-indolyl-5H-thiazo-
lor-1,3,4-thiadiazoles for the evaluation of their antioxidant
activity using 2,20-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radi-
cal-scavenging activity starting from N-substituted indole-
3-carboxaldehyde.
Materials and methodsChemistry
Melting points were determined in open capillary tubes on
an Electrothermal 9100 digital melting point apparatus
(Electrothermal Engineering Ltd, Serial No. 8694, Rochford,
Original article 11
1687-4315 & 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre
DOI: 10.7123/01.EPJ.0000426585.93667.87
United Kingdom) and were uncorrected. Elemental analyses
were carried out on a Perkin-Elmer 2400 analyzer (940
Winter Street, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) and were
found to be within ± 0.4% of the theoretical values
(Table 1). IR spectra were recorded by Perkin-Elmer 1600
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy against KBr discs.
The 1H NMR spectra were measured using a mass spectro-
meter (JEOL Ltd. 1-2, Musashino 3-chome Akishima,
Tokyo, Japan) 500 MHz in DMSO-d6, and chemical shifts
were recorded in d ppm relative to TMS as an internal
standard. Mass spectra (EI) were run at 70 eV using a
JEOL-JMS-AX500 mass spectrometer (Japan). All reagents
and solvents were of commercial grade. 1H-indole-3-
carboxaldehyde (1a) [17] and N-benzyl-1H-indole-3-car-
boxaldehyde (1b) have been prepared as reported [18].
2-Amino-5-(1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazole
(2a) and 2-amino-5-(N-benzyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolor-
1,3,4-thiadiazole (2b)
N-substituted-1H-indole-3-carboxaldehydes 1a or 1b
(0.02 mol) and thioglycolic acid (1.84 ml, 0.02 mol) were
mixed for 10–15 min. To the reaction mixture, thiosemi-
carbazide (1.82 g, 0.02 mol) was added with stirring and
then concentrated sulfuric acid (10 ml) was added in
portions upon cooling. The reaction mixture was homo-
genized and left for 24 h in a deep freezer (– 201C). The
reaction mixture was then treated with crushed ice (50 g)
and the suspension obtained was neutralized with an
aqueous sodium hydroxide solution (40%) to pHC7–8.
The precipitate that formed was filtered off, air dried, and
crystallized from aqueous dioxane (Scheme 1 and Table 1).
N-[5-(1H-Indol-3-yl1)-5H-thiazolor-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]
benzenesulfonamide (3a), N-[5-(N-benzyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-
thiazolo [4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]benzenesulfonamide
(3b), 4-chloro-N-[5-(1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-
thiadiazol-2-yl]benzene-sulfonamide (4a), and 4-chloro-N-
[5-(N-benzyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolokr-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-
yl]benzenesulfonamide (4b)
A mixture of compounds 2a or 2b (0.001 mol) and ben-
zenesulfonyl chloride, or 4-chlorobenzenesulfonyl chlor-
ide (0.001 mol) in dry dioxane (10 ml) containing a few
drops of triethylamine was heated at reflux for 6 h. After
cooling, the reaction mixture was poured onto cold water
(10 ml). The solid that formed was filtered off, air dried,
and crystallized from dioxane (Scheme 1 and Table 1).
N-[5-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolor-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]
benzamide (5a), N-[5-(N-benzyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-
thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]benzamide (5b), 2-chloro-
N-[5-(1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-
yl]benzamide (6a), and 2-chloro-N-[5-(N-benzyl-1H-indol-3-
yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]benzamide (6b)
A mixture of compounds 2a or 2b (0.001 mol) and
benzoyl chloride or 2-chlorobenzoyl chloride (0.001 mol)
in dry dioxane (10 ml) containing a few drops of
triethylamine was heated at reflux for 8 h. After cooling,
Table 1 Physical and analytical data of the newly synthesized compounds
Analysis (%; calculated/found)
Compound number Formula (MW) MP (1C) Yield (%) C H N
2a C12H10N4S2 (274.36) 146–148 94 52.53/52.33 3.67/3.58 20.42/20.312b C19H16N4S2 (364.49) 86–88 88 62.61/62.44 4.42/4.26 15.37/15.203a C18H14N4O2S3 (414.52) 111–113 70 52.15/52.01 3.40/3.27 13.52/13.413b C25H20N4O2S3 (504.65) 76–78 65 59.50/59.36 3.99/3.81 11.10/10.994a C18H13ClN4O2S3 (448.97) 212–214 83 48.15/48.01 2.92/2.76 12.48/12.324b C25H19ClN4O2S3 (539.09) 187–189 76 55.70/55.54 3.55/3.41 10.39/10.225a C19H14N4OS2 (378.47) 165–168 84 60.30/60.16 3.73/3.61 14.80/14.665b C26H20N4OS2 (468.59) 136–138 77 66.64/66.48 4.30/4.21 11.96/11.776a C19H13ClN4OS2 (412.92) 300–302 84 55.27/55.04 3.17/3.06 13.57/13.416b C26H19ClN4OS2 (503.04) 300 81 62.08/62.16 3.81/3.66 11.14/11.027a C14H11ClN4OS2 (350.85) 135–137 91 47.93/47.98 3.16/3.20 15.97/15.997b C21H17ClN4OS2 (440.97) 127–129 95 57.20/57.28 3.89/3.76 12.71/12.688a C15H11N5OS3 (373.48) 175–177 90 48.24/48.11 2.97/3.00 18.75/18.808b C22H17N5OS3 (463.60) 162–164 91 57.00/57.23 3.70/3.55 15.11/15.229a C13H9N7S2 (327.39) 252–254 81 47.69/47.73 2.77/2.64 29.95/29.809b C20H15N7S2 (417.51) 175–177 82 57.53/57.40 3.62/3.58 23.48/23.4010a C19H14N4S2 (362.47) 170–172 86 62.96/62.76 3.89/3.99 15.46/15.5410b C26H20N4S2 (452.59) 158–160 83 69.00/69.11 4.45/4.33 12.38/12.5511a C21H15ClN4OS2(438.95) 100–102 78 57.46/57.66 3.44/3.68 12.76/12.5611b C28H21ClN4OS2 (529.08) 70–72 65 63.56/63.44 4.00/4.28 10.59/10.7212a C27H20N4OS2 (480.6) 159–161 75 67.48/67.50 4.19/4.32 11.66/11.4512b C34H26N4OS2 (570.73) 172–174 71 71.55/71.60 4.56/4.44 9.82/9.7813a C20H15N5S2 (389.50) 234–236 79 61.67/61.62 3.88/3.90 17.98/17.9313b C27H21N5S2 (479.62) 106–108 80 67.61/67.69 4.41/4.46 14.60/14.5814a C20H16N4O2S2 (408.5) 196–208 76 58.80/58.77 3.95/3.90 13.72/13.6914b C27H22N4O2S2 (498.62) 130 70 65.04/65.00 4.45/4.35 11.24/11.4415a C12H8N6S2 (300.36) 86–88 40 – – –15b C19H14N6S2 (390.48) 61–3 30 – – –16a C16H12N6O2S2 (384.44) 126–128 46 49.99/49.75 3.15/3.00 21.86/21.6616b C23H18N6O2S2 (474.56) 92–94 36 58.21/58.00 3.82/3.78 17.71/17.6917a C15H9N7S2 (351.41) 144–146 67 51.27/51.33 2.56/2.35 27.90/27.9317b C22H15N7S2 (441.53) 123–125 55 59.85/59.92 3.42/3.33 22.21/22.3018a C15H13N9S2 (383.45) 201–202 83 46.98/47.01 3.42/3.37 32.87/32.6618b C22H19N9S2 (473.58) 130–132 85 55.80/55.71 4.04/4.15 26.61/26.45
Compounds 15a,b was decomposed slowly during the preparation of the samples analyzed.
12 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
the reaction mixture was poured onto cold water (20 ml).
The solid that formed was filtered off, air dried, and
crystallized from dioxane (Scheme 1 and Table 1).
N-[5-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolor-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-2-
chloroacetamide (7a) and N-[5-(N-benzyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-
thiazolo [4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-2-chloroacetamide (7b)
To a solution of compounds 2a or 2b (0.02 mol) in dry
benzene (60 ml), a solution of chloroacetyl chloride (5 ml,
0.04 mol) in dry benzene (20 ml) was added dropwise
under vigorous stirring at 0–51C. After complete addition,
the reaction mixture was heated at reflux for 3 h. The
solvent was evaporated in vacuo and the solid that formed
was washed with sodium hydrogen carbonate (20 ml, 5%)
and then with water, air dried, and crystallized from
chloroform (Scheme 1 and Table 1).
3-[5-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolor-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-2-
iminothiazolidin-4-one (8a) and 3-[5-(N-benzyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-
5H-thiazolor-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-2-iminothiazolidin-4-one (8b)
A mixture of compounds 7a or 7b (0.003 mol) and
potassium thiocyanate (0.58 g, 0.006 mol) in dry acetone
(10 ml) was heated at reflux for 3 h. The solid that formed
was filtered off, air dried and crystallized from chloroform
(Scheme 1 and Table 1).
5-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-2-(1H-tetrazol-1-yl)-5H-thiazolor-1,3,4-
thiadiazole (9a) and 5-(N-benzyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-2-(1H-
tetrazol-1-yl)-5H-thiazolor-1,3,4-thiadiazole (9b)
A mixture of compounds 2a or 2b (0.001 mol), triethyl
orthoformate (0.15 ml, 0.001 mol), and sodium azide
(0.065 g, 0.001 mol) in glacial acetic acid (10 ml) was
stirred under reflux for 2 h. After cooling, the reaction
mixture was neutralized with concentrated hydrochloric
acid (10 ml). The solid that formed was filtered off,
washed with water, air dried, and crystallized from
absolute ethanol (Scheme 1 and Table 1).
N-Benzylidene-(5-(1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-
thiadiazol-2-yl)-2-amine (10a) and N-benzylidene-[(5-(N-
benzyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-
2-amine (10b)
A mixture of compounds 2a or 2b (0.01 mol) and
benzaldehyde (1.06 g, 0.01 mol) in glacial acetic acid
Scheme 1
N
N
S
N
S
NHSO2
R
3a,b, X= H4a,b, X= Cl
TEA
HC(OC2H5)3
NaN3
N
N
S
N
S
N
RN
NN
N
N
S
N
S
NH2
R
N
CHO
R
+H2N
NH
S NH2
H2SO 4
HSOH
O
+
1a,b
X
TEA
N
N
S
N
S
NHCO
RY
5a,b , Y= H6a,b , Y= Cl
N
N
S
N
S
NH
R
O
Cl
N
N
S
N
S
N
RS
O
HN
ClCOCH 2
Cl
KSCN
2a,b
7a,b
8a,b
9a,b
SO 2ClX
COClY
1- 9, R, a=H , b=CH2Ph
Synthesis of compounds 1a,b to 9a,b.
3-Indolylthiazolothiadiazole Abo-Salem et al. 13
(20 ml) was heated at reflux for 6 and 8 h. After cooling,
the reaction mixture was poured onto ice water (50 ml).
The solid that formed was filtered off, air dried, and
crystallized from benzene (Scheme 2 and Table 1).
1-[5-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-
3-chloro-4-phenylazetidin-2-one (11a), 1-[5-(N-benzyl-1H-
indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-3-chloro-4-
phenylazetidin-2-one (11b), 1-(5-(1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-
thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl)-3,4-diphenylazetidin-2-
one (12a), and 1-[5-(N-benzyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-
b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-3,4-diphenylazetidin-2-one (12b)
To a solution of Schiff bases 10a or 10b (0.01 mol) in dry
dioxane (5 ml), a solution of chloroacetyl chloride and/or
phenacyl bromide (0.01 mol) in dry dioxane (5 ml) and
triethylamine (0.59 ml, 0.01 mol) was added. The reac-
tion mixture was heated at reflux for 12–14 h. The
reaction mixture was filtered off while hot and the
Scheme 2
2a,b
N
N
S
N
S
N
R10a,b
N
N
S
N
S
N
R
O
12a,b
PhCH 2COBrTEA
dry dioxaneN
N
S
N
S
NH
RCN
13a,b
N
N
S
N
S
NH
RCOOH
14a,b
50% H 2SO 4
NaCNgl.AcOH
NaNO2/HCl
N
N
S
N
S
N
R A
N Cl
N
N
S
N
S
N3
R
N
N
S
N
S
N
R
N N
CH3
COOH
17a,bN
N
S
N
S
NH
R
N
NC
CN 15a,b
16a,b18a,b
N
N
S
N
S
N
R
N
NHN
NH2
H2N
CHO
gl.AcOH
CH2(CN)2
NH2NH2
NaN3
CH3COCH2COOC2H5
2-18, R, a=H , b=CH2Ph
N
N
S
N
S
NH2
R
N
N
S
N
S
N
R
O
ClClCH2COCl
TEAdry dioxane
11a,b
Synthesis of compounds 10a,b to 18a,b.
14 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
solvent was removed in vacuo. The residue solid was
treated with water and filtered, air dried, and crystallized
from absolute ethanol (Scheme 2 and Table 1).
2-[5-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl
amino]phenylacetonitrile (13a) and 2-[5-(N-benzyl-1H-indol-
3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl
amino]phenylacetonitrile (13b)
To a solution of Schiff bases 10a or 10b (0.01 mol) in
glacial acetic acid (20 ml) sodium cyanide (0.49 g,
0.01 mol) was added and the reaction mixture was heated
at reflux for 6 h. After cooling, the reaction mixture
was poured onto cold water (10 ml) and the solid that
formed was filtered off, washed with water, air dried,
and crystallized from acetic acid–water (Scheme 2
and Table 1).
2-[5-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl
amino] phenyl acetic acid (14a) and 2-[5-(N-benzyl-1H-indol-
3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl amino]phenyl
acetic acid (14b)
A solution of compounds 13a or 13e (0.01 mol) in sulfuric
acid (30 ml, 50%) was heated at reflux for 10 h. After
cooling, the dark reaction mixture was poured onto cold
water (20 ml) and then neutralized with ammonia
solution (25%). The precipitate that formed was filtered
off, washed with water, air dried, and crystallized from
aqueous acetic acid (Scheme 2 and Table 1).
2-Azido-5-(1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazole
(15a) and 2-azido-5-(N-benzyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-
thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazole (15b)
To a cold solution of compounds 2a or 2b (0.02 mol) in a
mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid (5 ml) and ice
water (5 ml), a cold aqueous solution of sodium nitrite
(1.73 g, 0.025 mol) in ice water (5 ml) was added dropwise
under stirring at 0–51C. After 10 min, the reaction
mixture was decanted. To the decanted solution of the
diazonium salt thus formed (A), sodium azide (1.3 g,
0.02 mol) in water (5 ml) was added dropwise. The
reaction mixture was left for 15 min at room temperature
and the azide was extracted by chloroform (3–10 ml) and
dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate. The solvent was
evaporated in vacuo and the residue was used without
subsequent purification, and used in the reaction
immediately after its formation because of its instability
(Scheme 2 and Table 1).
1-[5-(1H-Indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolor-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-5-
methyl-1H-1,2,3-triazole-4-carboxylic acid (16a) and 1-[5-(N-
benzyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolor-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-5-
methyl-1H-1,2,3-triazole-4-carboxylic acid (16b)
To a solution of sodium (0.23 g, 0.01 mol) in absolute
methanol (20 ml) ethylacetoacetate (1.34 g, 0.01 mol) and
compounds 15a or 15b (0.01 mol) were added dropwise
under cooling in an ice bath. The reaction mixture was
kept in an ice water bath for 30 min and then gradually
heated under reflux for 1 h. After cooling, the reaction
mixture was neutralized by diluted hydrochloric acid
(1 : 1). The solid that formed was filtered off, washed
with water, air dried, and crystallized from methanol
(Scheme 2 and Table 1).
2-{5-[(1H-Indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]
hydrazono}malononitrile (17a) and 2-{5-[(N-benzyl-1H-indol-
3-yl)-5H-thiazolor-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]hydrazono}-
malononitrile (17b)
To a cold solution of compounds 2a or 2b (0.02 mol) in a
mixture of concentrated hydrochloric acid (5 ml) and ice
water (5 ml), a cold aqueous solution of sodium nitrite
(1.73 g, 0.025 mol) in ice water (5 ml) was added dropwise
under stirring at 0–51C. After 10 min, the reaction
mixture was decanted. To the decanted solution of the
diazonium salt thus formed (A), a cold solution of malo-
nonitrile (1.3 g, 0.02 mol) and sodium acetate trihydrate
(5.4 g, 0.04 mol) in ethanol (10 ml) was added under
stirring at 0–51C. The stirring was continued for an
additional 3 h at 0–51C, and then left overnight in the
refrigerator. The reaction mixture was poured onto water
(250 ml) and the solid that formed was filtered off, air
dried, and crystallized from absolute ethanol (Scheme 2
and Table 1).
4-{5-[(1H-Indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolor-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]diazo}-
1H-pyrazole-3,5-diamine (18a) and 4-{5-[(N-benzyl-1H-indol-
3-yl)-5H-thiazolor-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]diazo}-1H-pyrazole-
3,5-diamine (18b)
A mixture of compounds 17a or 17b (0.01 mol) and
hydrazine hydrate (0.75 ml, 0.015 mol) in absolute
ethanol (20 ml) was heated at reflux for 6 h. The solvent
was evaporated in vacuo to half of its volume and the solid
that formed was filtered off, washed with water, air dried,
and crystallized from absolute ethanol (Scheme 2
and Table 1).
Biological assay
DPPH radical-scavenging activity
The antioxidant activity of the test compounds was
measured in terms of hydrogen-donating or radical-
scavenging ability using the stable radical 2,20-diphenyl-1-
picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) (Sigma Chemical Co., Steinheim,
Germany) [19]. A volume of 50 ml of a DMSO stock
solution of tested compounds at four different concen-
trations (50, 100, 200, and 300 mg/ml) was added to 2 ml
of 6� 10–5 mol/l dimethylsulfoxide solution of DPPH
(2.3659 mg from DPPH/100 ml DMSO). The mixtures
were shacked in a vortex (2500 rpm) for 1 min and then
placed in a dark room. Ascorbic acid (Sigma-Aldrich
Chemie GmbH, Taufkirchen, Germany) was used as a
reference. The decrease in absorbance at 517 nm was
determined using a JENWAY 6315 spectrophotometer
(Keison Products, Chelmsford, England) after 1 h for all
samples. Dimethylsulfoxide was used to zero the spectro-
photometer. The absorbance of the radical without a
sample was used as a negative control. The amount of
sample necessary to decrease the absorbance of DPPH
(IC50) by 50% was calculated graphically. The inhibition
percentage of the DPPH radical (scavenging activity) was
calculated according to the following formula:
% I¼ AB�Asð Þ/AB½ ��100;
3-Indolylthiazolothiadiazole Abo-Salem et al. 15
Table 2 Spectral characterization of the newly synthesized compounds
Compoundnumber IR (gmax/cm) 1H NMR (d, ppm) Mass (m/z, %)
2a 3410 (NH2), 3169 (NH), 1635(C = N), 1575 (C = C)
12.11 (s, 1H, NH), 11.11 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.90 (s, 1H,thiazolyl 7-H), 8.25 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.06 (d, 1H, indolyl7-H), 7.48 (d, 1H, indolyl 4-H), 7.23-7.16 (m, 2H, indolyl6-H and 5-H), 3.73 (s, 2H, NH2)
274 (M + , 1), 256 (16), 192 (5),144 (34), 128 (14), 116 (16),83 (47), 18 (100)
2b 3336 (NH2), 1628 (C = N), 1543(C = C)
12.10 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.93 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 8.25(s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.27-7.18 (m, 9H, Ar-H), 5.57 (s, 2H,CH2-N), 3.85 (s, 2H, NH2)
–
3a 3156 and 3111 (NH), 1636 (C = N),1602 (C = C), 1354 and 1163(SO2-N)
12.14 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.97 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 8.95(s, 1H, NH), 8.31 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.11-7.20 (m, 9H,Ar-H), 5.08 (s, 1H, NH)
–
3b 3125 (NH), 1631 (C = N), 1574(C = C), 1363 and 1148 (SO2-N)
– 504 (M + , 21), 430 (12), 353(10), 91 (100)
4a 3232 and 3126 (NH), 1624 (C = N),1575 (C = C), 1368 and 1136(SO2-N), 745 (C-Cl)
– 448/450 (M + /M + + 2, 33/11),330 (2), 191 (20), 113 (37),111 (100)
4b 3168 (NH), 1618 (C = N), 1610(C = C), 1366 and 1134 (SO2-N),747 (C-Cl)
12.01 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.92 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 8.69(s, 1H, NH), 8.42 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.21-7.18 (m, 13H,Ar-H), 5.51 (s, 2H, CH2-N)
–
5a 3327 and 3120 (NH), 1695 (C = O),1640 (C = N), 1585 (C = C)
11.93 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.90 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 9.59(s, 1H, NH), 8.56 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.32-7.37 (m, 9H,Ar-H), 4.18 (s, 1H, NH)
378 (M + , 23), 350 (10), 274(20), 258 (1), 105 (100)
5b 3154 (NH), 1710 (C = O),1638 (C = N), 1563 (C = C)
12.24 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.94 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 8.26(s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.01-7.07 (m, 14H, Ar-H), 5.42 (s, 2H,CH2-N), 3.75 (s, 1H, NH)
–
6a 3260 and 3112 (NH), 1688 (C = O),1644 (C = N), 1585 (C = C), 775(C-Cl)
12.12 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.95 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 8.68(s, 1H, NH), 8.37 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 7.87-7.05 (m, 8H,Ar-H), 3.96 (s, 1H, NH)
–
6b 3212 (NH), 1759 (C = O),1643 (C = N), 1578 (C = C),773 (C-Cl)
– 503/505 (M + /M + + 2, 19/6),391 (10), 113 (27), 111 (75),91 (100)
7a 3240 and 3163 (NH), 1722 (C = O),1618 (C = N), 1521 (C = C),747 (C-Cl)
11.85 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.91 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 8.26(s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 7.94-7.26 (m, 4H, Ar-H), 6.76 (s, 1H,NH), 4.75 (s, 2H, CH2), 4.11 (s, 1H, NH)
–
7b 3265 (NH), 1710 (C = O), 1588(C = N), 1529 (C = C), 734 (C-Cl)
– 440/442 (M + /M + + 2, 30/10),349 (20), 318 (14), 91 (100)
8a 3186 and 3121 (NH), 1753 (C = O),1616 (C = N), 1521 (C = C)
12.12 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.93 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 9.15(s, 1H, NH), 8.29 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.10-7.23 (m, 4H,Ar-H), 6.08 (s, 1H, NH), 4.13 (s, 2H, CH2)
373 (M + , 34), 345 (10), 317(20), 142 (100), 117 (15)
8b 3265 (NH), 1725 (C = O),1612 (C = N), 1522 (C = C)
12.15 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.93 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 8.72(s, 1H, NH), 8.31 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.26-7.36 (m, 9H,Ar-H), 5.21 (s, 2H, CH2-N), 4.20 (s, 2H, CH2)
–
9a 3160 (NH), 1643 (C = N),1594 (C = C)
12.10 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.92 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 8.86(s, 1H, tetrazolyl 5-H), 8.23 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 7.76-7.24(m, 4H, Ar-H), 6.90 (s, 1H, NH)
–
9b 1635 (C = N), 1572 (C = C) 11.65 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.92 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 8.82(s, 1H, tetrazolyl 5-H), 8.42 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.06-7.15(m, 9H, Ar-H), 5.92 (s, 2H, CH2-N)
417 (M + , 17), 385 (2), 353 (21),117 (12), 91 (100)
10a 3157 (NH), 1624 (C = N),1565 (C = C)
12.03 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 10.11 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H),9.90 (s, 1H, NH), 8.91 (s, 1H, CH = N), 8.50 (s, 1H,indolyl 2-H), 8.34-7.40 (m, 9H, Ar-H)
–
10b 1628 (C = N), 1571 (C = C) 12.11 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.95 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 9.01(s, 1H, CH = N), 8.54 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.23-7.11 (m,14H, Ar-H), 5.66 (s, 2H, CH2-N)
–
11a 3154 (NH), 1702 (C = O),1633 (C = N), 1601 (C = C),736 (C-Cl)
– 438/440 (M + /M + + 2, 12/4),410 (1), 402 (3), 326 (10), 77(100)
11b 1724 (C = O), 1637 (C = N),1563 (C = C), 745 (C-Cl)
12.22 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.93 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 8.33(s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.10-7.07 (m, 14H, Ar-H), 5.20 (d, 2H,CH), 5.07 (d, 2H, CH)
–
12a 3201 (NH), 1739 (C = O),1640 (C = N), 1568 (C = C)
11.53 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.81 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 8.57(s, 1H, NH), 8.25 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.12-7.11 (m, 14H,Ar-H), 5.20 and 4.81 (2d, 2H, 2CH)
480 (M + , 2), 328 (10), 115 (14),103 (100)
12b 1737 (C = O), 1635 (C = N),1570 (C = C)
12.23 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.91 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 8.65(s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.32-7.01 (m, 19H, Ar-H), 5.51 (s, 2H,CH2-N), 5.21 and 4.99 (2d, 2H, 2CH)
–
13a 3240 and 3141 (NH), 2211 (CN),1636 (C = N), 1583 (C = C)
12.15 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.95 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 9.34(s, 1H, NH), 8.25 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.11-7.25 (m, 9H,Ar-H), 6.91 (s, 1H, NH)
389 (M + , 18), 349 (100), 333(10), 103 (6)
13b 3118 (NH), 2216 (CN),1625 (C = N) 1587 (C = C)
– 479 (M + , 31), 388 (7), 312 (2),91 (100)
14a 3418 (OH), 3265 and 3152 (NH),1700 (C = O), 1641 (C = N),1573 (C = C)
– 408 (M + , 46), 392 (1), 315 (20),287 (2), 117 (50), 116 (100)
16 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
where I is the DPPH inhibition %, AB the absorbance of
control (t = 0 h), and AS the absorbance of a tested
sample at the end of the reaction (t = 1 h). Each assay was
carried out in triplicate and the results were averaged.
Results and discussionChemistry
The reaction route for the synthesis of the newly
synthesized compounds has been described in Schemes
1 and 2. New 2-amino-5-(N-substituted-1H-indol-3-yl)-
5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazoles (2a,b) were prepared
by a one-pot reaction of N-substituted-1H-indole-3-
carboxaldehyde with thioglycolic acid and thiosemicarba-
zide in concentrated sulfuric acid according to the
procedure of Shukurov et al. [7] (Scheme 1). The IR
spectra of compounds 2a,b showed characteristic absorp-
tion bands at B3241–3410/cm for (NH2) and showed no
absorption band characteristic for C = O (Table 2). Their1H NMR (DMSO-d6) spectra showed two singlet signals
at d 12.12–9.90 ppm attributed to 5-H and 7-H of
thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazole moiety, besides the other
aromatic protons located at their positions (Table 2).
The reaction of compounds 2a or 2b with benzenesulfo-
nyl chloride and 4-chlorobenzenesulfonyl chloride in dry
dioxane and in the presence of triethylamine led to the
formation of N-[5-(N-substituted-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-
thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]benzenesulfonamide
derivatives 3a,b and 4a,b, respectively (Scheme 1).
However, the reaction of 2a,b with benzoyl chloride
and 2-chlorobenzoyl chloride yielded N-[5-(N-substi-
tuted-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolor-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-
benzamide derivatives 5a,b and 6a,b, respectively
(Scheme 1).
In contrast, the reaction of 2a or 2b with chloroacetyl
chloride in dry benzene yielded N-[5-(N-substituted-1-
H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-2-
chloroacetamides (7a,b). Cyclization of the latter compounds
through their reactions with potassium thiocyanate in
dry acetone yielded 3-[5-(N-substituted-1H-indol-3-yl)-
5H-thiazolor-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-2-iminothiazolidin-4-ones
(8a,b) (Scheme 1).
The treatment of 2a or 2b with triethyl orthoformate and
sodium azide according to Abu-Hashem et al. [20] yielded
the new 5-(N-substituted-1H-indol-3-yl)-2-(1H-tetrazol-1-
yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazols (9a,b) (Scheme 1).
The acid-catalyzed reaction of 2a,b with benzaldehyde in
glacial acetic acid under reflux yielded the corresponding
Schiff bases, N-benzylidene-[5-(N-substituted-1H-indol-
3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-2-amines
(10a,b) (Scheme 2). Cyclocondensation of the latter
Schiff bases with chloroacetyl chloride and/or phenacyl
bromide under reflux in dry dioxane and in the presence
of triethylamine yielded 3-chloro-4-phenylazetidin-2-one
derivatives 11a,b and 3,4-diphenylazetidin-2-one deriva-
tives 12a,b, respectively (Scheme 2).
However, the reaction of Schiff bases 10a or 10b with
sodium cyanide in glacial acetic acid yielded 2-[5-(N-
substituted-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thia-
diazol-2-yl amino]phenylacetonitriles (13a,b) (Scheme 2).
Acid hydrolysis of the latter compounds 13a or 13b
yielded the corresponding a-amino acid 14a,b (Scheme 2).
Diazotization of compounds 2a or 2b with concentrated
hydrochloric acid and sodium nitrite at 0–51C yielded the
corresponding diazonium salts (A), which, under coupling
with sodium azide, yielded the corresponding azides,
namely, 2-azido-5-(N-substituted-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thia-
zolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazols (15a,b). The freshly prepared
azides 15a,b reacted with ethylacetoacetate in dry
methanol and in the presence of freshly prepared sodium
methoxide and yielded 1-[5-(N-substituted-1H-indol-3-yl)-
5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]-5-methyl-1H-1,2,3-
triazole-4-carboxylic acids (16a,b) (Scheme 2).
14b 3400 (OH), 1715 (C = O),1638 (C = N), 1524 (C = C)
13.45 (s, 1H, OH), 11.70 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.65 (s, 1H,thiazolyl 7-H), 8.81 (s, 1H, NH), 8.40 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H),8.19-7.01 (m, 14H, Ar-H), 5.51 (s, 2H, CH2-N), 2.3 (s, 1H,CH)
–
16a 3408 (OH), 3135 (NH),1692 (C = O), 1631 (C = N),1563 (C = C)
13.23 (s, 1H, OH), 12.12 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.93 (s, 1H,thiazolyl 7-H), 8.40 (s, 1H, NH), 8.65 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H),8.22-7.12 (m, 4H, Ar-H), 1.25 (s, 3H, CH3)
–
16b 3368 (OH), 1707 (C = O),1639 (C = N), 1585 (C = C)
– 474 (M + , 26), 460 (11), 431(10), 389 (8), 91 (100)
17a 3159 and 3112 (NH), 2195 (CN),1628 (C = N), 1560 (C = C)
12.01 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.92 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 8.94(s, 1H, NH), 8.26 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 7.91-7.24 (m, 4H,Ar-H), 6.91 (s, 1H, NH)
–
17b 3160 (NH2), 2205 (CN),1644 (C = N), 1615 (C = C)
– 441 (M + , 45), 413 (3), 391 (2),381 (1), 244 (10), 91 (100)
18a 3420 (NH2), 3192 and 3101 (NH),1635 (C = N), 1620 (N = N), 1564(C = C)
11.65 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 8.90 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 8.53(s, 1H, NH), 8.32 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 7.83-7.20 (m, 4H,Ar-H), 6.50 (s, 1H, NH), 5.21 (s, 2H, NH2), 2.95 (s, 2H, NH2)
–
18b 3363 and 3246 (NH2), 3133 (NH),1638 (C = N), 1616 (N = N),1583 (C = C)
12.01 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 5-H), 9.91 (s, 1H, thiazolyl 7-H), 9.46(s, 2H, NH2), 8.42 (s, 1H, indolyl 2-H), 8.05-7.17 (m, 9H,Ar-H), 6.95 (s, 1H, NH), 5.37 (s, 2H, CH2-N), 3.91 (s, 2H,NH2)
473 (M + , 66), 445 (2), 397 (21),115 (15), 91 (100)
Table 2 (Continued)
Compoundnumber IR (gmax/cm) 1H NMR (d, ppm) Mass (m/z, %)
3-Indolylthiazolothiadiazole Abo-Salem et al. 17
However, coupling of diazonium salts (A) with mal-
ononitrile in the presence of sodium acetate trihydrate
yielded 2-[(5-(N-substituted-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazo-
lo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl hydrazono] malononitriles
(17a,b). The reaction of the latter compounds with
hydrazine hydrate in absolute ethanol under reflux
yielded the corresponding pyrazoles (18a,b) (Scheme 2).
DPPH radical-scavenging activity
The preliminary DPPH radical-scavenging activity of the
newly synthesized compounds was determined using
ascorbic acid as a reference and IC50 of the most active
compounds were calculated (Table 3 and Fig. 1). From
the data obtained, compounds 14a and 18a showed free
radical-scavenging effects of 84.61 and 80.83% compared
with that of ascorbic acid of 91.25% at a concentration of
300 mg/ml, whereas at a concentration of 200 mg/ml, only
18a showed a radical-scavenging effect of 79.56%
compared with that of ascorbic acid of 85.41%. The
amount of sample necessary to decrease the absorbance
of DPPH by 50% (IC50) was calculated and it was found
that 4-{5-[(1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thia-
diazol-2-yl]diazo}-1H-pyrazole-3,5-diamine (18a) was
highly active with radical-scavenging activity (IC50 of
69.14 mg/ml) compared with ascorbic acid (IC50 of
6.50 mg/ml); this may be because of the presence of the
N–H moieties of the two primary aromatic amino groups
and secondary amine, which act as good hydrogen bond
donors (Table 3 and Fig. 1).
ConclusionSome new heterocycles derived from novel 2-amino-5-(N-
substituted-1H-indol-3-yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thi-
diazoles (2a,b) were prepared and screened for their
antioxidant activity using 2,20-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) radical-scavenging activity. 4-{5-[(1H-indol-3-
yl)-5H-thiazolo[4,3-b]-1,3,4-thiadiazol-2-yl]diazo}-1H-
pyrazole-3,5-diamine (18a) was found to be highly active
with radical-scavenging activity (IC50 of 69.14mg/ml)
compared with ascorbic acid (IC50 of 6.50 mg/ml); this
may be because of the presence of the N–H moieties of
the two primary aromatic amino groups and secondary
amine, which act as good hydrogen bond donors.
AcknowledgementsConflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest.
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Table 3 Scavenging activity % on DPPH radicals of the most
active synthesized compounds and IC50 values
Scavenging activity (%)a
Compound number 50 100 200 300 IC50 (mg/ml)
2a 11.39 18.62 30.19 44.42 368.596b 8.49 13.74 18.67 22.24 1254.028a 6.15 8.67 9.40 17.00 2243.399a 6.33 6.87 13.02 16.64 1731.1112a 1.63 2.35 5.06 64.19 317.5912b 4.15 5.06 8.13 11.21 4221.3314a 25.67 34.9 45.26 84.61 164.1516b 14.64 19.71 36.34 47.55 327.2118a 45.56 56.05 79.56 80.83 69.14Negative control 0 0 0 0 0Ascorbic acid 83.79 88.99 85.41 91.25 6.50
aResults are the mean of three independent experiments.
Figure 1
0
20
40
60
80
100(a)
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
%
µg/mL
Scavenging activity (%)
2a
6b
8a
9a
12a
VC
0
20
40
60
80
100
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
%
µg/mL
Scavenging activity (%)
12b
14a
16b
18a
VC
(b)
Scavenging activity % on DPPH radicals of the most active synthesizedcompounds.
18 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
12 Mandour AH, El-Sawy ER, Ebaid MS, Hassan SM. Synthesis and potentialbiological activity of some novel 3-[(N-substituted indol-3-yl)methyleneami-no]-6-amino-4-aryl-pyrano(2,3-c)pyrazole-5-carbonitriles and 3,6-diamino-4-(N-substituted indol-3-yl)pyrano(2,3-c)pyrazole-5-carbonitriles. Acta Pharm2012; 62:15–30.
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3-Indolylthiazolothiadiazole Abo-Salem et al. 19
Synthesis and antihypertensive activity of certain substituted
dihydropyridines and pyrimidinonesWageeh S. El-Hamoulya, Kamelia M. Amineb, Hanaa A. Tawfika
and Dina H. Dawooda
aDepartment of Chemistry of Natural and MicrobialProducts, National Research Centre and bDepartmentof Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy,Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
Correspondence to Hanaa A. Tawfik, PhD, Departmentof Chemistry of Natural and Microbial Products,National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza 12311, EgyptTel: + 20 201 224 2709 16; fax: + 20 233 370 931;e-mail: [email protected]
Received 17 July 2012Accepted 10 October 2012
Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
2013,12:20–27
Background and objective
Some bulky substituted aromatic aldehydes reacted with urea and ethyl acetoacetate
in the presence of acetic acid as a catalyst to yield solely substituted dihydropyridines
(Hantzsch-type molecule). In the presence of p-toluene sulfonic acid as a catalyst, the
products were only dihydropyrimidines (Biginelli compounds). The same aldehydes
yielded dihydropyrimidinones on using acetyl acetone instead of ethyl acetoacetate
whatever the catalyst used. These two classes of molecules represent a heterocyclic
system of a remarkable antihypertensive effect. The aim of this study was to synthesize
certain dihydropyridine and pyrimidinone derivatives with aromatic moiety with bulky
substituents to be evaluated for their antihypertensive effect.
Methods
The aldehydes 3-(substituted-phenyl)-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazole-4-carbaldehyde 3–5, 4-
oxo-4H-chromene-3-carbaldehyde (6), and substituted phenylazo-benzaldehyde 7–9
reacted with ethyl acetoacetate and urea in ethanol in the presence of acetic acid to
yield dihydropyridines 10–15. Aldehydes 3–9 reacted with ethyl acetoacetate and urea
in the presence of p-toluene sulfonic acid to yield dihydropyrimidinones 16–22.
Furthermore, the reaction of the aldehydes 3–9 with ethyl acetoacetate and urea in the
presence of either acetic acid or p-toluene sulfonic acid yielded the corresponding
dihydropyrimidinones 23–29.
Results and conclusion
The hypotensive activity of compounds 10–14 and 16–20 indicated that the 4-aryl-
dihydropyridine derivatives 10–14 showed higher activity than the pyrimidinones
16–20. The most active compound was 4-(1,3-diphenyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-2,6-dimethyl-
1,4-dihydropyridine-3,5-dicarboxylic acid diethyl ester (10) at dose levels of 0.6, 1.2,
and 2.4 mg/kg. It showed more or less similar hypotensive activity as the reference
drug nifedipene at doses of 1.2 and 2.4 mg/kg. Its LD50 = 298 mg/kg body weight.
Keywords:
antihypertensive activity, bulky substituted aldehydes, dihydropyridines,
dihydropyrimidinones
Egypt Pharm J 12:20–27& 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research, National Research Centre1687-4315
IntroductionThe one-pot acid-catalyzed Biginelli [1,2] condensation
is the most commonly used reaction to produce
dihydropyrimidines (DHPMs, 1). This very simple
reaction involves three component cyclocondensation of
urea, an aldehyde and a b-oxoester or 1,3-dicarbonyl
compound using ethanol as a solvent and catalytic
amounts of HCl, AcOH, or H2SO4 among other
acids [3–7]. In contrast, in the Hantzsch reaction
discussed, more than a century ago [8], the main way
to obtain dihydropyridines (DHPs, 2) and is commonly
carried out as a one-pot condensation of a b-dicarbonyl
compound with an aldehyde but with ammonia instead of
urea using ethanol as a solvent.
These two classes of molecules (1 and 2) represent a
heterocyclic system with remarkable pharmacological
properties that include antiviral [9,10], antitumor [11,12],
antibacterial [13,14], and anti-inflammatory [15–18] ac-
tivities. In addition, a number of these heterocyclic
NH
H
MeMe
Hantzsch dihydropyridines
COOEtEtOOC
R
HN
Biginelli dihydropyrimidines
NH
H
Me
COOEt
O
R
1 2
20 Original article
1687-4315 & 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre
DOI: 10.7123/01.EPJ.0000426587.41764.d4
systems have emerged as exerting orally active antihy-
pertensive effects or to act as a-1A-adrenoceptor-selective
antagonists [19,20], for example nifedipene and amlude-
pine. It is worth mentioning that several examples of
highly substituted DHPMs and DHPs are reported to
show high antihypertensive activity, for example doxazo-
sin [20] and nicardipine [21,22].
The aim of this work was to synthesize some DHPs and
pyrimidinones with the aromatic moiety bearing bulky
substituents to be evaluated for their antihypertensive
activity.
ExperimentalChemistry
All melting points were determined in open capillary tubes
using silicon oil on a Gallen Kamp Apparatus (Finsbury,
London, England) and were uncorrected. 1H-NMR spectra
were determined using a JEOL EX-270 NMR spectrometer
(Musashino 3-chome, Akishima, Tokyo, Japan) with tetra-
methylsilane as an internal standard. Mass spectra were
performed using a GC-MS-QP 1000EX Schimadzu Gas
Chromatography MS Spectrometer (Columbia, Maryland,
USA). The infrared spectra were recorded on an FT/
IR330E infrared spectrophotometer using KBr discs.
Elemental analyses were carried out at the Micro analytical
Laboratory of the National Research Center, Dokki, Cairo,
Egypt. The reactions were followed up by thin layer
chromatography (TLC) using chloroform/methanol (9 : 1)
as an eluent and detected using a UV lamp.
General procedure for the preparation of substituted
dihydropyridine compounds (10–15)
A mixture of the appropriate aldehydes 3–9 (6 mmol), urea
(0.9 g, 15 mmol), ethyl acetoacetate (1.17 ml, 9 mmol), and
glacial acetic acid (2 ml) in absolute ethanol (50 ml) was
heated under reflux for several hours (12–18 h) (monitored
by TLC). After the completion of the reaction, the solvent
was removed under vacuum and the precipitated product
was treated with water, filtered off, washed with water,
dried, and crystallized from methanol.
4-(1,3-Diphenyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-2,6-dimethyl-1,4-
dihydropyridine-3,5-dicarboxylic acid diethyl ester (10)
Yield 72%, m.p. 154–1561C, IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3343 (NH),
1682 (CO); 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, d, ppm): 0.91 (t, 6H,
2CH3), 2.22 (s, 6H, 2CH3), 3.84 (q, 4H, 2CH2), 5.16 (s,
1H, C4-H), 7.26–7.88 (m, 10H, Ar-Hs), 8.00 (s, 1H,
pyrazole), 8.78 (s, 1H, NH, D2O exchangeable); Ms: m/z(%): 469 [(M + -2, (62)], 441 (100%), 397 (83), 326 (71),
251 (93), 220 (90), 206 (22), 179 (32), 77 (99). Analysis:
for C28H29N3O4 (471.55), calcd: C, 71.32; H, 6.20; N,
8.91%. Found: C, 71.45; H, 6.30; N, 8.71%.
2,6-Dimethyl-4-[3-(4-nitrophenyl)-1-phenyl-1-H-
pyrazole-4-yl]-1,4-dihydropyridine-3,5-dicarboxylic acid
diethyl ester (11)
Yield 75%, m.p. 110–1131C, IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3369 (NH),
1683 (CO); 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, d, ppm) 0.87 (t, 6H,
2CH3), 2.24 (s, 6H, 2CH3), 3.87 (q, 4H, 2CH2), 5.18 (s,
1H, C4-H), 7.31–8.36 (m, 10H, 9Ar-Hs and 1H pyrazole),
8.81 (s, 1H, NH); Ms: m/z (%): 514 [M + -2, (22)], 486
(70), 442 (100), 251 (52). Analysis: for C28H28N4O6
(516.55), calcd: C, 65.11; H, 5.46; N, 10.85%. Found: C,
65.33; H: 5.19; N, 10.67%.
4-[3-(2-Hydroxy-phenyl)-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl]-2,
6-dimethyl-1,4-dihydro-pyridine-3,5-dicarboxylic acid
diethyl ester (12)
Yield 68%, m.p. 98–1001C, IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3357 (OH),
3249 (NH) and 1693 (CO); 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, d,
ppm), 0.98 (t, 6H, 2CH3), 2.13 (s, 6H, 2CH3), 3.87 (q,
4H, 2CH2), 5.10 (s, 1H, C4-H), 6.91–7.77 (m, 9H, Ar-
Hs), 8.12 (s, 1H, pyrazole-H), 8.54 (s, 1H, NH) and 9.59
(s, 1H, OH); Ms: m/z (%): 485 [(M + -2, (94%)], 457 (24),
438 (100), 413 (43), 394 (20), 252 (16), 236 (27).
Analysis: for C28H29N3O5 (487.55), calcd: C, 68.98; H,
6.00; N, 8.62%. Found: C, 68.86; H, 5.79; N, 8.52%.
2,6-Dimethyl-4-(4-oxo-4H-chromen-3-yl)-1,4-
dihydropyridine-3,5-dicarboxylic acid diethyl ester (13)
Yield 65%, m.p. 213–2151C; 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, d,
ppm) 1.10 (t, 6H, 2CH3), 1.12 (t, 6H, 2CH3), 2.22 (s,
6H, 2CH3), 2.25 (s, 6H, 2CH3), 3.96 (q, 4H, 2CH2), 4.02
(q, 4H, 2CH2), 4.82 (s, 1H, C4-H), 5.24 (s, 1H, C4-H),
7.43 (t, 1H, H-6), 7.50 (t, 1H, H-6), 7.55 (d, 1H, H-8),
7.57 (d, 1H, H-8), 7.64 (t, 1H, H-7), 7.73 (t, 1H, H-7),
7.93 (s, 1H, H-2), 8.14 (s, 1H, H-2), 8.00 (d, 1H, H-5),
8.02 (d, 1H, H-5), 8.82 (s, 1H, NH), 9.18 (s, 1H, NH);
Ms m/z (%) 397 (M + , 12%), 352 (7), 324 (100), 294 (10),
252 (32), 223 (17). Analysis: for C22H23NO6 (397.42),
calcd: C, 66.49; H, 5.83; N, 3.52%. Found: C, 66.80; H,
5.70; N, 3.41%.
Doxazosin
O
O
ONN
N
N
NH2
MeO
MeO
O
NO
O2N
NH
Me Me
Me
EtOOC
Nicardipine
Synthesis and antihypertensive activity El-Hamouly et al. 21
2,6-Dimethyl-4-(2-hydroxy-3-methoxy-5-phenylazo-
phenyl)-1,4-dihydropyridine-3,5-dicarboxylic acid diethyl
ester (14)
Yield 75%, m.p. 124–1261C; IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3448 (OH),
3344 (NH), 1693 (CO); 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, d, ppm):
1.10 (t, 3H, CH3), 2.28 (s, 3H, CH3), 3.84 (s, 3H,
OCH3), 4.00 (q, 2H, CH2), 5.17 (s, 1H, C4-H), 7.03 (s,
1H, Ar-H), 7.22 (s, 1H, Ar-H), 7.56 (t, 3H, Ar-Hs), 7.80
(s, 1H, N3H, D2O exchangeable), 7.98 (d, 2H, Ar-Hs),
9.26 (s, 1H, N1H, D2O exchangeable), 10.99 (s, 1H,
OH); Ms: m/z (%): 477 [M + -2, (34)], 431 (12), 372 (38),
354 (32), 252 (81), 238 (41), 105 (55), 93 (86) and 77
(100). Analysis: for C26H29N3O6 (479.52), calcd: C,
65.12; H, 6.10; N, 8.76%. Found: C, 65.29; H, 6.12; N,
8.95%.
2,4-Dimethyl-5-oxo-9-phenylazo-5H-chromeno[3,4-
c]pyridine-1-carboxylic acid ethyl ester (15)
Yield 66%, m.p. 203–2061C; IR (KBr, cm – 1): 1730 (CO),
1684 (CO); 1H-NMR (d6-DMSO, d, ppm): 1.33 (t, 3H,
CH3), 2.69 (s, 3H, CH3), 2.93 (s, 3H, CH3), 4.58 (q, 2H,
CH2), 7.61 (t, 3H, Ar-Hs), 7.64 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.88 (d,
1H, Ar-H), 8.22 (d, 2H, Ar-Hs), 8.31 (s, 1H, Ar-H); Ms:
m/z (%), 400 [M + -1, (27)], 356 (10), 329 (17), 268 (37),
250 (60), 224 (24), 169 (91), 105 (55), 77 (100). Analysis:
for C23H19N3O4 (401.41), calcd: C, 68.82; H, 4.78; N,
10.47%. Found: C, 68.63; H, 4.91; N, 10.60%.
4-(Aryl)-6-methyl-2-oxo-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidine-5-
carboxylicacid ethyl ester (16–22)
General procedure
A mixture of the appropriate aldehydes 3–9 (10 mmol),
urea (1.5 g, 25 mmol), ethyl acetoacetate (1.95 ml, 15 mmol),
and p-toluene sulfonic acid (1.72 g, 10 mmol) in absolute
ethanol (35 ml) was heated under reflux for 6–8 h
(monitored by TLC). After completion of the reaction,
the solvent was removed under vacuum and the pre-
cipitated product was treated with water, filtered, washed
with water, and dried. Crystallization from the appropriate
solvent yielded the desired compounds 16–22.
4-[1,3-Diphenyl-1H-pyrazole-4-yl]-6-methyl-2-oxo-
1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidine-5-carboxylic acid ethyl
ester (16)
Yield 74%, m.p. 178–1801C (methanol); IR (KBr, cm – 1):
3349 (NH), 3222 (NH), 1693 (CO), 1642 (CO); 1H-
NMR (d6-DMSO, d, ppm): 0.82 (t, 3H, CH3), 2.23 (s,
3H, CH3), 3.80 (q, 2H, CH2), 5.38 (s, 1H, C4-H),
7.27–7.90 (m, 11H, 10Ar-Hs and 1H pyrazole), 8.35 (s,
1H, N3H) and 9.16 (s, 1H, N1H). Analysis: for
C23H22N4O3 (402.45), calcd: C, 68.64; H, 5.51; N,
13.92%. Found: C, 68.80; H, 5.34; N, 13.71%.
6-Methyl-4-[3-(4-nitro-phenyl)-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazol-4-
yl]-2-oxo-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-pyrimidine-5-carboxylic acid
ethyl ester (17)
Yield 83%, m.p. 190–1931C; IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3439 (OH),
3210 (NH), 3122 (NH), 1713 (CO), 1657 (CO); 1H-
NMR (d6-DMSO, d, ppm): 0.87 (t, 3H, CH3), 2.25 (s,
3H, CH3), 3.82 (q, 2H, CH2), 5.44 (s, 1H, C4-H),
6.87–7.89 (m, 10H, 9Ar-Hs and 1H pyrazole), 8.34 (s, 1H,
N3H), 9.20 (s, 1H, N1H). Analysis: for C23H21N5O5
(447.44), calcd: C, 61.74; H, 4.73; N, 15.65%. Found: C,
61.96; H, 4.53; N, 15.85%.
4-[3-(2-Hydroxy-phenyl)-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl]-6-
methyl-2-oxo-1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidine-5-carboxylic
acid ethyl ester (18)
Yield 79%, m.p. 201–2041C; IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3223 (NH),
3109 (NH), 1698 (CO), 1649 (CO); 1H-NMR (d6-
DMSO, d, ppm): 0.83 (t, 3H, CH3), 2.26 (s, 3H, CH3),
3.82 (q, 2H, CH2), 5.44 (s, 1H, C4-H), 7.13–8.50 (m,
10H, 9Ar-Hs and 1H pyrazole), 7.85 (s, 1H, N3H, D2O
exchangeable), 9.23 (s, 1H, N1H, D2O exchangeable).
Analysis: for C23H22N4O4 (418.45), calcd: C, 66.02; H,
5.30; N, 13.39%. Found: C, 66.37; H, 5.49; N, 13.21%.
6-Methyl-2-oxo-4-(4-oxo-4H-chromen-3-yl)-1,2,3,4-
tetrahydropyrimidine-5-carboxylic acid ethyl ester (19)
Yield 78%, m.p. 287–2901C, IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3386 (NH),
3281 (NH), 1710 (CO), 1669 (CO), 1638 (CO); 1H-
NMR (d6-DMSO, d, ppm): 1.00 (t, 3H, CH3), 2.23 (s,
3H, CH3), 3.98 (q, 2H, CH2), 5.23 (s, 1H, C4-H), 7.24
(s, 1H, H-2), 7.45 (t, 1H, H-6), 7.63 (d, 1H, H-8), 7.78
(t, 1H, H-7), 8.12 (d, 1H, H-5), 8.23 (s, 1H, N3H), 9.31
(s, 1H, N1H); Ms: m/z (%): 328 (M + , 12), 269 (17%),
255 (100%), 169 (18%); Analysis: for C17H16N2O5
(328.32), calcd: C, 62.19; H, 4.91; N, 8.53%. Found: C,
62.37; H, 4.79; N, 8.37%.
4-(2-Hydroxy-3-methoxy-5-phenylazo-phenyl)-6-methyl-
2-oxo-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-pyrimidine-5-carboxylic acid
ethyl ester (20)
Yield 74%, m.p. 210–2121C, IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3357 (OH),
3214 (NH), 3198 (NH), 1689 (CO), 1640 (CO); 1H-
NMR (d6-DMSO d, ppm): 1.10 (t, 3H, CH3,), 2.28 (s,
3H, CH3), 3.84 (s, 3H, OCH3), 4.00 (q, 2H, CH2), 5.17
(s, 1H, C4-H), 7.03 (s, 1H, Ar-H), 7.22 (s, 1H, Ar-H),
7.56 (t, 3H, Ar-Hs), 7.80 (s, 1H, N3H, D2O exchange-
able), 7.98 (d, 2H, Ar-Hs), 9.26 (s, 1H, N1H, D2O
exchangeable), 10.99 (s, 1H, OH, D2O exchangeable);
Ms: m/z (%), 410 [M + (12)], 302 (44), 210 (32), 105
(42), 93 (52), 77 (100). Analysis: for C21H22N4O5
(410.43), calcd: C, 61.46; H, 5.40; N, 13.65%. Found: C,
61.35; H, 5.35; N, 13.68%.
4-(2-Hydroxy-5-phenylazo-phenyl)-6-methyl-2-oxo-
1,2,3,4-tetrahydropyrimidine-5-carboxylic acid ethyl
ester (21)
m.p. 167–1701C, IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3455 (OH), 3220
(NH), 3210 (NH), 1690 (CO), 1662 (CO); 1H-NMR (d6-
DMSO, d, ppm) 1.05 (t, 3H, CH3), 2.24 (s, 3H, CH3),
3.98 (q, 2H, CH2), 5.52 (s, 1H, C4-H), 6.93 (d, 1H, Ar-
H), 7.37 (s, 1H, N3H, D2O exchangeable), 7.51 (t, 3H,
Ar-Hs), 7.63 (s, 1H, Ar-H), 7.75 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.84 (d,
2H, Ar-Hs), 9.23 (s, 1H, N1H, D2O exchangeable), 10.61
(s, 1H, OH, D2O exchangeable); Ms: m/z (%), 380 (M + ,
20), 183 (22), 105 (21), 93 (28), 77 (100). Analysis: for
C20H20N4O4 (380.40), calcd: C, 63.15; H, 5.30; N,
14.73%. Found: C, 63.38; H, 5.40; N, 14.87%.
22 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
4-[2-Hydroxy-5-(4-nitrophenylazo)phenyl]-6-methyl-2-
oxo-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-pyrimidine-5-carboxylic acid
ethyl ester (22)
Yield 74%, m.p. 158–1611C, IR (KBr, cm– 1): 3356 (OH),
3234 (NH), 3114 (NH), 1687 (CO), 1651 (CO); 1H-NMR
(d6-DMSO, d, ppm): 1.07 (t, 3H, CH3), 2.30 (s, 3H, CH3),
3.97 (q, 2H, CH2), 5.50 (s, 1H,C4-H), 7.00 (d, 1H, Ar-H),
7.38 (s, 1H, N3H), 7.69 (s, 1H, Ar-H), 7.72–8.07 (m, 5H,
Ar-Hs), 9.21 (s, 1H, N1H), 10.90 (s, 1H, OH). Analysis: for
C20H19N5O6 (425.39), calcd: C, 56.47; H, 4.50; N, 16.46%.
Found: C, 56.66; H, 4.23; N, 16.64%.
Preparation of 5-acetyl-4-(3-aryl-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazole-
4-yl)-6-methyl-3,4-dihydro-1H-pyrimidin-2-one (23–29)
General procedure
A mixture of the selected aldehyde, 3–9 (10 mmol), urea
(1.5 g, 25 mmol) and acetylacetone (1.5 ml, 15 mmol) in
ethanol (50 ml) acidified with glacial acetic acid (2 ml) or
p-toluene sulfonic acid (1.72 g, 10 mmol) was heated
under reflux for 5–6 h. The solvent was then evaporated
under reduced pressure and the residue formed was
treated with water, filtered off, washed with water, dried,
and crystallized from methanol.
5-Acetyl-4-(1,3-diphenyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-6-methyl-3,4-
dihydro-1H-pyrimidin-2-one (23)
Yield 70%, m.p. 218–2201C, IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3327 (NH),
3222 (NH), 1696 (CO), 1671 (CO); 1H-NMR (d6-
DMSO, d, ppm): 2.16 (s, 3H, CH3), 2.25 (s, 3H,
COCH3), 5.43 (s, 1H, C4-H), 7.30–7.87 (m, 11H, 10Ar-
Hs and 1H pyrazole), 8.28 (s, 1H, N3H), 9.12 (s, 1H,
N1H); MS: m/z (%): 372 (M + , 93), 357 (38), 329 (36),
254 (8), 221 (100), and 153 (43). Analysis: for
C22H20N4O2 (372.42), calcd: C, 70.95; H, 5.41; N,
15.04%. Found: C, 70.79; H, 5.51; N, 15.19%.
5-Acetyl-6-methyl-4-[3-(4-nitrophenyl)-1-phenyl-1H-
pyrazol-4-yl]-3,4-dihydro-1H-pyrimidin-2-one (24)
Yield 67%, m.p. 178–1801C, IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3402 (OH),
3235 (NH), 3165 (NH), 1655 (CO), 1620 (CO); 1H-
NMR (d6-DMSO, d, ppm); MS: m/z (%): 386 (M + -2,
10), 345 (8), 235 (11), 221 (21), 154 (17) and 66 (100).
Analysis: for C22H19N5O4 (417.42), calcd: C, 63.30; H,
4.59; N, 16.78%. Found: C, 63.47; H, 4.68; N, 16.92%.
5-Acetyl-4-[3-(2-hydroxy-phenyl)-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazol-4-
yl]-6-methyl-3,4-dihydro-1H-pyrimidin-2-one (25)
Yield 82%, m.p. 193–1961C, IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3227 (NH),
3114 (NH), 1656 (CO), 1619 (CO); 1H-NMR (d6-
DMSO, d, ppm): 2.07 (s, 3H, CH3), 2.33 (s, 3H,
COCH3), 5.50 (s, 1H, C4-H), 7.12–8.36 (m, 10H, 9Ar-
Hs and 1H pyrazole), 7.83 (s, 1H, N3H, D2O exchange-
able), 9.20 (s, 1H, N1H, D2O exchangeable); MS, m/z(%): 416 (M + -1, 41), 373 (40), 326 (17), 266 (72), 235
(15), 153 (100) and 124 (50). Analysis: for C22H19N5O4
(417.42), calcd: C, 68.03; H, 5.19; N, 14.42%. Found: C,
68.23; H, 5.32; N, 14.61%.
5-Acetyl-6-methyl-4-(4-oxo-4H-chromen-3-yl)-3,4-
dihydro-1H-pyrimidin-2-one (26)
Yield 75%, m.p. 218–2201C; IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3340 (NH),
3273 (NH), 1703 (CO), 1671 (CO), 1645 (CO); 1H-
NMR (d6-DMSO, d, ppm): 2.15 (s, 3H, CH3), 2.31 (s,
3H, COCH3), 5.34 (s, 1H, C4-H), 7.25 (s, 1H, H-2), 7.45
(t, 1H, H-6), 7.63 (d, 1H, H-8), 7.78 (t, 1H, H-7), 8.12
(d, 1H, H-5), 8.25 (s, 1H, N3H), 9.32 (s, 1H, N1H); Ms:
m/z (%), 255 (100), 239 (8), 153 (18), 146 (26), 121 (31),
105 (35). Analysis: for C16H14N2O4 (298.29), calcd: C,
64.42; H, 4.73; N, 9.39%. Found: C, 64.56; H, 4.42; N,
9.61%.
5-Acetyl-4-(2-hydroxy-3-methoxy-5-phenylazo-phenyl)-
6-methyl-3,4-dihydro-1H-pyrimidin-2-one (27)
Yield 74%, m.p. 228–2301C, IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3383 (OH),
3255 (NH), 3112 (NH), 1707 (CO), 1663 (CO). 1H-
NMR (d6-DMSO, d, ppm); MS, m/z (%): 379 (M + _1, 7),
350 (52), 335 (21), 322 (27), 258 (39), 244 (9), 153 (17),
93 (100), 124 (43). Analysis: for C20H20N4O4 (380.40),
calcd: C, 63.15; H, 5.30; N, 14.73%. Found: C, 63.40; H,
5.31; N, 14.55%.
5-Acetyl-4-(2-hydroxy-5-phenylazo-phenyl)-6-methyl-
3,4-dihydro-1H-pyrimidin-2-one (28)
Yield 78%, m.p. 202–2051C, IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3400 (OH),
3235 (NH), 3150 (NH), 1681 (CO), 1621 (CO); 1H-
NMR (d6-DMSO, d, ppm): 2.11 (s, 3H, CH3), 2.33 (s,
3H, COCH3), 5.63 (s, 1H, C4-H), 7.00 (d, 1H, Ar-H),
7.04 (s, 1H, N3H, D2O exchangeable), 7.53 (t, 3H, Ar-
Hs), 7.62 (s, 1H, Ar-H), 7.72 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.82 (d, 2H,
Ar-Hs), 9.27 (s, 1H, N1H, D2O exchangeable), 10.59 (s,
1H, OH, D2O exchangeable); MS m/z (%): 350 (M + , 13),
307 (10), 198 (23), 153 (16), 93 (100). Analysis: for
C19H18N4O3 (350.37), calcd: C, 65.13; H, 5.18; N,
15.99%. Found: C, 65.33; H, 5.28; N, 16.25%.
5-Acetyl-4-[2-hydroxy-5-(2-nitro-phenylazo)-phenyl]-6-
methyl-3,4-dihydro-1H-pyrimidin-2-one (29)
Yield 70%, m.p. 213–2161C, IR (KBr, cm – 1): 3364 (OH),
3281 (NH), 3230 (NH), 1697 (CO), 1650 (CO); MS m/z(%): 396 (M + + 1, 10), 350 (12), 337 (17), 257 (30), 243
(13), 337 (17), 257 (30), 243 (13), 226 (15), 153 (20%),
93 (100). Analysis: for C19H17N5O5 (395.37), calcd: C:
NHNH2
CH3
O
HN
N
CH3
NN
CHO
R RR
+
POCl3DMF
3) R = H; 4) R = 4-NO2;5) R = 2-OH
Synthesis and antihypertensive activity El-Hamouly et al. 23
57.72; H, 4.33; N, 17.71%. Found: C, 57.58; H, 4.41; N,
17.63%.
Chemistry
The aldehydes 3-(substituted-phenyl)-1-phenyl-1H-pyr-
azole-4-carbaldehyde 3–5 [23] 4-oxo-4H-chromene-3-
carbaldehyde (6) [24] and substituted phenylazo-ben-
zaldehyde 7–9 [25] reacted with ethyl acetaoaetate and
urea in ethanol in the presence of acetic acid to yield
DHPs 10–15.
Compound 8 reacted similarly but underwent intra-
molecular condensation and aromatization to yield 2,4-
dimethyl-5-oxo-9-phenylazo-5H-chromeno[3,4–c]pyridine-
1-carboxylic acid ethyl ester (15). Similar behavior has
been reported previously [26].
Also, compound 9 yielded a mixture of products that were
hardly separable; perhaps, decomposition occurred be-
cause of the long reaction time.
Moreover, aldehydes 3–9 reacted with urea and ethyl
acetoacetate in the presence of p-toluene sulfonic acid to
yield dihydropyrimidinones 16–22.
Furthermore, reaction of the aldehydes 3–9 with urea and
acetyl acetone in alcohol as a solvent in the presence of
either acetic acid or p-toluene sulfonic acid yielded the
corresponding dihydropyrimidinones 23–29.
Antihypertensive activity
Ten of the newly synthesized substituted DHPs 10–14
and tetrahydropyrimidines 16–20 were screened for their
hypotensive activity using normotensive cat models [27].
Materials and methodsMale cats of local strains weighing from 2.5 to 4.0 kg were
housed (one per cage) in the animal facility (Faculty of
OH
COCH3
O
O
CHO
POCl3/DMF
6
R
N2HCl. NN
R
R1
OH
NN CHO
ROH
R1
OH
R1
+
7, R = H, R1 = OMe8, R = R1 = H,9, R = NO2 R1 = H
R NN
NH
CH3H3C
CO2EtEtO2C
H
NN
NH
CH3CH3
CO2E tE tO2CH
MeO
OH
NH
CH3CH3
CO2E tE tO2C
O
OH
10) R = H11) R = 4 -NO2
12) R = 2-OH
13 14
24 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
Medicine, El-Azhar University) for 7 days before the
experiment. Animals were always kept at 22 ± 2 h and a
12 h light/12 h dark cycle. Stressful conditions or manip-
ulation were avoided. Cats were divided into groups; each
group included four cats and one group was used as a
control. All cats were anesthetized with phenobarbital
sodium (35 mg/kg, intraperitoneally) and their blood
pressures (BP) were recorded from the carotid artery.
BP of each cat was measured before and 30 min after the
intravenous injection of the tested compounds. The
tested compounds were dissolved in DMSO and admi-
nistered at different doses (0.6, 1.2, 2.4 mg/kg) in 0.5 ml
volume in the same way as the reference drug nifedipine.
The same volume of DMSO was administered to animals
in the control group. The reduction of BP between two
measurements was recorded as mmHg. These results
were expressed as mean ± SEM; analysis variance (two-
way) was used for statistical analysis. LD50 was preformed
according to the procedure described in the study
conducted by Kerber [28].
Results and discussionThe hypotensive effect of the tested DHP derivatives
10–14 and DHPMs 16–20 is shown in Table 1 in
comparison with nifedipine as a reference drug. In the
DHP series, the test compounds showed significant
hypotensive activity at all dose levels (0.6, 1.2, and
2.4 mg/kg). The 4-(1,3-diphenyl-1H-pyrazolyl) derivative
10 was the most active at all dose levels. Also, it had more
N
N
NH
NH
Me
CO2E t
H
O
OH
R1
R
O
O
NH
NH
MeO
CO2E tH
R NN
NH
NH
MeO
CO2E tH
16, R = H, 17, R = 4- NO2
18, R = 2-OH
19 20, R = H, R1 = OMe21, R = R1 = H22, R = NO2, R1 = H
N N
HN
NH
MeO
R1R
HN
NH
O
R NN
HN
NH
MeO
H
23, R = H,24, R = 4-NO225, R = 2-OH
26 27, R = NO2, R1 = 2-OH, R2 = H28, R = H, R1 = 2-OH, R2 = H29, R = H, R1 = 4-OH, R2 =3-OCH3
Me
O
Me
O
OR2
Me
O
Table 1 Effect of tested compounds (10–14 and 16–20) on the
mean blood pressure of anesthetized normotensive cats
compared with the reference drug nifedipine
Dose (mg/kg) Compounds Mean reduction in BP
0.6 mg/kg Control (DMSO) 100.17 ± 1.82Nifedipine 44.17 ± 1.4510 55.40 ± 1.4011 79.00 ± 1.2412 61.67 ± 2.2313 65.00 ± 1.7114 75.00 ± 1.5916 76.23 ± 2.6017 74.17 ± 1.6018 76.50 ± 1.2419 61.00 ± 1.1020 89.50 ± 1.28
1.2 mg/kg Nifedipine 22.17 ± 1.4210 27.17 ± 1.9111 77.83 ± 0.8712 51.50 ± 1.6113 64.33 ± 1.7114 67.00 ± 0.4516 68.33 ± 1.8917 70.00 ± 1.1918 62.33 ± 0.8719 58.00 ± 1.4620 88.83 ± 1.71
2.4 mg/kg Nifedipine 15.17 ± 1.0110 13.00 ± 0.8211 62.00 ± 1.5312 15.50 ± 0.9213 60.33 ± 0.8814 60.50 ± 1.1816 64.50 ± 1.3417 68.00 ± 1.3918 57.00 ± 1.5119 47.67 ± 1.0920 85.67 ± 0.92
BP, blood pressure; DMSO, dimethyl sulfoxide.
Synthesis and antihypertensive activity El-Hamouly et al. 25
or less similar potency as nifidipine (refrerence standerd)
at doses of 1.2 and 2.4 mg/kg. The other tested DHPs 11
and 12 bearing 3-aryl-1-phenyl-1H-pyrazolyl as well as
the chromonyl derivative 13 and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-5-
(phenylazo)-phenyl substituent at the 4-position 14
showed weak activities compared with the reference
drug. For tetrahydropyrimidine series 16–20, the eval-
uated data showed that the 4-chromonyl derivative 19
had significant hypertensive activity (61.00 ± 1.10),
which was higher than the 4-pyrazolyl analogous 16–18
at a dose of 0.6 mg/kg. A nonsignificant change was
observed in the presence of 4-[4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-5-
(phenylazo)-phenyl] derivative 20 when administered at
the same dose level. The hypotensive values of this series
were negligible compared with those of nifedipine at
doses of 0.6, 1.2, and 2.4 mg/kg.
Moreover, Table 2 shows that LD50 of the most active
compound 10 was equal to 298 mg/kg body weight.
Conclusively, the 4-aryl-DHP derivatives 10–14 showed
higher hypotensive activity than the tetrahydropyrimi-
dines 16–20 carrying the same aryl substituents at the
same position. The most active compound was 4-(1,3-
diphenyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-2,6-dimethyl-1,4-dihydropyri-
dine-3,5-dicarboxylic acid diethyl ester 10 at dose levels
of 0.6, 1.2, and 2.4 mg/kg. It showed more or less similar
hypotensive activity as the reference drug nifedipine at
doses of 1.2 and 2.4 mg/kg.
ConclusionThe synthesis of substituted DHPs 10–15 and pyrimi-
dinones 16–29 was achieved. The comparison of the
tested compounds 10–14 and 16–20 for their hypoten-
sive activity using the nonselective cat models led to the
conclusion that the 4-aryl-DHP derivatives 10–14
showed higher hypotensive activity than the pyrimidi-
nones derivatives carrying the same aryl substituent at
the same position. The most active compound was 4-(1,
3-diphenyl-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)-2,6-dimethyl-1,4-dihydropy-
ridine-3,5-dicarboxylic acid diethyl ester 10 at dose levels
of 0.6, 1.2, and 2.4 mg/kg. It showed more or less similar
hypotensive activity as the reference drug nifedipine at
doses of 1.2 and 2.4 mg/kg. Its LD50 is 298 mg/kg body
weight, which would present a fruitful matrix for the
development of a potent antihypertensive agent.
AcknowledgementsConflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest.
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Table 2 LD50 in male mice after an intraperitoneal
administration of compound 10
Groupnumber
Oral doses(mg/kg body
weight)Number of
dead animalsDose
difference Meana Productb
1 240 – – – –2 260 1 20 0.5 103 280 3 20 2 405 300 5 20 4 806 320 7 20 6 1207 340 10 20 8.5 170Total 420
Number of animals/group = 10 mice.LD50: 340 – (420/10) = 298 mg/kg body weight.LD50, lethal dose, 50%.aInterval mean of the number of dead animals (mice).bProduct of the interval mean and the dose difference.
26 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
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Synthesis and antihypertensive activity El-Hamouly et al. 27
Immobilization of Mucor racemosus NRRL 3631 lipase and
characterization of silica-coated magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticlesAbeer A. El-Hadia,c, Hesham I. Salehb,d, Samia A. Moustafab
and Hanan M. Ahmeda
Departments of aChemistry of Natural and MicrobialProducts, bInorganic Chemistry, National ResearchCentre, Giza, Egypt, cDepartment of Biology, Faculty ofScience, Taif University, Taif and dDepartment ofChemistry, Northern Border University, Arar, SaudiArabia
Correspondence to Abeer A. El-Hadi, Department ofChemistry of Natural and Microbial Products, NationalResearch Centre, El-Behoos St.33, Dokki, Giza 12311,EgyptTel: + 20 233 54974; fax: + 20 233 70931;e-mail: [email protected]
Received 29 July 2012Accepted 1 October 2012
Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
2013,12:28–35
Introduction and purpose
The uncoated magnetite (M) and silica-coated magnetite (MS) nanoparticles have
been suggested as carriers for the immobilization of enzymes to improve their activity
and stability. The objective of this study was to demonstrate the potential use of
magnetic nanoparticles in bioengineering applications, using Mucor racemosus NRRL
3631 lipase as the model enzyme.
Materials and methods
The magnetite (Fe3O4) particles were synthesized by the chemical coprecipitation
technique, that is, Massart’s process with minor modifications, using stable ferrous and
ferric salts with ammonium hydroxide as the precipitating agent. The uncoated and
coated magnetite nanoparticles for immobilizing the lipase were characterized
according to the particle sizes, as measured from the transmission electron
microscope images. The infrared and X-ray powder diffraction spectra can well explain
the bonding interaction and crystal structures of various samples, respectively.
Results and conclusion
Different concentrations of silica-coated magnetite (MS) nanoparticles were used as
cross-linking agents. A silica concentration of 1% was proven to be more suitable, with
an immobilization efficiency of 96%. The transmission electron microscope images
revealed the diameters of the uncoated magnetite particles to be 10–16 nm and those
of the coated particles to be about 11 nm. The optimal pH and temperature of the
immobilized lipase were 5–6 and 401C, respectively. There was a slight decrease in
the residual activity of the immobilized lipase at 601C for 1 h. The kinetic constants
Vmax and Km were determined to be 250 U/mg protein and 20 mmol/l, respectively, for
the immobilized lipase. The residual activity of the immobilized lipase remained over
51% despite being used repeatedly seven times. It can be concluded that Fe3O4
magnetic nanoparticles and silica-coated magnetite (MS) nanoparticles have been
successfully prepared with excellent properties using the chemical coprecipitation
technique with some modifications. The silica coating appeared to be effective in
protecting the magnetite from being converted to other oxide species. The results of
the X-ray powder diffraction indicate that the composites were in the nanoscopic
phase. The resulting immobilized lipase had better resistance to pH and temperature
inactivation compared with free lipase and exhibited good reusability.
Keywords:
Fe3O4/SiO2, immobilization efficiency, magnetic nanoparticles, Mucor racemosus
NRRL 3631 lipase, stability
Egypt Pharm J 12:28–35& 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre1687-4315
Introduction
In recent years, the use of nanophase materials offers
many advantages because of their unique size and
physical properties. Magnetic nanoparticles have become
very popular when used in conjunction with biological
materials such as proteins, peptides, enzymes, antibodies,
and nucleic acids because of their unique properties [1];
this application is mainly based on the magnetic feature
of the solid phase that helps in achieving a rapid and
easy separation from the reaction medium in a magnetic
field. Previous studies have reported that magnetic
nanoparticles tend to lose their magnetizability when
biopolymer-coated nanoparticles are circulated in the
body [2]. Consequently, inorganic carrier materials
including magnetite and silica gels were being focused
on because of their thermal and mechanical stability,
nontoxicity, and high resistance against microbial attacks
and solutions of organic solvents [3]. Silica and its
derivatives when coated onto the surface of magnetic
nanoparticles may help to change their surface properties.
With the appropriate coating, the magnetic dipolar
attraction between the magnetic nanoparticles may be
screened, thus minimizing or even preventing aggrega-
tion. The coating film could also provide a chemically
inert layer against the nanoparticles, which is particularly
28 Original article
1687-4315 & 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre
DOI: 10.7123/01.EPJ.0000427102.64865.32
useful in biological systems [1,4]. The larger specific
surface area and surface reactive groups that are
introduced by further modification of silica materials are
favorable during the preparation of silica carriers for
immobilized enzymes, and these carriers are very suitable
for adsorption and immobilization of the adsorbed protein
abundantly and steadily [5]. Lipases from different
sources are currently used in enzymatic organic synth-
esis [6,7]. The expanding interest in lipases mainly lies
on their wide industrial applications, including detergent
formulation, oil/fat degradation, pharmaceutical synth-
esis, cosmetics, paper manufacture, and oleochemis-
try [8]. To use lipases more economically and efficiently
in aqueous as well as in nonaqueous solvents, their
activity and operational stability needs to be improved by
immobilization. In addition, the enzyme immobilization
onto magnetic supports such as nanosized magnetite
particles allows an additional merit, namely, the selective
and easy enzyme recovery from the medium under a
magnetic force, compared with other conventional sup-
port materials. Hence, there is no need for expensive
liquid chromatography systems, centrifuges, filters, or
other equipment. In contrast, lipases obtain the highest
activity when their molecules are immobilized onto
nanoparticles because of their relatively high specific
area; this promises results on immobilizing lipases onto
surface-modified nano-sized magnetite particles [9].
The objective of this study was to demonstrate the
potential use of magnetic nanoparticles in bioengineering
applications. Mucor racemosus NRRL 3631 lipase was used
as the model enzyme in this study. The uncoated and
silica-coated magnetite nanoparticles were characterized
by X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), transmission electron
microscopy, and Fourier transform-infrared (IR) spectro-
scopy. The properties of the immobilized lipase such as
activity, recovery, protein analysis, and thermal stability
were investigated.
Materials and methodsCommercial lipase enzyme was prepared from M.racemosus NRRL 3631. All other materials were of
analytical grade and used without further purification;
these materials included tetraethyl orthosilicate
(TEOSZ98%), ammonia solution (NH3, 28 wt%), ferrous
dichloride tetrahydrate (FeCl2 � 4H2O), ferric trichloride
hexahydrate (FeCl3 � 6H2O), glucose (C6H6O6), potas-
sium chloride (KCl), potassium dihydrogen phosphate
(KH2PO4), magnesium sulfate (MgSO4 � 7H2O), disodium
hydrogen phosphate (Na2HPO4), sodium dihydrogen
phosphate (NaH2PO4), peptone from animal protein, olive
oil, gum arabic, and acetone.
Microorganisms, medium, and growth conditions
M. racemosus NRRL 3631 was maintained on potato
dextrose agar (PDA) slants. The microorganism was
grown in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks containing 100 ml of
the medium. The medium was inoculated with 4 ml of
spore suspension, and the flasks were incubated for 72 h
in an orbital shaker operating at 200 rpm at 301C. For
lipase production, the composition of the basal medium
(9% w/v) was: glucose, 1; olive oil, 1; peptone, 30;
KH2PO4, 0.2; KCl, 0.05; and MgSO4 � 7H2O, 0.05%, with
an initial pH of 6.5 [10]. The medium was heat sterilized
at 1211C for 15 min.
Standard method for enzyme activity assay
The lipase assay was performed using an olive oil
emulsion according to the procedure described by
Starr [11]. The olive oil emulsion was prepared as
follows: 10 ml of olive oil and 90 ml of 10% arabic gum
were emulsified using a homogenizer for 6 min at
20 000 rev/min. The reaction mixture composed of 3 ml
of olive oil emulsion, 1 ml of 0.2 mol/l Tris-buffer (pH
7.5), 2.5 ml of distilled water, and 1 ml of enzyme solution
was incubated at 371C for 2 h with shaking. The emulsion
was destroyed by the addition of 10 ml of acetone (95% v/v)
immediately after incubation, and the liberated free fatty
acids were titrated with 0.05 N.
Analytical procedure of protein determination
Protein measurements were carried out according to the
method of Lowry et al. [12], using BSA as the standard.
The amount of bound protein was determined indirectly
from the difference between the amount of protein
present in the filtrate and that in washing solutions after
immobilization.
Partial purification of M. racemosus lipase using
ammonium sulfate
Ammonium sulfate (60% saturation) was added to 900 ml
of the culture supernatant at 41C. The precipitate was
collected by centrifugation at 12 000g at 41C for 20 min
and dissolved in a constant amount of distilled water. The
lipase activity and protein concentrations were deter-
mined [13].
Synthesis of magnetite nanoparticles
The nanoparticles were prepared according to the
method described by Massart [14] but without the use
of hydrochloric acid. A total of 4.05 g of FeCl3 � 6H2O and
1.98 g of FeCl2 � 4H2O was dissolved in 100 ml of distilled
water; the solution was purged with nitrogen to agitate
the mixture and prevent the oxidation of Fe2 + ions. After
30 min of purging, 143 ml of 0.7 mol/l NH4OH was added
dropwise into the solution and the now basified solution
was purged for an additional 10 min. During the addition
of NH4OH, it was noticed that the solution changed color
from the original brown to dark brown and then to black.
The precipitate was magnetically separated using a
permanent magnet and then washed with distilled water
several times and allowed to dry in air. The resulting
product was defined as M.
Synthesis of silica-coated magnetite nanoparticles
The above-mentioned experiment was repeated until the
step in which the solution was purged with nitrogen to
agitate the mixture. After this step, the precursor
TEOS (3 ml) was carefully dropped into the reaction
mixture of iron using a syringe, with mechanical stirring.
Lipase immobilization on Fe3O4 nanoparticles El-Hadi et al. 29
The homogenization was performed for 15 min. After
sonication for 15 min, 143 ml of 0.7 mol/l NH4OH was
added dropwise into the mixture with continuous
mechanical stirring for 30 min. The coated particles were
finally separated from the liquid using a permanent
magnet, washed with distilled water several times, and
allowed to dry in air. Finally, we also determined the
effect of silica coating by varying the amount of TEOS
added to the reaction mixture. In this regard, we studied
the effect of five different amounts of TEOS, 1.04, 2.08,
4.22, 8.33, and 12.5 ml, which are equivalent to 0.5, 1, 2,
4, and 6% molar ratios, respectively. The determine
parameter of silica-coated magnetite nanoparticles is
labeled as MS1, MS2, MS3, MS4 and MS5.
Characterization
XRD was used to investigate the crystal structure of the
magnetic nanoparticles. The size and shape of the
nanoparticles were examined using a transmission elec-
tron microscope (TEM) (Model JEOL-1230, Japan). The
IR spectra were recorded using a Fourier transform-
infrared spectrophotometer (FT-IR). The sample and
KBr were pressed to form a tablet.
Immobilization of lipase
Because of the epoxy groups of the magnetite silica
nanoparticles, lipase immobilization was carried out by
treatment of the lipase solution with the nanoparticles
directly. The particles (200 mg of Fe3O4 coated with 1%
silica nanoparticles) were added to 40 ml of phosphate
buffer (0.1 mol/l, pH 6.5) containing lipase (1 ml). The
mixture was placed in a shaking incubator at 301C with
continuous shaking at 150 rpm for 6 h to finish the
immobilization of lipase. The immobilized lipase was
recovered by magnetic separation and washed with
phosphate buffer (0.1 mol/l, pH 6.5) three times to
remove excess enzyme. The resulting immobilized lipase
was held at 41C before use. The enzymatic activities of
the free and immobilized lipases were measured by
titrating the fatty acids that were obtained from the
hydrolysis of olive oil. One unit of lipase activity (U) is
defined as the amount of enzyme that hydrolyzes olive
oil, liberating 1.0 mmol of fatty acid per minute under the
assay conditions. The relative recovery (%) was the ratio
between the activity of the immobilized lipase and that of
free lipase [15].
Biochemical characterization of the free and
immobilized lipases and their reusability
Thermal stability of the free and immobilized lipase was
studied by incubating the biocatalyst at 30–801C for 15,
30, and 60 min in a water bath. Similarly, to determine the
stability at varying pH values, the immobilized enzyme
was reinsulated separately in 0.2 mol/l of citrate buffer at
pH 3–7 and in tris-HCl buffer at pH 7.6–9 for 1 h, and the
residual activities were determined under standard assay
conditions. The residual activity in the samples without
incubation was considered to be 100%. The inactivation
rate constant (K) and the half-life time (t1/2) were
calculated using the following formula: Half-life = 0.693/K,
in which K is the deactivation rate constant = slope of the
straight line [16].
The kinetic parameters Vmax and Km were determined for
the immobilized lipase. In addition, the reusability of the
immobilized lipase was determined by hydrolysis of olive
oil by the immobilized lipase recovered using magnetic
separation and compared with the first run (activity
defined as 100%).
Results and discussionStructure and shape of the support for nanoparticles
The XRD pattern (Fig. 1) of the Fe3O4 (M) nanoparticles
prepared under standard conditions revealed diffraction
peaks at 111, 220, 311, 400, 422, 511, 440, etc., which
were the characteristic peaks of Fe3O4 crystals with a
cubic spinel structure [17]. It was clear that only the
phases of Fe3O4 were detectable and there were no other
undesired diffraction maximas of the impurities that
could be observed in the spectra. From the relatively wide
half-peak breadth, it could be estimated that the particle
size is quite small. From the XRD patterns, the average
diameter that was calculated to be 13.8 nm using the
Scherrer equation (D = Kl/b cosy, in which K is constant,
l is X-ray wavelength, and b is the peak width of half-
maximum) [18,19]. Interestingly, it was observed that
the diffraction patterns for the samples MS1 and MS2
Figure 1
X-ray powder diffraction patterns of (a) pure Fe3O4 nanoparticles and(b) MS1 and MS2.
30 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
consisted of an amorphous structure, which was attrib-
uted to the amorphous silica matrix, as clearly indicated
in Fig. 1 [20]. The XRD patterns of the remaining
samples MS3, MS4, and MS5 (not presented here) also
showed an amorphous structure. The relatively low
intensity reflections and absence of significant sharp
diffraction peaks for the MS1 and MS2 patterns are
probably due to the presence of SiO2 on the surface of
the magnetic nanoparticles. Xu et al. [21] also suggested
that the low intensity of the reflection peaks could be
attributed to the ultrafine crystalline structure of the
magnetite particles used for the generation of silica-
coated nanoparticles. The particle size and morphology of
Fe3O4, Fe3O4/SiO2, and Fe3O4/SiO2/enzyme were eval-
uated from the TEM micrographs. It is noteworthy that
the size distribution is 10–16 nm, which matched the
value calculated using the Scherrer equation, and that the
nanoparticles are spherical in shape (Fig. 2a) and their
aggregation can be discerned clearly. In Fig. 2b and c, the
coated silica layer can be observed as a typical core–shell
structure of the Fe3O4/SiO2 nanoparticles. The dispersity
of the Fe3O4/SiO2 nanoparticles was also improved, and
the average size increased to about 32 nm. After lipase
adsorption, the degree of particle aggregation increased;
however, a change in the particle size was not observed
(Fig. 2d).
FT-IR spectra of the magnetite nanoparticles
The FT-IR spectra of magnetite are shown in Fig. 3. A
factor group analysis, reported in a classic IR study on
spinels, suggested that there were four IR-active bands;
however, in most cases, including magnetite, only two of
them are observed between 400 and 800 cm – 1 [22]. In
this study, Fe3O4 showed a broad band that consisted of
two slightly split peaks identified at 573 and 621 cm – 1;
these peaks were attributed to the stretching vibration of
Figure 2
Transmission electron microscope images of (a) Fe3O4 nanoparticles, (b) MS1 nanoparticles, (c) MS1 nanoparticles with immobilized lipase, and(d) MS1 nanoparticles without lipase.
Lipase immobilization on Fe3O4 nanoparticles El-Hadi et al. 31
the Fe–O bond and confirmed the occupancy of Fe3 +
ions at tetrahedral sites in a manner consistent with that
reported in the literature [23–25]. On the low-frequency
side of the broad band, we observed that the weak peaks
appearing at 432 and 453 cm – 1 corresponded to the
presence of the Fe3 + –O2 – bond at octahedral sites [26].
In contrast, we found a broad peak near 3380 cm – 1 and a
sharp peak near 1635 cm – 1, which were attributed to the
stretching and binding vibrations of the hydroxyl groups.
These peaks confirm the presence of adsorbed water on
the surface of magnetite [27]. However, the peaks at
1383 and 1453 cm – 1 resulted from the stretching
vibration of the C–O bonds in CO2, which might come
from air.
FT-IR spectra of the silica-coated magnetite
nanoparticles
Figure 3 shows the IR spectrum of the silica-coated
magnetite nanoparticles. It was clear that the character-
istic adsorption bands of the Fe–O bond (Fe3 + –O2 – ) of
the silica-coated magnetite nanoparticles shift to higher
wave numbers of 585, 637, 441, and 483 cm-1, respec-
tively, compared with that of uncoated nanoparticles (in
573, 621, 432, and 453 cm – 1). The absorption bands at
around 1030, 800, and 470 cm – 1 reflect the Si–O–Si
asymmetry, Si–O–Si symmetric stretching vibrations, and
deformation mode of Si–O–Si, respectively [28]. The
bands at 569 and 965 cm – 1 are possibly because of
the Fe–O–Si and Si–O–Si stretching vibrations caused by
the perturbation of the metallic ion in the SiO4 tetra-
hedra [29], respectively. The FT-IR spectra of the lipase
on the silica-coated magnetite nanoparticles (Fig. 3)
showed a spectra similar to the IR spectra of the silica-
coated magnetite nanoparticles with immobilized lipase.
It was observed that the characteristic bands of lipase at
1655 and 1535 cm – 1 [30] revealed that it was immobi-
lized on the silica-coated magnetite nanoparticles.
The amount of enzyme added and the corresponding
immobilization efficiency
The relationship between the amounts of enzyme
(0.5–3 ml) and immobilization efficiency has been shown
in Fig. 4. When the enzyme amount added was 1 and
1.5 ml, with 300 mg of the magnetite coated with 1%
silica, the maximal immobilization efficiency was 87 and
96%, respectively. The curve in Fig. 4 illustrates that the
immobilization efficiency gradually decreases when the
amount of enzyme added is more than 1.5 ml. This could
be explained by an overall amount of the added enzyme
formed an intermolecular space hindrance of the immobil-
ized enzyme, which will not only the active site of the
enzymes but also restrain the dispersion of the substrate
and product [3].
Effect of different concentrations of SiO2 coating the
magnetite nanoparticles on the immobilization
efficiency of lipase
To solve the leaching problems of the adsorbed lipase and
improve the conventional way for lipase immobilization,
different concentrations of MS nanoparticles ranging
from 0.5–4% were used as cross-linking agents for
immobilization in 300 mg of magnetite nanoparticles.
The experimental results have been given in Fig. 5. It was
shown that the immobilization efficiency decreased
slightly from 96 to 84% with an increase in the SiO2
concentration from 1 to 4% and then decreased sharply
with a further increase in the concentration of SiO2 to
6% (76%). Although a higher amount of lipase binding
occurred when a low concentration of SiO2 was used for
silica coating the magnetic nanoparticles, there was a
substantial loss of enzyme activity.
Biochemical properties of the free and immobilized
lipase
The effect of pH on the specific enzyme activity of lipase
immobilized by silica was studied by varying the pH of
the reaction medium from 3–9 using a 0.1 mol/l citrate
phosphate buffer (3–7) and a 0.1 mol/l Tris (hydroxy
Figure 3
(a) Fourier transform-infrared spectrophotometer spectra of Fe3O4,(b) MSI without immobilized lipase, and (c) MSI with immobilized lipase.
Figure 4
Effect of different amounts of Mucor racemosus NRRL 3631 lipase onthe immobilization efficiency.
32 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
methyl) amino methane buffer (7.5–9), and the pH
profile has been shown in Fig. 6a. Generally, the binding
of enzymes to polycationic supports would result in an
acidic shift in the optimum pH [31,30]; similarly, after
silica immobilization, the optimum pH of lipase exhibited
an acidic shift (5–6). The variation in the residual activity
of the free and immobilized lipase with pH is shown
in Fig. 6b. The immobilized lipase was stable in the pH
range of 3–5 as compared with the free enzyme; this
indicated that immobilization appreciably improved the
stability of lipase in the acidic region.
The thermal stabilities of the free and immobilized lipase
in terms of the residual activities have been compared
in Fig. 7. Lipase immobilized on MS nanoparticles
remained fully active up to 401C. These results are
similar to those obtained by Huang et al. [30], who found
that binary immobilized lipase from Candida rugosa was
fully active at 401C; however, inactivation of the enzyme
occurred on treatment at higher temperatures. About
40% of the residual activity of free lipase was preserved at
601C for 1 h; however, about 72.9% residual activity was
preserved in case of the immobilized enzyme. At 801C,
the free enzyme was fully inactivated, whereas the
immobilized form preserved about 37.8% of its residual
activity for 15 min. Hiol et al. [32] studied the thermo-
stability of the free enzyme of Rhizopus oryzae and found
that it was highly inactivated at 451C and almost all
activity was lost at 501C after a 40 min incubation. This
thermal stabilization could be explained by the location
of the lipase inside the micropores of the support,
wherein the enzyme is protected against alterations of
the microenvironment. The Michaelis–Menten kinetics
of the hydrolytic activity of the free and immobilized
lipases have been represented in Table 1, using varying
initial concentrations of olive oil as the substrate. The
Michaelis constant (Km) and the maximum reaction
velocity (Vmax) were evaluated from the double reciprocal
plot. The Vmax value of 250 U/mg protein exhibited by
the immobilized lipase was found to be higher than that
of free lipase (50 U/mg protein). The Km value (20 mmol/l)
determined for the immobilized lipase was about three-
folds higher than that of free lipase (6.66 mmol/l), which
indicated a lower affinity toward the substrate. This
increase in Km might be either due to the structural
changes induced in the enzymes by the immobilization or
the lower accessibility of the substrate to the active
sites [33,30]. The inactivation temperature of the soluble
and immobilized lipase was observed to be between 50 and
701C. In general, the immobilization processes protected
the enzymes against heat inactivation, for example, the
calculated half-life values at 50, 60, and 701C for the
immobilized enzyme were 630, 533, and 391.5 min,
respectively, which are higher than those (231, 198, 187,
and 3 min, respectively) of the free enzyme as shown
in Table 2, that is, the free enzyme showed a half-life of
10.5 h at 501C, 8.88 h at 601, and 6.5 h at 701C. Our results
are nearly similar to those obtained by Kumar et al. [34],
who reported the half-life of Bacillus coagulans BTS3 lipase at
55 and 601C to be 2 h and 30 min, respectively; moreover,
they reported the half-life of lipase from another meso-
philic bacteria (Bacillus spp.) to be 2 h at 601C. They
reported that the deactivation rate constants of 1.1� 10–3,
1.3� 10–3, and 1.7� 10 – 3 for the experimental immobi-
lized enzyme at temperatures of 50,60, and 701C,
respectively were lower than those (3� 10–3, 3.77� 10–3,
Figure 5
Effect of different concentration of SiO2-coated magnetic nanoparticleson the immobilization efficiency of Mucor racemosus NRRL 3631lipase.
Figure 6
Effect of pH values on the activity (a) and stability (b) of free and immobilized Mucor racemosus lipases.
Lipase immobilization on Fe3O4 nanoparticles El-Hadi et al. 33
and 4.8� 10–3, respectively) of the free enzyme at the
same temperatures. These results could be related to a
hydrophilic or hydrophobic environment. A hydrophilic
microenvironment allowed the immobilized derivatives to
follow a double experimental decay in their activities,
wherein the hydrophobic microenvironment makes the
enzymatic activity suffer a single experimental decay
during storage conditions [35].
Variations in the enzyme activity with repeated batch
enzyme reactions
Operational stability was the most important parameter
in the immobilization of enzymes because inactivation is
inevitable when the free enzyme is exposed to inade-
quate ambient conditions. The recycling efficiency of the
immobilized lipase has been presented in Fig. 8. It was
observed that the immobilized lipase retained 51% of its
original activity even after the seventh reuse; this
indicated that the resultant bound lipase had a better
reusability, which was desirable for applications in
biotechnology. The loss of activity may be ascribed to
conformational changes in the enzyme, blocking of the
lipase active sites, or the gradual loss of the bound lipase
during the reaction procedures.
ConclusionFrom these results it can be concluded that Fe3O4
magnetic nanoparticles and silica-coated magnetite (MS)
nanoparticles with excellent properties have been suc-
cessfully prepared using the chemical coprecipitation
technique with some modifications. The XRD results
indicate that the composites were in the nanoscopic
phase. Based on the TEM images, the diameters of the
uncoated magnetite particles were determined to be
around 10–16 nm and those of the coated particles to be
about 11 nm. The silica coating appeared to be effective
in protecting the magnetite from being converted to
other oxide species. The thermal and pH stabilities of the
immobilized lipase increased on immobilization. The
optimal pH and temperature of the immobilized lipase
were 5–6 and 401C, respectively. There was a slight
decrease in the residual activity of the immobilized
lipase. The operational stability of the immobilized lipase
Figure 7
Thermal stability of free and immobilized Mucor racemosus NRRL 3631 lipases.
Table 1 Kinetic parameters (Vmax and Km) for the free and
immobilized enzymes
Types Vmax (U/mg protein) Km (mmol/l)
Immobilized lipase 250 20Free lipase 50 6.66
Table 2 Kinetic parameters (half-life and the deactivation rate
constant) for the free and immobilized enzymes
Half-life (min) Deactivation rate constant
Types 501C 601C 701C 501C 601C 701C
Immobilizedlipase
630 533 391.5 1.8�10–3 1.3�10–3 1.7�10–3
Free lipase 231 198 187.3 3�10–3 3.77�10–3 4.8�10–3
Figure 8
Operational stability of the immobilized Mucor racemosus NRRL lipaseon the hydrolysis process.
34 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
over repeated cycles could substantially save on the cost
of the enzyme. The residual activity of the enzyme even
after seven repeated uses was over 51%. Conclusively,
magnetic nanoparticles provide an economically efficient
and selective system for enzyme immobilization.
AcknowledgementsConflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest.
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Lipase immobilization on Fe3O4 nanoparticles El-Hadi et al. 35
Extracellular polysaccharides produced by the newly discovered
source Scopularis spp.Siham A. Ismail
Department of Chemistry of Natural and MicrobialProducts, Division of Pharmaceutical and DrugIndustries, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
Correspondence to Siham A. Ismail, Department ofChemistry of Natural and Microbial Products, Divisionof Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries, NationalResearch Centre, El-Behowth St., PO Box 12311,Dokki, 12622 Cairo, EgyptTel: + 20 122 357 1676; fax: + 20 233 370 931;e-mail: [email protected]
Received 26 August 2012Accepted 15 November 2012
Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
2013,12:36–39
Background
Microorganisms are better and cheaper sources for the production of polysaccharides.
Therefore, there has been an increasing interest in isolating and identifying new
microbial polysaccharides.
Objective
The aim of this study was to produce new extracellular polysaccharides, with better
rheological properties and varied applications, from the newly discovered fungal strain
Scopularis spp., using different carbon sources.
Methods
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, carbohydrate analysis, and thin layer
chromatography were the methods used for the preliminary characterizing of the
produced polysaccharides.
Results
Among the 10 examined carbon sources, fructose, raffinose, sucrose, and maltose
were found to produce an appreciable amount of extracellular polysaccharides (0.90,
0.87, 0.86, and 0.74 g/l, respectively), whereas arabinose, lactose, and mannitol
produced a minimal amount of extracellular polysaccharides (0.22, 0.17, 0.12 g/l,
respectively). However, all the tested sugars enhanced the growth of the fungal strain.
The analytical method proved that the polymer was a heteropolysaccharide with six
sugar moieties, all different in their relative ratios from one carbon source to another.
Glucose was found to be the most abundant monosugar in all the polymer samples.
Galactose, rhamnose, and glucuronic acid also appeared on the thin layer
chromatography plate.
Conclusion
A new extracellular heteropolysaccharide was produced from the new source,
Scopularis spp. The produced polysaccharide contained glucose, galactose,
glucuronic acid, rhamnose, and two other unidentified sugars as indicated from the
thin layer chromatography plate.
Keywords:
acid hydrolysis, carbon source, extracellular polysaccharides, Scopularis spp.
Egypt Pharm J 12:36–39& 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre1687-4315
IntroductionPolysaccharides are highly valued, biologically active
polymers with many industrial applications in food, feed,
textile, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical industries and are
also used as depolluting agents [1]. Owing to their
bioactive nature, they have many medicinal applications
as anticancer, antiviral, antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-
inflammatory, and prebiotic agents [2–8]. However, most
of the commercial polysaccharides are produced from
plants and algae and a small proportion is produced from
microbial sources [9]. Fungi are currently an interesting
source of biologically active compounds. Most of the
mould-produced polysaccharides are obtained from
mushrooms [8,10,11].
Microorganisms are better and cheaper sources for the
production of polysaccharides compared with plants or
algae because of their high growth rate, ability to grow in
cheaper nutrient media within a few days, lower space
requirement, and ease of manipulation [12]. Therefore,
there has been an increasing interest in isolating and
identifying new microbial polysaccharides that may
compete with traditional polysaccharides.
Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine the
ability of the new fungal strain Scopularis spp. to produce
high yields of extracellular polysaccharides (EPS), with
better rheological properties and varied applications,
using different carbon sources.
Materials and methodsMicroorganisms and media
The Scopularis spp. used in this study was obtained from
the culture collection of the National Research Centre
(Egypt). The strain was maintained by subculturing on
36 Original article
1687-4315 & 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre
DOI: 10.7123/01.EPJ.0000427067.33748.ea
potato dextrose agar slants monthly (PDA; Merck,
Darmstadt, Germany). The slants were incubated at
28–301C for 7 days before storage at 41C.
The inoculum cultures were grown in 250 ml Erlenmeyer
flasks containing 50 ml of sterilized medium comprising
(g/l): lactose, 7.5; NaN03, 1.0; yeast extract, 1.5;
MgSO4.7H2O, 0.5; KH2PO4, 1.0; KCl, 0.5; and FeSO4.7-
H2O, 0.01 at pH 5 [13] in a rotatory incubator shaker at
150 rpm and 28–301C for 3 days before using.
Fermentation
Fermentation was carried out in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks
containing 50 ml of the above mentioned medium with
different sugars as the carbon source. The tested sugar
solutions were sterilized separately and mixed aseptically
with the other components before inoculation with 5%
(v/v) of the inoculums. The flasks were incubated
at 28–301C in a rotary shaker at 150 rpm for 7 days.
Mycelial dry weight
The mycelial pellets were separated from the viscous
liquid culture by centrifugation (6000 rpm, 20 min). After
the removal of the supernatant, the mycelia was washed
thoroughly with distilled water and dried to a constant
weight to attain the mycelial dry weight.
Isolation of the extracellular polysaccharides
The viscous supernatant obtained from the above men-
tioned step were collected and dialyzed against tap water
for 2 days using a 10 000–12 000 MWCO membrane (VWR
Scientific, Spectrum Companies, Goshen Parkway, West
Chester, USA), changing it three times daily; it was then
dialyzed against distilled water in the same way, after which
the solution was centrifuged again as indicated above. The
dialyzed cultures were mixed with three volumes of chilled
absolute ethanol (v/v) with stirring. The precipitated
polysaccharide was collected together as viscous filaments
and could easily be separated from the liquid and the other
compact particles that settled quickly to the bottom. The
collected EPS were washed with a water : ethanol mixture
(1 : 1, v/v) to remove the residue of the liquid culture; it
was then dried and weighted as crude EPS.
All the experiments were conducted in triplicate and the
results are the averages of these three independent trials.
Monosaccharide composition analysis
Acid hydrolysis of the crude polysaccharides was carried
out according to the procedure described by Fischer and
Dorfel [14]. In brief, 0.05 g of the crude EPS was mixed
with 0.5 ml of 80% sulfuric acid and left overnight at room
temperature; it was then diluted with 6.5 ml of distilled
water and boiled in a water bath for almost 6 h. The
mixtures were cold neutralized with excess BaCO3 and
subjected to thin layer chromatography for primary
investigation.
Thin layer chromatography
Silica gel plates (Merck) were used to identify the
composition of the hydrolyzed polysaccharides. The sam-
ples were spotted onto the plates along with different
standard monosugars. The plates were developed at room
temperature in a saturated chamber containing n-propanol :
water (85 : 15, v/v). The sugars were detected by spraying
the dried plates with 3% phenol reagent, followed by
incubation at 1001C in an oven for 10 min [15].
Fourier transform infrared analysis
The crude polysaccharide was mixed with KBr powder,
ground, and pressed into 1 mm pellets for Fourier transform
infrared (FTIR 6100; Jasco, HoChi Minh City, Japan)
spectroscopy in the frequency range of 4000–400 cm – 1.
Results and discussionCarbohydrates are very important nutritional require-
ments for the growth and development of all fungi.
However, different fungal species vary in their ability to
utilize different carbon sources. The results shown
in Fig. 1 indicate that the tested fungus had the ability
to grow in all the used carbon sources, but the production
of the EPS was quite distinct for each sugar used. Among
the 10 sources examined, fructose, raffinose, sucrose, and
maltose enhanced the production of EPS (0.90, 0.87,
0.86, and 0.74 g/l, respectively), whereas arabinose,
lactose, and mannitol produced minimal amounts of
EPS (0.22, 0.17, 0.12 g/l, respectively). The effect of the
different carbon sources on the amount of polysacchar-
ides produced was recorded by all the researchers and was
found to be related to the microorganism used. The
mycelial growth did not parallel with the production of
EPS; this has also been reported by other research-
ers [16–18]. It has been observed that the production of
EPS increased with an increase in the concentration of
the sugars used and when the morphology of the fungal
growth was in the form of pellets rather than fibers
(unpublished data). The amount of EPS produced during
Figure 1
The effect of different sugars on the production of extracellularpolysaccharides (EPS) and cell growth [expressed as constant dryweight (CDW)].
Polysaccharide new microbial source Ismail 37
our study is within the range that has been published by
other authors [17–19].
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic analysis
The configuration of the crude EPS produced from four
different sugars has been shown in Fig. 2a–d.The spectra
clearly indicate that all the samples had a broad band
around 3400 cm – 1 representing a large number of
hydroxyl groups and a sharp band at 2922 cm – 1 for the
C–H bending vibration of the CH2 groups, and the two
bands are characteristic of carbohydrate polymers. The
bands near 1736 cm – 1 and those around 1250 cm – 1 may
be attributed to the stretching vibration of the C = O and
C–O–C of the acyl groups. The bands at 1420 cm – 1 and
those around 1606–1621 cm – 1 have been suggested to
represent the carboxyl groups of acids, whereas the bands
in the range of 820–955 cm – 1 represent the linkages
between the mono sugars. All the data were within the
range that has been reported by other authors [5,6,20–23].
Effect of different carbon sources on the composition of
the extracellular polysaccharides
The monosugar composition of the crude EPS produced
from the different carbon sources was identified using
thin layer chromatography as shown in Fig. 3. The plates
indicate the presence of more than six distinguishable
spots in most of the samples. However, the relative ratio
of the monosugars was entirely different. All the samples
mainly contain glucose, galactose, glucuronic acid, and
rhamnose. Although glucose is the main monosugar
component of the produced EPS, neither glucose nor
Figure 2
50
60
70
80
90
100(a)
40080012001600200024002800320036004000
Tra
nsm
ittan
ce (
%)
Wavenumber (cm-1)
FT-IR of crude EPS from fructose
50
60
70
80
90
100
40080012001600200024002800320036004000
Tra
nsm
ittan
ce (
%)
Wavenumber (cm-1)
FT-IR of crude EPS from glucose
50
60
70
80
90
100
40080012001600200024002800320036004000
Tra
nsm
ittan
ce (
%)
Wavenumber (cm-1)
FT-IR of crude EPS from raffinose
50
60
70
80
90
100
40080012001600200024002800320036004000
Tra
nsm
ittan
ce (
%)
Wavenumber (cm-1)
FT-IR of crude EPS from Surose
(b)
(c) (d)
(a) Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) of the crude extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) produced from fructose as the carbon source in the culturemedium. (b) FTIR of the crude EPS produced from glucose as the carbon source in the culture medium. (c) FTIR of the crude EPS produced fromraffinose as the carbon source in the culture medium. (d) FTIR of the crude EPS produced from sucrose as the carbon source in the culture medium.
Figure 3
Thin layer chromatography plate for the different samples: 1, 7, 8, 9, 12,and 13 for glucuronic acid, fucose, glucose, N-acetyl glucosamine,galactose, and rhamnose standards, respectively, and 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10,and 11 for fructose, raffinose, maltose, sucrose, glucose, lactose, andarabinose samples, respectively.
38 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
its isomer galactose gave the highest yield of the
produced EPS, when used in the culture medium as
the carbon source. However, both glucose and galactose
gave an appreciable amount of EPS (0.6 and 0.56 g/l,
respectively).The influence of the carbon source on the
production and composition of the EPS has been
reported by other authors as well [5,17,24]. The presence
of different sugar moieties suggests that the produced
EPS was a heteropolysaccharide.
ConclusionA new extracellular heteropolysaccharide was produced from
a newly discovered source, Scopularis spp. The strain has the
ability to grow and produce EPS in the presence of all the
tested sugars. The produced polysaccharide contains
glucose, galactose, glucuronic acid, rhamnose, and two other
unidentified sugars. This study will open doors for further
studies on attaining a greater production of EPS from this
newly discovered source and also for clarifying their exact
composition, structures, and biological activities. Moreover,
the oligosaccharides and low-molecular-weight polysacchar-
ides that come out of the dialysis bag have to be identified.
AcknowledgementsThis work was supported by National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt;as part of the project of the Department of Chemistry of Natural andMicrobial Products. Thank’s for the responsible professors of thefinancial department.
Conflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest.
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Polysaccharide new microbial source Ismail 39
Biotransformation of soybean saponin to soyasapogenol B by
Aspergillus parasiticusHala A. Amina, Yousseria M. Hassanb and Soad M. Yehiaa
aDepartment of Chemistry of Natural and MicrobialProducts, National Research Center, Dokki andbDepartment of Microbiology, Faculty of Science,Ain shams University, Cairo, Egypt
Correspondence to Hala A. Amin, PhD, Department ofChemistry of Natural and Microbial Products, NationalResearch Center, Dokki, 12311 Cairo, EgyptTel: + 20 233 464 472; fax: + 20 237 622 603;e-mail: [email protected]
Received 7 November 2012Accepted 15 January 2013
Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
2013,12:40–45
Objectives
The aim of this study was to select of the most potent fungus that is able to hydrolyze
soybean saponin (SS) to soyasapogenol B (SB). The selected fungus was cultivated
under different physiological conditions to evaluate its ability to transform SS to
achieve the maximal conversion output.
Materials and methods
Within 72 h, the biotransformation of SS by Aspergillus parasiticus, followed by
isolation and purification of SB as a main product were carried out. The identity of SB
was established by determination of its RF value and IR, mass spectra, and NMR
spectra. Furthermore, different sets of experiments were carried out to enhance the
activity of the tested organism and consequently, SB production.
Results and conclusion
Screening of different fungal isolates for transformation of SS to SB revealed that
A. parasiticus produced the highest yield of SB. The maximum SB yield was obtained
using a production medium composed of (%, w/v): malt extract, 4; yeast extract, 2;
KH2PO4, 0.2; (NH4)2SO4, 0.2; MgSO4 �7H2O, 0.03; CaCl2 �2H2O, 0.03; galactose,
0.5; and SS, 3 (pH 8). The medium was inoculated with 6% (v/v) inoculum of a 72 h
old culture and incubated on a rotary shaker (150 rpm) at 301C for 72 h. Under these
optimal conditions, the cell biotransformation efficiency was increased from 13.44 to
65%.
Keywords:
Aspergillus parasiticus, biotransformation, soyasapogenol B, soybean saponin
Egypt Pharm J 12:40–45& 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre1687-4315
IntroductionSaponins are structurally diverse molecules that are
chemically referred to as triterpenes and steroid glycosides.
They consist of nonpolar aglycones coupled with one or
more monosaccharide moieties [1]. This combination of
polar and nonpolar structural elements in their molecules
explains their soap-like behavior in aqueous solutions.
Soyasaponins are a group of oleanane triterpenoids found
in soy and other legumes. They are divided into three
groups, based on the structure of the aglycone moiety, the
A, B, and E saponins [2]. Soyasapogenols A, B, and E are
conjugated as glycosides in soy [3,4]. The current
consensus is that soyasapogenols A, B, and E are true
aglycons, whereas soyasapogenols C, D, and E are artifacts
of hydrolysis that occur during the isolation process of
A, B, and E soyasapogenols .
Soyasaponins have various physiological effects including
hepatoprotective [5], anticarcinogenic [6], antiviral [7],
and anti-inflammatory [8] activities. Soyasapogenol B (SB),
obtained from soybean saponin (SS), is known to have
hepatoprotective [9], antiviral [10], antimutagenic [11],
anti-inflammatory [8], and growth suppressing effects on
cells derived from human colon and ovarian cancer [11,12].
Results from in-vitro fermentation suggest that colonic
microflora readily hydrolyzed SS to aglycones [2]. These
observations suggested that the dietary chemopreventive
effects of SS against colon cancer may involve alteration
by the microflora [12]. There is some evidence, as with
many other saponins, that bioactivity of SS is increased as
sugar moieties are eliminated from the saponin structure,
thereby reducing the polarity.
Aglycones, soyasapogenols, are produced by acid hydrolysis
of saponins, but there have been reports of aglycone
production by microorganisms. Kudou et al. [13] cultured
158 strains of the genus Aspergillus in a medium containing
SS and reported that 26 of them had a marked SS hydrolase
activity. Watanabe et al. [14] isolated a SS hydrolase from
Neocosmospora vasinfecta var. vasinfecta PF1225, a filamentous
fungus that can degrade SS and generate SB. Recently,
Amin and Mohamed [15] reported the production of SB
(86.3%) from SS using immobilized Aspergillus terreus on a
loofah sponge. The aim of this study was to select the most
potent fungus that is able to hydrolyze SS to SB. The
selected isolate was cultivated under different physiological
conditions to evaluate its ability to transform SS to achieve
the maximal conversion output.
Materials and methodsCultivation of fungal isolates
The different fungal isolates used in this work (Table 1)
were donated by the Center of Cultures of Chemistry of
40 Original article
1687-4315 & 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre
DOI: 10.7123/01.EPJ.0000427332.31862.10
Natural and Microbial Products Department, National
Research Center (Cairo, Egypt). They were maintained
on potato dextrose agar slants at 41C and subcultured
at intervals of 1–2 months. Unless otherwise stated, the
fermentations were carried out in 250 ml Erlenmeyer
flasks containing 100 ml of the fermentation medium
composed of (%, w/v): malt extract, 4; yeast extract, 2;
KH2PO4, 0.2; (NH4)2SO4, 0.2; MgSO4 � 7H2O, 0.03;
CaCl2 � 2H2O, 0.030; and SS, 1 (pH 5.7) [16]. The flasks
were inoculated with 6% inoculum and agitated on a
rotary shaker at 150 rpm at 30 ± 21C for 72 h.
General assessment of the chemicals and instruments
used
SS (50%) was purchased from Organic Technologies Co.
(Coshocton, Ohio, USA). Potato dextrose agar and yeast
extract were products of Biolife Italiana (Milano, Italy).
Bacto malt extract and bacto peptone were purchased
from Difco Laboratories (New Jersey, USA). 1H NMR
and 13C NMR spectra were measured using a Bruker
AMX 500 instrument (Weizmann Institute of Science
Chemical, Rehovot, Israel) operating at 500 MHz for 1H
NMR and at 125 MHz for 13C NMR. Samples were dis-
solved in fully deuterated dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO-d5).
The chemical shifts (d) are reported in ppm and the
coupling constants (J) in Hz. Mass spectra were measured
using a Finnigan mat. SSQ 7000 instrument at an
ionization voltage of 70 eV and EI mode.
Quantitative analysis of soyasapogenol B
At the end of the biotransformation period, the reaction
mixture was extracted twice with double the volume of
ethyl acetate. Thereafter, the organic layer was dried over
anhydrous sodium sulfate and concentrated under
reduced pressure. The residue was dissolved in a
chloroform–methanol mixture (1 : 1) and mounted on
thin-layer chromatography (TLC) plates. The plate was
first chromatographed for soyasapogenols using the
above-mentioned solvent system and then for SS using
a solvent system comprising chloroform–methanol–acetic
acid (10 : 20 : 1, v/v). SS and SB were detected on TLC
plates by spraying with 10% H2SO4 and then heating for
10 min at 1101C; they were then quantitatively analyzed
using a TLC-scanner (Shimadzu CS-9000 dual wave-
length flying spot, thin layer chromato-scanner, Tokyo,
Japan) at l equal to 530 nm [16]. The obtained weight of
SB was calculated by calibration of the line obtained from
the standard sample using the area under the curve for
the biotransformation products in each chromatogram.
SB molar yield %ð Þ¼
Weight of soyasapogenol B/MW of soyasapogenol B
Weight of soyasaponin I/MW of soyasaponin I�100;
where MW is the molecular weight and soyasaponin I
represents SS.
Separation and identification of the biotransformation
products
After cultivation of Aspergillus parasiticus on the biotrans-
formation culture medium containing 1% SS, the result-
ing filtrate (500 ml) was extracted twice with ethyl
acetate, and the organic layer was concentrated under
reduced pressure to obtain an oily sample (415 mg). A
preparative silica gel plate (silica gel 60 F-254 aluminum
plates; Merck, Darmstadt, Germany) was spotted and
developed using the same solvent system (benzene :
ethyl acetate : acetic acid; 24 : 8 : 1, v/v). The areas
containing soyasapogenols were detected by a slight
discoloration on the plates, and these sections were
scraped, extracted with chloroform : methanol (1 : 1), and
evaporated to dryness. This led to isolation of compound
I (56 mg) as the main product.
Compound I
Compound I was identified as SB, with a melting point of
2301C. The H1 NMR (DMSO-d5) results were as follows:
d at 5.18 (t, 1H, J12,11a= J12,11b= 4 Hz, H-12), 4.85 (d, 1H,
J24a-24b = 4.6 Hz, H-24a), 4.14 (dd, 2H, H-3, and H-21), 4.05
(d, 1H, J24b-24a = 4.6 Hz, H-24b), 3.82 (d, 1H, J22a-21b= 8.4
Hz, J22a,21a= 2.4 Hz, H-22a), 1.2 (s, 3H, H-23), 1.18 (s, 3H,
H-27), 0.95 (s, 3H, H-28), 0.90 (s, 3H, H-26), 0.84 (s, 6H,
H-25), 0.82 (s, 3H, H-29), and 0.80 (s, 3H, 30) and the 13C
NMR (CD3Cl) results were shown in Table 2.
Optimization of soybean saponin biotransformation
using Aspergillus parasiticus
Optimization of the environmental conditions for micro-
bial biotransformation processes on a laboratory scale
is important to obtain information for the scaled-up
production of the target product in a large-scale
fermentor. The parameters assessed were pH (4, 5, 5.7,
6, 7, 8, and 9) of the medium, inoculum size (1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 8, and 10%, v/v) and age (24, 48, 72, and 96 h), duration
of the biotransformation process (24, 48, 72, 96, 120, and
144 h), SS concentration (0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 4%, w/v),
incubation temperature (20, 25, 30, 35, and 401C), and
shaking incubator speed (static,100, 150, 200, and
250 rpm). For examining the effect of the cultivation
medium composition on the biotransformation process,
different levels of either malt extract (2, 3, 4, 5, and 6%,
Table 1 Bioconversion of soybean saponin to soyasapogenol B
by different fungal strains
Soyasapogenol B
Fungal isolates mg/100 ml Molar yield (%)
Aspergillus fumigatus 6.8 2.85Aspergillus flavus 22.34 9.38Aspergillus niger 18.58 7.8Aspergillus parasiticus 32 13.44Aspergillus ruber 4.92 2.06Rhizopus riori 14.6 6.13Penicillium aurantiacum – –Penicillium waksmanii 1.86 0.78Penicillium frequentans 9.6 4.03Penicillium cyclopium 8.12 3.41Trichoderma harzianum 3.9 1.63Trichoderma viride 3.82 1.6
Strains were cultivated on a transformation culture medium consistingof (%, w/v): malt extract, 4; yeast extract, 2; KH2PO4, 0.2; (NH4)2SO4,0.2; MgSO4 �7H2O, 0.03; CaCl2 �2H2O, 0.03; and SS, 1 (pH 5.7) at150 rpm and 30 ± 21C for 72 h.SS, soybean saponin
SS biotransformation to SB Amin et al. 41
w/v) or yeast extract (0.5, 1, 2, 2.5, and 3%, w/v), different
carbon sources (glucose, galactose, mannose, sucrose,
arabinose, and starch), and different concentrations of
galactose (0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5% w/v) were individually
used.
Results and discussionScreening experiments
Twelve fungal isolates were screened for their saponin-
hydrolyzing abilities to produce SB from the SS that was
added to the culture medium. Results in Table 1 indicate
different capacities of the tested cultures to produce SB.
P. aurantiacum failed to perform the desired reaction,
whereas the other fungal isolates (Aspergillus flavus,Aspergillus fumigates, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus parasiticus,Aspergillus ruber, Penicillium cyclopium, Penicillium frequentans,Penicillium waksmannii, Rhizopus riori, Trichoderma harzianum,
and Trichoderma viride) could. Among the 12 examined
fungal cultures, A. parasiticus produced the highest yield
of SB; it could transform about 13.44% of the added SS,
with the formation of 32 mg/100 ml SB. In this connec-
tion, Kudou et al. [13] reported that 26 of 158 strains of
the genus Aspergillus had a marked SS hydrolase activity
when cultured in a medium containing SS. Moreover,
Watanabe et al. [17] purified a SS hydrolase from
Aspergillus oryzae PF1224.
Identification of the biotransformation products
As A. parasiticus was cultivated for 72 h on a medium
containing 1% SS; compound I was isolated as a major
product (about 80%) in addition to some other minor
by-products. Physicochemical characteristics and various
spectral data of the obtained compound I were identical
to those of standard SB. Compound I produced red color
with sulfuric acid alone or with Liebermann–Burchard
reagent for the triterpenes. The molecular formula was
assigned to be C30H50O3 from the EI-mass spectra
(458 m/z). The presence of seven tertiary methyl singlets
(d 0.8–1.2) and a triplet olefinic proton at d 5.18 (t, 1H,
J12,11a = J12,11b = 5 Hz, H-12) in the NMR spectra
suggested a olean-12-en structure with three hydroxyl
groups. The hydroxyl groups were identified as being
attached at C-3, C-22, and C-24 from the H1 and 13C
NMR spectral data. The downfield shift of both C-3 and
C-22 (d 78.57 and 73.98, respectively) in the 13C NMR
spectrum suggested that two hydroxyl groups were
attached at these positions. The third hydroxyl group
was supported at C-24 by the presence of two signals at
d 4.85 (d, 1H, J24a-24b = 4.6 Hz, H-24a) and d (d, 1H,
J24b-24a = 4.6 Hz, H-24b), in addition to a methylene carbon
signal at 62.94 ppm in the 13C NMR spectrum. The signal
at d 3.82 (d, 1H, J22a-21b= 8.4 Hz, J22a,21a= 2.4 Hz, H-22a)
was assigned as the H-22a proton, which suggested a
b-orientation of the oxygen atom. Therefore, compound I
was identified as 3 b, 22 b, 24-trihydroxyolean-12 (13)-ene
(SB). All spectral data were in agreement with those
published by Kitagawa and colleagues [18,19].
Optimization of soybean saponin biotransformation by
Aspergillu sparasiticus
Effect of pH
Results presented in Table 3 show that the highest SS
conversion activities were maintained within the pH
range of 7–9; however, the biotransformation process was
markedly impedd at pH values below 5.7. In addition, the
initial pH values of the medium (4–9) were found to be
shifted toward more acidic values (3.39–6.83) at the end
of the bioconversion process. A maximum concentration
of SB (89.39 mg/100 ml) corresponding to a molar yield of
37.59% was obtained at pH 8. These findings supported
the data reported by Amin et al. [19] for the bioconversion
of SS to SB by A. terreus. Kudou et al. [20] found that
saponin hydrolase enzyme from A. oryzae KO-2 was stable
at pH values ranging from 5.0 to 8.0.
Effect of inoculum size
Results illustrated in Fig. 1 indicate that the yield of SB
was positively correlated to the increase in the inoculum
size up to 6% inoculum (v/v), corresponding to 0.0568 mg
cell dry weight, which led to the highest yield of SB
(37.59%). In contrast, an increase or decrease in the
inoculum size led to a gradual decrease in the SB yield.
Effect of the incubation period
The capacity of A. parasiticus to transform SS proved to be
markedly affected by the duration of the transformation
process. As shown in Fig. 2, biotransformation of SS to SB
increased gradually with increase of the incubation period
until the maximum value of 37.59% after 72 h was
reached, giving an SB yield of 89.5 mg/100 ml. However,
this yield sharply decreased upon increasing the time
more than 72 h, probably due to a further metabolism of
Table 213
C NMR assignments of soyasapogenol B
Carbon number Soyasapogenol B
1 38.132 27.143 78.574 42.055 55.346 18.547 32.778 41.149 47.1110 36.2411 23.1312 121.4613 144.0314 41.5615 25.4516 27.8317 36.8718 44.5119 46.0120 30.1121 41.5622 73.9823 22.8024 62.9425 15.5726 16.5027 24.9928 28.2329 32.5930 20.23
42 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
the product. Watanabe et al. [14] isolated a SS hydrolase
from Neocosmospora vasinfecta var. vasinfecta PF1225 after a
72 h incubation period. Moreover, the cell biomass yields
were determined at different time intervals (24, 48, 72,
96, 120, and 144 h) and were found to be 2.118, 3.04,
4.558, 4.566, and 5.386 g/100, respectively. Therefore, the
trends of SB production and cell growth were roughly
equivalent.
Effect of the culture medium composition
Results given in Figs 3 and 4 indicate that A. Parasiticusacts optimally at malt extract concentrations of 40 g/l and
yeast extract concentrations of 20 g/l, producing an SB
yield of 37.59%. Lower or higher levels of malt or yeast
extract gave lower yields of SB. Watanabe et al. [14] used
the same concentrations of malt and yeast extracts to
isolate a SS hydrolase from Neocosmospora vasinfecta var.vasinfecta PF1225.
As regards the additional carbon sources, results illu-
strated in Fig. 5 clearly indicate that the maximum yield
of SB (41.6%) was achieved when galactose was added to
the transformation medium; this is may be due to the
enhanced growth of the fungus by using lactose as the
carbon source. In contrast, the other tested carbon
sources supported comparatively lower conversion esti-
mates and were thus excluded.
Moreover, the effect of different levels of galactose on SB
production was studied. Data given in Fig. 6 reveal that a
low level of galactose (0.5%) supported maximum SB
production (49%), whereas increasing galactose levels
over 1% resulted in a dramatic decrease in SB production,
possibly because the cells preferred the easily oxidizable
galactose as an exclusive carbon source and repressed the
induction of saponin-hydrolyzing activity [19].
Effect of soybean saponin levels
Kudou et al. [20] reported that saponin hydrolase was an
enzyme induced by the existence of SS as it has high
substrate specificity for the glucuronide bonds of glyco-
sides. Thus, to enhance the productivity, different
substrate (SS) concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 4%
(w/v) were supplemented to the transformation culture
medium at the inoculation time. Results given in Fig. 7
indicate that molar yields of SB increased on increasing
the amounts of SS supplemented to the culture medium
up to the 3% level. Above the latter concentration, the
yield of SB decreased gradually; this is may be due to
inhibition of the SS hydrolase on increasing the substrate
concentration to more than 3%. Kudou et al. [20]
indicated that SS hydrolase from A. oryzae KO-2 is
inhibited by increasing the substrate level above the
optimum concentration (2.5 mmol/l).
Effect of incubation temperature
Results in Fig. 8 show that relatively high SB yields were
maintained at temperatures ranging from 25 to 351C.
Maximum SS conversion (65%) was achieved at 301C,
leading to a production of 464.24 mg/100 ml SB. Watanabe
et al. [14] cultivated Neocosmospora vasinfecta var. vasinfectaPF1225 on an MY medium at 251C to isolate a SS
hydrolase; this means that the optimal incubation
temperature depends on the type of organism used.
Table 3 Effect of different initial pH values on production of
soyasapogenol B from soybean saponin by Aspergillusparasiticus
Soyasapogenol B
Initial pH Final pH mg/100 ml Molar yield (%)
5 4.10 11.38 4.785.7 4.96 32 13.446 5.03 64.33 27.017 5.71 83.16 34.928 7.22 89.5 37.599 6.83 83.39 35.02
Initial medium pH was adjusted using 1N HCl and 1N KOH at differentpH values. Aspergillus parasiticus was cultivated on a transformationculture medium at 150 rpm and 30 ± 21C for 72 h.
Figure 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
20
40
60
80
100
"SB" Molar Yield
Inoculum size (ml)
SB (
mg/
100m
l)
0
10
20
30
40
Molar Y
eild (%)
Effect of inoculum size on production of soyasapogenol B (SB) fromsoybean saponin by Aspergillus parasiticus. Biotransformation wasperformed on a transformation culture medium (pH 8) inoculatedseparately with different inoculum sizes. Flasks were incubated at150 rpm and 30 ± 21C for 72 h.
Figure 2
20 40 60 80 100 120
0
20
40
60
80
100 "SB" MolarYeild Cell Biomass
Time (hour)
SB (
mg/
100m
l)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
(Molar Y
eild)
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
cell
biom
ass
(gm
/50m
l)
Duration of soyasapogenol B (SB) accumulation during hydrolysis ofsoybean saponin by Aspergillus parasiticus. A. parasiticus wascultivated on a transformation culture medium at pH 8, 150 rpm, and30 ± 21C. Molar yield of soyasapogenol B and cell dry weight weredetermined at different time intervals.
SS biotransformation to SB Amin et al. 43
Figure 3
2 3 4 5 670
75
80
85
90 SB Molar yield
Malt extract (%)
SB (
mg/
100m
l)
32
34
36
38
40
42
44
Molar yield (%
)
Effect of malt extract concentration on production of soyasapogenol B(SB) from soybean saponin by Aspergillus parasiticus. A. parasiticuswas cultivated on a transformation culture medium supplemented withvarying amounts of malt extract (2–6%, w/v) at pH 8, 150 rpm, and30 ± 21C for 72 h. Control treatment: using 4% malt extract.
Figure 4
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.50
20
40
60
80
100
"SB" Molar Yield
Yeast extract (%)
SB (
mg/
100m
l)
10
20
30
40
Molar Y
eild (%)
Effect of yeast extract concentration on production of soyasapogenol B(SB) from soybean saponin by Aspergillus parasiticus. A. parasiticuswas cultivated on a transformation culture medium supplemented withvarying amounts of yeast extract (0.5–3%,w/v) at pH 8, 150 rpm, and30 ± 21C for 72 h. Control treatment: using 2% yeast extract.
Figure 5
Glucose Galactose Mannose Arabinose Sucrose Starch control60
70
80
90
100
110 "SB" Molar Yeild
Carbon sources
SB (
mg/
100m
l)
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
Molar yield (%
)
Effect of adding different carbon sources to the fermentation mediumon soyasapogenol B (SB) production. Aspergillus parasiticus wascultivated on a transformation culture medium supplemented with 1%(w/v) of one of these carbon sources at pH 8, 150 rpm, and 301C for72 h. Control treatment: without addition of the carbon source.
Figure 6
0 1 2 3 4 560
80
100
120 "SB" Molar Yield
Galactose (%)
SB (
mg/
100m
l)
30
40
50
60
70
Molar yield (%
)
Effect of galactose concentration on soyasapogenol B (SB) production.Aspergillus parasiticus was cultivated on a transformation culturemedium supplemented with different concentrations of galactose(0.5–5%, w/v) at pH 8, 150 rpm, and 301C for 72 h. Control treatment:using 1% galactose.
Figure 7
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.50
100
200
300
400
500
" SB" Molar Yield
Soybean saponin (SS, %)
SB (
mg/
100m
l)
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
Molar yield (%
)
Effect of substrate concentration on production of soyasapogenol B(SB) from soybean saponin (SS) by Aspergillus parasiticus. A.parasiticus was cultivated on a transformation culture mediumsupplemented with different levels of SS (0.5–4%, w/v) at pH 8,150 rpm, and 30 ± 21C for 72 h. Control treatment: using 1% SS.
Figure 8
20 25 30 35 400
100
200
300
400
500
Temperature (°C)
"SB" Molar Yeild
SB (
mg/
100m
l)
0
20
40
60
80
Molar yeild(%
)
Effect of different temperature values on production of soyasapogenol B(SB) from soybean saponin (SS) by Aspergillus parasiticus. A.parasiticus was cultivated on a transformation culture medium composedof (%, w/v): malt extract 4; yeast extract, 2; KH2PO4, 0.2; (NH4)2SO4,0.2; MgSO4 �7H2O, 0.03; CaCl2 �2H2O, 0.03; and SS, 3 (pH 8). Flaskswere incubated at different temperatures and 150 rpm for 72 h.
44 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
ConclusionA. parasiticus was screened and selected on the basis of
its ability to hydrolyze SS, producing a high yield of SB.
A maximum conversion value of 65% was obtained using
a production medium composed of (%, w/v): malt extract,
4; yeast extract, 2; galactose, 0.5; and SS, 3 (pH 8). The
medium was inoculated with 6% (v/v) inoculum and
incubated at 301C for 72 h. Under these optimal condi-
tions, the SB molar yield increased from 13.44 to 65%.
AcknowledgementsConflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest.
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togr 2002; A967:147–162.
2 Hu J, Reddy MB, Hendrich S, Murphy PA. Soyasaponin I and sapongenol Bhave limited absorption by Caco-2 intestinal cells and limited bioavailabilityin women. J Nutr 2004; 134:1867–1873.
3 Kudou S, Tonomura M, Tsukamoto C, Shimoyamada M, Uchida T, Okubo K.Isolation and structural elucidation of the major genuine soybean saponin.Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 1992; 56:142–143.
4 Shiraiwa M, Harada K, Okubo K. Composition and structure of ‘group Bsaponin’ in soybean seed. Agric Biol Chem 1991; 55:911–917.
5 Kinjo J, Hirakawa T, Tsuchihashi R, Nagao T, Okawa M, Nohara T, Okabe H.Hepatoprotective constituents in plants 14. Effects of soyasapogenol B,sophoradiol, and their glucuronides on the cytotoxicity of tert-butyl hydro-peroxide to HepG2 cells. Biol Pharm Bull 2003; 26:1357–1360.
6 Zhang W, Popovich DG. Effect of soyasapogenol A and soyasapogenol Bconcentrated extracts on Hep-G2 cell proliferation and apoptosis. J AgricFood Chem 2008; 56:2603–2608.
7 Hayashi K, Hayashi H, Hiraoka N, Ikeshiro Y. Inhibitory activity of soyasaponinII on virus replication in vitro. Planta Med 1997; 63:102–105.
8 Ahn K-S, Kim J-H, Oh S-R, Min B-S, Kinjo J, Lee H-K. Effects of oleanane-type triterpenoids from fabaceous plants on the expression of ICAM-1.Biol Pharm Bull 2002; 25:1105–1107.
9 Sasaki K, Minowa N, Kuzuhara H, Nishiyama S, Omoto S. Synthesis andhepatoprotective effects of soyasapogenol B derivatives. Bioorg Med ChemLett 1997; 7:85–88.
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11 Berhow MA, Wagner ED, Vaughn SF, Plewa MJ. Characterizationand antimutagenic activity of soybean saponins. Mutat Res 2000; 448:11–22.
12 Gurfinkel DM, Rao AV. Soyasaponins: the relationship between chemi-cal structure and colon anticarcinogenic activity. Nutr Cancer 2003; 47:24–33.
13 Kudou S, Tsuizaki I, Shimoyamada M, Uchida T, Okubo K. Screening formicroorganisms producing soybean saponin hydrolase. Agric Biol Chem1990; 54:3035–3037.
14 Watanabe M, Sumida N, Yanai K, Murakami T. A Novel saponin hydrolasefrom Neocosmospora vasinfecta var. vasinfecta. Appl Environ Microbiol2004; 70:865–872.
15 Amin HA, Mohamed SS. Immobilization of Aspergillus terreus on loofasponge for soyasapogenol B production from soybean saponin. J Mol CatalB: Enzymatic 2012; 78:85–90.
16 Sullivan C, Sherma J. Development and validation of an HPTLC-densitometry method for assay of glucosamine of different forms in dietarysupplement tablets and capsules. Acta Chromatographica 2005; 15:119–130.
17 Watanabe M, Sumida N, Yanai K, Murakami T. Cloning and characterizationof saponin hydrolases from Aspergillus oryzae and Eupenicillium brefeldia-num. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2005; 69:2178–2185.
18 Kitagawa I, Yoshikawa M, Wang HK, Saito M, Tosirisuk U, Fujiwara T, Tomita K.Revisions of the structure of the sapogenols. Chem Pharm Bull 1982;30:2294.
19 Amin HAS, Hanna AG, Mohamed SS. Comparative studies of acidic andenzymatic hydrolysis for production of soyasapogenols from soybean sa-ponin. Biocatalysis Biotransformation 2011; 29:311–319.
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SS biotransformation to SB Amin et al. 45
Characterization of ternary solid dispersions of nimesulide
with Inutec SP1 and b-cyclodextrin and evaluation
of anti-inflammatory efficiency in ratsRawia M. Khalila, Mamdouh M. Ghorabb, Noha Abd El Rahmana
and Silvia Kocova El-Arinia
aDepartment of Pharmaceutical Technology, NationalResearch Centre, Cairo and bDepartment ofPharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Suez CanalUniversity, Ismailiya, Egypt
Correspondence to Rawia M. Khalil, PhD, Departmentof Pharmaceutical Technology, National ResearchCentre, El-Bohowth St., PO Box 12622, Dokki,11371 Cairo, EgyptTel: + 20 233 335 456; fax: + 20 233 370 931;e-mail: [email protected]
Received 5 November 2012Accepted 26 January 2013
Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
2013, 12:46–56
Objective
The objective of this investigation is to enhance the physicochemical properties
of nimesulide (NS) and the stability of NS solid dispersions in order to improve
the anti-inflammatory activity of the drug.
Background
NS – a NSAID – is sparingly soluble in water and this low aqueous solubility in addition
to its poor wettability leads to variability in the bioavailability of the drug.
Materials and methods
In the present study, ternary dispersions of NS were investigated using a new
polymeric carrier, Inutec SP1 (Inutec), in combination with b cyclodextrin (b-CD).
The ternary dispersions were prepared using different ratios of NS and b-CD (2 : 1;
1 : 1; 1 : 2), to which a fixed amount of Inutec (20% w/w of total formula) was added
using different methods of incorporation of the drug. Physical mixtures of equivalent
compositions were prepared by physically mixing the ingredients. The optimal
formulation obtained with a full factorial experimental design was used for the
evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity.
Results
In the ternary dispersions, the dissolution behavior improved in comparison with the
physical mixtures and was found to be dependent on the technique of incorporation
of the drug, the method of preparation, and the molar ratio of drug to b-CD. Physical
characterization of the ternary dispersions by infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), differential
scanning calorimetry, and X-ray powder diffraction indicated a decrease in crystallinity
because of partial inclusion in b-CD and the effect of Inutec, which promoted the
formation of microcrystals or partial amorphization of the drug during the processing
of the dispersions by kneading. Differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray powder
diffraction curves of the dispersions prepared by the solvent method indicated the
presence of a polymorphic form of NS with a lower melting point. The optimized ternary
dispersion predicted by the full factorial design showed good physical stability
following an accelerated stability test. The ternary dispersion of NS, Inutec, and
b-CD was found to show better anti-inflammatory efficiency in rats compared with
a commercial tablet of NS.
Conclusion
It can be concluded that the dissolution properties and the anti-inflammatory efficacy of
the ternary dispersions of NS with b-CD and Inutec were enhanced because of a
secondary solubilization of the inclusion by the polymeric surfactant.
Keywords:
accelerated stability, b-cyclodextrin, Inutec SP1, in-vivo evaluation in rats, nimesulide,
ternary solid dispersion
Egypt Pharm J 12:46–56& 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre1687-4315
Introduction
Nimesulide (NS) is an important anti-inflammatory drug
and shows selective COX-2 inhibition, which contributes
toward its good gastrointestinal tolerability. Moreover,
despite concerns over its potential hepatotoxicity, it
remains approved for the market because of the
beneficial action overweighing the risks associated with
the drug [1]. However, the very poor aqueous solubility of
NS is a huge hurdle in formulation development.
Therefore, enhancement of water solubility has been an
ongoing challenge for pharmaceutical researchers as it can
lead to more efficient and safer formulations of this
important medicament.
46 Original article
1687-4315 & 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre
DOI: 10.7123/01.EPJ.0000427333.85411.b9
Numerous studies have dealt with the use of different
carriers for the preparation of solid dispersions (SD) of
NS [2–8]. Considerable amount of research has been
published on complexation of NS with b-cyclodextrin
(b-CD). Nalluri and colleagues [9,10] studied binary
systems in 1 : 1 and 1 : 2 molar ratios of drug and carrier.
They reported that the increase in dissolution properties
was because of the formation of a 1 : 1 complex in
solution. Further increase in b-CD led to the formation of
a 1 : 2 complex in the solid state. However, despite the
true inclusion formed, the dissolution rate and efficiency
values obtained were not as anticipated. The reason for
this is the formation of crystalline inclusion complexes
(IC) [9,10].
To overcome the drawback of the limited aqueous
solubility of b-CD, Dutet et al. [6] examined the effect
of double hydrophilization in ternary systems of NS and
b-CD and PEG 6000, but found no improvement in the
bioavailability of NS in rats.
Generally, these and other attempts have failed to
produce a stable marketable NS product, and thus there
is a need for novel, more efficient carriers for NS. Recent
advances in excipient technology have resulted in new
surfactants such as Inutec SP1 (Inutec) of Orafti Non-
Food. It is derived frominulin by grafting alkyl groups on
a polyfructose backbone (Fig. 1).
In this way, a structure is obtained, with polyfructose loops
providing steric stability. The polymeric nature of this
surfactant has made Inutec very useful as an emulsifier in
cosmetic and food industries [11]. Its application in
pharmaceutical formulations has been reported by Van den
Mooter et al. [12] as a carrier for SD of itraconazole, a drug
with very low aqueous solubility. A 20/80 w/w SD of
itraconazole and Inutec led to an improved dissolution rate.
The dissolution efficiency (DE) depended more on the
method of preparation than on the degree of amorphization.
In a recent study, Janssens et al. [13] investigated further the
effect of Inutec on itraconazole in ternary dispersions with
polyvidone-vinylacetate 64 (PVPVA 64) and found that the
improvement vis-a-vis the binary systems depended on the
incorporation of a sufficient amount of PVPVA 64 required
for the molecular dispersion of itraconazole. Ibrahim
et al. [14] used Inutec and hydroxypropyl-b-CD for the
preparation of chewable tablets of etodolac. The authors
reported that the dissolution rate of etodolac at pH 1.2 and
6.8 was improved compared with a pure drug and physical
mixture (PM) as a result of loss of crystallinity.
We reported in a previous publication [15] on the effect
of Inutec on the dissolution behavior of NS in binary
dispersions of NS with increasing amounts of Inutec. The
dissolution rate was enhanced proportionally with the
increase in the Inutec concentration and a ratio of drug to
Inutec of 1 : 3 led to a maximum of 87% DE after 180 min.
The aim of the present study is to evaluate the effect of
Inutec at a low concentration (20% w/w) to act as a second
hydrophilization factor in ternary dispersions based on
NS –b-CD complexes. Another aim is to use an experi-
mental design for optimization of the formula to conduct
accelerated stability tests and consequently for its use in
the evaluation of anti-inflammatory efficiency in rats.
Materials and methodsMaterials
NS was obtained as a gift sample from Sigma (Monofia,
Egypt). Inutec SP1 was generously provided by Orafti
Non-Food (Tienen, Belgium). b-CD (MW 1135) was
purchased from Sigma Chemical Company (St Louis,
Missouri, USA). All other materials were of analytical
grade.
Preparation of ternary systems from inclusion complex
and Inutec (ICSD)
First, the IC of NS and b-CD were prepared in 2 : 1, 1 : 1,
and 1 : 2 molar ratios using two methods: solvent and
kneading methods.
Solvent method (IC/S)
The alcoholic solution of NS was added to an aqueous
solution of b-CD. The resulting mixture was stirred for
30 min and evaporated under reduced pressure at a
temperature of 601C until dry. The dried mass was
ground in a mortar and passed through a sieve (250 mm).
Kneading method (IC/K)
A mixture of NS and b-CD was wetted with water and
kneaded thoroughly for 30 min in a glass mortar.
The resulting paste was dried under vacuum for 24 h.
Figure 1
Chemical structure of Inutec SP1.
Ternary solid dispersions of nimesulide Khalil et al. 47
The dried mass was ground in a mortar and passed
through a sieve (250 mm).
Second, the IC of NS–b-CD was mixed with a fixed
amount of Inutec (20% w/w of the total formula), and
then wetted together with water and kneaded as
discussed in the kneading method.
These systems are distinguished by the preparation
method of the binary IC.
It should be noted that by maintaining the amount of
Inutec added to the ternary systems constant, the ratio of
Inutec to NS increases with an increase in the molar ratio
of b-CD to drug.
Preparation of ternary solid dispersions
NS, b-CD, and Inutec were dispersed together using
either the solvent or the kneading method.
Solvent method (SD/S)
The aqueous solution of b-CD was added to an alcoholic
solution of NS and Inutec. The solvents were evaporated
using the rotavapor as discussed previously.
Kneading method (SD/K)
A mixture of NS, b-CD, and Inutec was wetted with
water and kneaded as discussed previously.
Preparation of physical mixtures
The corresponding PM were obtained by mixing the
various components together in a mortar by trituration for
5 min, followed by sieving (250 mm).
Determination of NS content in the prepared
formulations
An accurately weighed amount of NS formulation was
dissolved in phosphate buffer (pH = 7.4) and sonicated
for 30 min to ensure complete extraction of the drug from
the dispersion. The content of NS was determined
spectrophotometrically at 392 nm using a UV spectro-
photometer. Each preparation was tested in triplicate.
Wettability study
A powder sample (3 g) was placed in a sintered glass
funnel (33 mm internal diameter). The funnel was
plunged into a beaker containing water such that the
surface of water in the beaker remained at the same level
as the powder in the funnel. Methylene blue powder
(100 mg) was layered uniformly on the surface of the
powder in the funnel. The time required for wetting of
the methylene blue powder was measured. The average
of three observations was used for drawing the conclu-
sions [3].
Phase solubility study
Solubility studies were carried out as described by
Higuchi and Connors [16]. An excess amount of NS
was added to screw-capped vials containing different
concentrations of the carrier solution. The vials were
shaken mechanically at 37 ± 0.51C for 72 h until reaching
equilibrium. Filtration of the suspension was carried out
using 0.45 mm millipore filters. An aliquot portion of the
filtrate was diluted with phosphate buffer (pH = 7.4) and
analyzed for drug content by measuring its absorbance
spectrophotometrically at 392 nm against a blank solution
containing the same concentrations of the carrier. Each
experiment was conducted in triplicate.
Solid-state characterization
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra were recorded
using an FTIR-6100 type A spectrophotometer (Jasco,
Tokyo, Japan) equipped with a deuterated triglycine
sulfate detector. Samples were prepared in KBr disks
using a hydrostatic press. The scanning range was
between 4000 and 400 cm–1 at 4 cm–1 resolution.
Differential scanning calorimetry
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) was performed
using a Pyris5 instrument (Perkin Elmer, Waltham,
Massachusetts, USA) equipped with an intercooler. A
dry purge of nitrogen gas was used at 20 ml/min. The
instrument was calibrated with pure indium. Samples
(2–3 mg) were analyzed in closed Al pans from 50 to
2201C at a heating rate of 101C/min.
X-ray powder diffraction
X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) patterns of the pure
ingredients and all of the SD containing varying propor-
tions of NS in the matrix were recorded using an X-ray
diffractometer (Scintag Inc., Cupertino, California, USA)
equipped with CuKa as the source of radiation.
Measurements were carried out using 45 kV voltage and
9 mA current. The 2y values and the intensities of the
peaks were compared for pure ingredients, the PM, and
the SD systems.
Solubility study
The solubility was determined in distilled water at 371C.
A sample equivalent to 25 mg of NS (excess amount of
NS) was added to 10 ml of distilled water in a vial with a
teflon-lined screw cap. The vials were shaken mechani-
cally at 37 ± 0.51C for 72 h until reaching equilibrium.
Filtration of the suspension was carried out using 0.45 mm
millipore filters. An aliquot portion of the filtrate was
diluted with phosphate buffer (pH = 7.4) and analyzed
for drug content by measuring its absorbance spectro-
photometrically at 392 nm. Each experiment was con-
ducted in triplicate.
In-vitro dissolution study
The dissolution rate was determined in the USP
Dissolution Tester, Apparatus I, at 37 ± 0.51C. The
dissolution medium was 900 ml of phosphate buffer
(pH = 7.4) at a rotation speed of 50 rpm. Powder samples
containing 25 mg of NS or its equivalent of PM or SD
were filled in transparent zero-sized hard gelatin
capsules. Aliquots, each of 5 ml, from the dissolution
medium were withdrawn at time intervals 15, 30, 45, 60,
90, 120, 150, and 180 min and replaced by an equal
volume of fresh dissolution medium. The samples were
filtered through a 0.45 mm millipore filter and assayed
48 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
spectrophotometrically for NS at 392 nm using fresh
dissolution medium as a blank.
The DE was calculated according to Khan [17] and is
defined as the area under the dissolution curve up to the
time, t, expressed as a percentage of the area of the
rectangle described by 100% dissolution at the same
time. The DE can have a range of values depending on
the time interval chosen. The DEs at 30, 60, and 180 min.
were calculated from the dissolution profiles. The
experiments were conducted in triplicate.
Experimental design
An experimental design was generated to estimate the
effects on the dissolution properties of the following
experimental variables: method of preparation at two
levels (solvent, kneading) and the NS : b-CD : Inutec
ratio at three levels (2 : 1 : 20%, 1 : 1 : 20%, and 1 : 2 : 20%).
Accelerated stability study
An accelerated stability study was carried out by
subjecting the SD to stressed conditions at 401C and
75% relative humidity (maintained using a saturated
solution of NaCl) for a period of 3 months. The effect of
the stressed conditions was determined by measuring
in-vitro dissolution and by DSC and XRPD studies.
Evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity of selected
nimesulide solid dispersions
Twenty-four adult female albino rats 150 ± 20 g were used.
The rats were randomly allocated into four groups, each
including six animals. Carrageenan was used to induce rat’s
paw edema. This effect was determined according to the
method described previously in the literature [18,19]. The
animals were kept on a standard laboratory diet. The rats
were kept fasted for 16 h before the experiment, but were
allowed free access to water. The samples were adminis-
tered orally as a suspension to the respective animal groups
at a dose of 50 mg/kg [20,21].
One hour after administration, edema was induced by an
injection of 0.1 ml of 1% (w/v) carrageenan solution in
distilled water into the planter aponeurosis of rats’ right
hind paws. The volume of the injected paw was measured
immediately after carrageenan injection and after 1, 2, 3,
4, and 5 h using a plethsymometer. The percentage
increase in paw volume was calculated according to the
equation given by Delporte et al. [22].
% increase in paw volume¼ Vf�Við Þ/Vi�100;
where Vf and Vi are the final and the initial paw volume
of an animal, respectively.
In addition, the percentage inhibition of edema volume for
each time was calculated from the mean effect in control and
in treated animals according to the following equation [23].
% inhibition of edema volume¼ 1�Vt/Vcð Þ�100;
where Vt and Vc are the mean increase in the volume of the
carrageenan-injected paw of the treated group and the
control group, respectively. The one-way analysis
of variance test was carried out on the area under percentage
increase in edema volume versus time curve.
Statistical analysis of data
All data were analyzed statistically using the analysis of
variance test for a P value of 0.05 using the social package
for statistical study Software (SPSS Company, IBM
Corporation, New York, USA). Differences were consid-
ered statistically significant at a value of P less than 0.05.
Results and discussionThe composition and method of preparation of all the
systems studied are listed in Table 1.
Nimesulide content in the prepared formulations
The drug content and the percentage recovery were
determined in all prepared formulations in order to
confirm that there was no drug loss during preparation
and that the SD showed good content uniformity.
Wettability study
The mean wetting times of representative PM and
dispersions are shown in Fig. 2. It can be seen that the
wetting time for pure NS (8 h) was significantly reduced
in the PM. The wettability was further improved in the
dispersions and the best results were obtained for the
dispersions prepared using the SD technique [SD/S
(1 : 2 : 20%) and SD/K (1 : 2 : 20%) in Fig. 2]. It is also
evident from Fig. 2 that the wetting times decreased
significantly (Po0.05) on adding Inutec to the binary
complexes (compare ternary ICSD/S; ICSD/K to binary
IC/S; IC/K in Fig. 2). This confirms the secondary
hydrophilization effect of Inutec in the ternary systems.
Phase solubility study
The phase solubility diagrams of NS and b-CD with and
without 0.5% Inutec can be classified as AL-type according
to Higuchi and Connors [16] as shown in Fig. 3. The
aqueous solubility of NS increased linearly (R2 = 0.9952
and 0.9971 in the absence and in the presence of 0.5% of
Inutec, respectively) as a function of the b-CD concentra-
tion. The phase solubility of NS in aqueous solutions of
b-CD increased in the presence of 0.5% of Inutec as
reflected by the small increase in the stability constant
from Kc = 354 to Kc = 430 mol/l. This is in agreement with
the increased wettability of the PM (Fig. 2).
Solid-state characterization
Studies were carried out to determine the nature of the
products obtained.
Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
FTIR data were obtained to determine whether chemical
interactions occurred during the preparation of the SD.
Figure 4 shows the FTIR spectra of the individual
components, their PM, and the different dispersions. The
FTIR spectra of the PM showed the patterns of each
component. In the FTIR spectra of the ICSDs and the SDs,
the peak of the N–H function at 3290 cm–1 was slightly
pronounced or invisible. Otherwise, no other new bonds
Ternary solid dispersions of nimesulide Khalil et al. 49
were observed, which indicates that there was no interaction
between NS and the carriers at the molecular level.
Differential scanning calorimetry
DSC thermograms were generated to test for the
possibility of the inclusion of NS in b-CD.
Figure 5 shows the DSC thermograms of the individual
components and their ternary systems at a 1 : 2 molar ratio
prepared by the solvent (S) and kneading (K) methods.
The thermogram of NS showed a single endothermic
peak with onset at 148.81C and a peak at 1501C
corresponding to its melting point. These results were
also reported by Chowdary and Nalluri [24] and by
Abdelkader et al. [5]. The DSC thermogram of b-CD
showed a broad endothermic effect with a peak at 971C.
Inutec showed a small endothermic peak at 103.51C at
the tail of the water evaporation endotherm at 601C and a
glass transition signal at 1431C as also reported by Van
den Mooter et al. [12].
The thermogram of the PM is a combination of the DSC
curves of the individual components without changes in
the melting peaks. The ternary ICSDs prepared by both
methods (S, K) and the ternary SD prepared by the
kneading method (K) showed a marked reduction in the
intensity of the NS endotherm when compared with that
of the PM, indicating progressive partial inclusion of NS
within the b-CD cavity. The thermogram of the ternary
SD prepared by the solvent method was characterized by
a split endotherm indicating that the NS showed
polymorphism because of the use of an organic solvent
(methanol) in the preparation of the dispersions. As we
reported earlier, the use of a solvent induced a different
polymorphic form of NS that melts at a slightly lower
temperature [15]. Bergese et al. [25] also reported such a
polymorphic form of the drug and Di Martino et al. [26]
obtained a split endotherm because of the use of an
organic solvent in their study.
The ICSD (solvent) system, in contrast, did not show the
double-peaked endotherm. This might be attributed to
the use of a smaller amount of alcoholic solvent used in
its preparation (Table 1).
X-ray powder diffraction
XRPD patterns were obtained to determine the crystal-
linity of the products obtained and to confirm the results
of the DCS study.
Figure 2
480.00
49.22 50.1325.49 24.19 22.33 23.52 20.22 20.59
050
100150200250300350400450500
NS
PM (
1:2)
PM (
1:2:
20%
)
IC/S
(1:
2)
IC/K
(1:
2)
ICSD
/S (
1:2:
20%
)
ICSD
/K (
1:2:
20%
)
SD/S
(1:
2:20
%)
SD/K
(1:
2:20
%)
Tim
e (m
inut
es)
NS Formulation
Wettability of selected NS–b-CD and NS–b-CD–Inutec SP1 formula-tions: comparison of different methods of preparation.
Figure 3
0
0.0005
0.001
0.0015
0.002
0.0025
0.003
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
β-CD Concentration (M)
NS
Con
cent
ratio
n (M
)
Phase solubility diagrams of NS in different concentrations of b-CDwith and without 0.5% Inutec SP1 at 371C: K, NS–b-CD:y= 0.0112x+ 2E – 05, R 2 = 0.9952; ’, NS–b-CD–Inutec: y= 0.0136x +8E – 05, R 2 = 0.9971. b-CD, b cyclodextrin; NS, nimesulide.
Table 1 Composition of physical mixtures and solid dispersions
prepared using different methods
NS formulationNS : b-CD(mol/mol)
Inutec %(w/w) Method of preparationa
PM (2 : 1) 2 : 1 0 Physical mixingPM (1 : 1) 1 : 1 0 Physical mixingPM (1 : 2) 1 : 2 0 Physical mixingPM (2 : 1 : 20%) 2 : 1 20 Physical mixingPM (1 : 1 : 20%) 1 : 1 20 Physical mixingPM (1 : 2 : 20%) 1 : 2 20 Physical mixingIC/S (2 : 1) 2 : 1 0 IC/solvent (50 ml)IC/S (1 : 1) 1 : 1 0 IC/solvent (50 ml)IC/S (1 : 2) 1 : 2 0 IC/solvent (50 ml)IC/K (2 : 1) 2 : 1 0 IC/kneadingIC/K (1 : 1) 1 : 1 0 IC/kneadingIC/K (1 : 2) 1 : 2 0 IC/kneadingICSD/S (2 : 1 : 20%) 2 : 1 20 ICSD/solvent (50 ml)ICSD/S (1 : 1 : 20%) 1 : 1 20 ICSD/solvent (50 ml)ICSD/S (1 : 2 : 20%) 1 : 2 20 ICSD/solvent (50 ml)ICSD/K (2 : 1 : 20%) 2 : 1 20 ICSD/kneadingICSD/K (1 : 1 : 20%) 1 : 1 20 ICSD/kneadingICSD/K (1 : 2 : 20%) 1 : 2 20 ICSD/kneadingSD/S (2 : 1 : 20%) 2 : 1 20 SD/solvent (70 ml)SD/S (1 : 1 : 20%) 1 : 1 20 SD/solvent (100 ml)SD/S (1 : 2 : 20%) 1 : 2 20 SD/solvent (150 ml)SD/K (2 : 1 : 20%) 2 : 1 20 SD/kneadingSD/K (1 : 1 : 20%) 1 : 1 20 SD/kneadingSD/K (1 : 2 : 20%) 1 : 2 20 SD/kneading
b-CD, b cyclodextrin; IC/K, inclusion complex prepared using thekneading method; IC/S, inclusion complex prepared using the solventmethod; ICSD/K, inclusion complex in solid dispersion prepared usingthe kneading method; ICSD/S, inclusion complex in solid dispersionprepared using the solvent method; NS, nimesulide; PM, physicalmixture; SD/K, solid dispersion prepared using the kneading method;SD/S, solid dispersion prepared using the solvent method.aValues in parentheses represent the amount of methanol used in thepreparation (for 1 mol NS).
50 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
Figure 6 shows the diffractograms of NS, b-CD, Inutec,
their ternary PM, and the different SD (ICSD and SD) at
1 : 2 molar ratios with b-CD, prepared using the solvent
and the kneading methods.
NS showed the characteristic diffraction pattern with
numerous distinctive peaks, indicating the highly crystal-
line nature of the drug. The most abundant peaks were
observed at 2y values of 19.3 and 23.11. The diffraction
pattern of b-CD showed numerous peaks, with a major
peak at 2y= 12.481, whereas the diffraction pattern of
Inutec was characterized by very small peaks protruding
from the halo around 2y= 16–201.
The XRPD pattern of the PM represents a combination
of the individual patterns of the drug and the carriers and
the intensities of the peaks reflect the fraction of the
drug in the mixture. The diffractograms of ICSD
prepared using the solvent and kneading methods and
SD prepared using the kneading method showed a
notable reduction in the intensity of the characteristic
peaks of the drug in comparison with the PM. This
reduction in peak intensity is a result of loss of
crystallinity of the drug in the preparation, indicating
partial inclusion of NS within the b-CD cavity. The
XRPD patterns of the ternary SD prepared using the
solvent method showed a diffraction peak at 2y= 18.91,
which was not observed in the XRPD pattern of the pure
NS. This indicates the presence of polymorphism
because of the use of an organic solvent (methanol).
The diffractograms of the binary and ternary systems
were compared quantitatively with the diffractogram of
the PM. For this purpose, the values of the relative
intensity (I/Io) were used, which were calculated from
the intensity (I) of a selected peak (2y= 23.11) and the
intensity (Io) of the major peak (2y= 19.31). The relative
intensity values decreased to I/Io = 85 and 88% in the ICs
and further to 80 and 82% in the ternary ICSDs
depending on the method of preparation (solvent vs.
kneading). The highest decrease in the relative intensity
was observed in the ternary systems prepared using the
SD technique, using the kneading method (I/Io =
69.8%), indicating the highest degree of amorphization
compared with the PM and the other binary and ternary
formulations. However, the I/Io value of ternary disper-
sion prepared using the SD technique with methanol was
not calculated because of the appearance of a new peak
indicative of a different polymorphic form of NS. Janssens
et al. [13] investigated the diffractograms of ternary
systems of itraconazole with PVPVA 64 and Inutec SP1 in
different ratios of polymer to Inutec. They reported that
all the systems showed XRPD amorphous behavior,
except for the one with the lowest ratio. They therefore
concluded that itraconazole was molecularly dispersed
in the PVPVA, whereas Inutec did not interact with any
Figure 4
Inutec
NS
5001000150020002500300035004000
%T
Wavenumber [cm-1]
β-CD
PM (1:2:20%)
ICSD/S (1:2:20%)
ICSD/K (1:2:20%)
SD/S (1:2:20%)
SD/K (1:2:20%)
FTIR spectra of NS, Inutec SP1, b-CD, their PM and their ternary ICSD,and SD at 1 : 2 molar ratio prepared by solvent (S) and kneading (K)methods. b-CD, b cyclodextrin; FTIR, Fourier transform infraredspectroscopy; ICSD, inclusion complex in solid dispersion;NS, nimesulide; PM, physical mixture; SD, solid dispersions.
Figure 5
Temperature °C
NS
β-CD
PM (1:2:20%)
ICSD/S (1:2:20%)
ICSD/K (1:2:20%)
SD/S (1:2:20%)
SD/K (1:2:20%)
Inutec
Hea
t Fl
ow (
mW
)
DSC thermograms of NS, Inutec SP1, b-CD, their PM, and their ternaryICSD and SD at a 1 : 2 molar ratio prepared by solvent (S) and kneading(K) methods at a heating rate of 101C/min. b-CD, b cyclodextrin; DSC,differential scanning calorimetry; ICSD, inclusion complex in soliddispersion; NS, nimesulide; PM, physical mixture; SD, solid dispersions.
Ternary solid dispersions of nimesulide Khalil et al. 51
of the components on a molecular level. This is in
agreement with the present study that is NS interacts
with the b-CD by means of partial inclusion. Further
decrease in crystallinity in ternary systems compared with
binary IC may be attributed to Inutec, which promoted
the formation of microcrystals in the ternary systems.
Consequently, the addition of this polymeric surfactant
increased the saturation solubility and this could lead to
better dissolution rates of the ternary dispersions vis-a-vis
the binary systems. The XRPD findings are in full
agreement with the DSC results (Fig. 5).
Solubility study
The aqueous solubility in distilled water of pure NS and
the ternary ICSDs and SDs is shown in Fig. 7. The
solubilities obtained for the PMs and the binary ICs are
also shown for comparison. The solubility obtained for
pure drug was 14.3 mg/ml. In the PM, the solubility
increased as a result of the IC formed in the solution. The
addition of Inutec led to a slight increase in solubility
(compare ternary PMs with binary PMs in Fig. 7). This is
in agreement with the results from the phase solubility
study.
In the dispersions, the solubility increased compared with
the PMs, indicating further interaction between NS and
the carriers in the solid state at all drug to b-CD molar
ratios. It can be noted that the addition of Inutec to the
preformed IC of NS and b-CD did not induce a change in
saturation solubility in any significant way (compare ICs
with ICSDs). However, direct dispersion of the compo-
nents enhanced the solubility significantly (Po0.05). Of
the two methods of dispersion, the use of solvent yielded
better results (compare ternary SD/S with ternary SD/K
in Fig. 7).
In-vitro dissolution study
The dissolution rate (%D) and the DEs at 30, 60, and
180 min of all the systems studied are summarized
in Table 2. Maximum values were obtained after
180 min of dissolution testing. It should be noted that
although the maximum values obtained did not reach
100% after 3 h of dissolution testing, conducting the tests
for a longer period was not considered practical.
The dissolution enhancement in the PM was 2.2-fold
compared with pure drug, which is in agreement with the
improved wettability and complexation of the drug with
b-CD in solution. The difference between the dissolu-
tion rates of the ternary PM and the binary PM was not
statistically significant (P40.05).
The dissolution profiles of all the dispersions showed a
significant improvement (Po0.05) compared with the
PM because of the progressive inclusion in the b-CD and/
or the secondary hydrophilization action of Inutec. It can
be seen from Table 2 that the increase in dissolution
could be related to both the method of preparation and
the presence of Inutec in the systems.
The dissolution profiles of the IC also increased
compared with the PM but to a lesser degree than when
compared with the dispersions. Similar to the saturation
solubility, the dissolution rate is also the highest for
solvent SD.
The improvement in the dissolution rate and the DE of
the PM in comparison with the pure drug can be
attributed to the formation of a soluble 1 : 1 complex of
NS with b-CD as confirmed by the phase solubility
studies and the results of the solubility tests. The
addition of Inutec did not affect the dissolution of the
ternary PM significantly (P40.05), although this would
have been anticipated from the improved wettability
because of the solubilizing action of this polymeric
surfactant. In the dispersion systems, however, the
improved wettability resulting from the addition of
Inutec significantly increased the dissolution of the
ternary dispersions in comparison with the binary
dispersions (Po0.05). This is because by physical
mixing, the polymer is only deposited on the drug,
whereas during the kneading process, there is deeper
entrapment of the drug in the polymer network. Because
of the unique action of Inutec to adsorb onto hydrophobic
substrates with its alkyl chains, more hydrophobic
particles become occupied by Inutec with its hydrophilic
fructose loops in the solution. This leads to an increase in
Figure 6
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
2�
Inte
nsity
NS
β-CD
PM (1:2:20%)
ICSD/S (1:2:20%)
ICSD/K (1:2:20%)
SD/S (1:2:20%)
SD/K (1:2:20%)
Inutec
X-ray powder diffractograms of NS, Inutec SP1, b-CD, their PM, andtheir ternary ICSD and SD at a 1 : 2 molar ratio prepared by solvent (S)and kneading (K) methods. b-CD, b cyclodextrin; ICSD, inclusioncomplex in solid dispersion; NS, nimesulide; PM, physical mixture;SD, solid dispersions.
52 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
wettability and consequently to better dissolution proper-
ties of the ternary systems.
Generally, all dispersions showed better solubility and
dissolution rate when compared with the PM. This can be
attributed to the changes in the solid states as shown by
the results of the physical characterization of the SD. In
the kneaded dispersions, the predominant factor is the
reduced crystallinity of the drug because of partial inclusion
in the b-CD or the formation of microcrystals dispersed in
the polymer network or the formation of some amorphous
drug during the processing of the formulations. This was
evidenced by the decrease in the melting endotherm on
the DSC curves and by the reduced relative intensity of
the characteristic peaks on the X-ray diffractograms. In
addition to this, the dispersions prepared using the solvent
method showed polymorphism as indicated by the split
endotherm in the DSC curves and by the presence of a
new peak on the X-ray diffractograms. Polymorphism of NS
has been reported in the literature [25, 26] and the
enhanced dissolution of the solvent dispersions found in
the present study could be because of the polymorphic
form with a lower melting point.
On the basis of the data obtained, it can be concluded
that several factors contributed toward the enhanced
dissolution rate and DE of the ternary dispersions of NS,
b-CD, and Inutec, that is increased wettability because of
a second solubilization of the inclusion by the polymeric
surfactant Inutec, decreased crystallinity because of
partial inclusion of NS in b-CD, and increased solubility
because of polymorphism.
The use of Inutec may offer advantages not found with the
more commercial carriers used for the preparation of SD.
Evaluation of the results of an experimental design
Three characteristic points on the dissolution curves
(responses) were used for the evaluation of the effects of
the experimental variables (factors). They are D30, D60,
and DE180, representing the percentage drug dissolved at
30, 60 min and the DE at 180 min, respectively (Table 2).
A 2� 2� 3 experimental design was generated for the
three factors (technique, method, and ratio) at the
selected levels.
The least square model was used in order to predict the
optimal values of the responses within the ranges of the
factors used in the experimental design. The main effects
represent the values of the estimates of the parameters
calculated from the model that was used to fit the data.
The largest effect on the DE180 (7.4) was because of the
ratio. The second highest effect (3.2) was because of the
method of preparation of the ternary system, whereas
the effect of the technique (i.e. SD or ICSD) exerted the
smallest effect, with a value of the estimate of 2.8.
The optimal formulation was predicted to be at the
following levels of the experimental variables: techni-
que = SD; method = solvent; ratio = 1 : 2 : 20%.
This formula was used for further studies (accelerated
stability and in-vivo evaluation of anti-inflammatory
activity).
Accelerated stability study
The physical stability was investigated by comparing the
dissolution profiles as well as the solid-state character-
istics of the freshly prepared samples and of samples aged
1, 2, and 3 months. For this study, the formula optimized
by the factorial design was used, that is the ternary SD
Figure 7
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100N
S
PM (
2:1)
PM (
1:1)
PM (
1:2)
PM (
2:1:
20%
)
PM (
1:1:
20%
)
PM (
1:2:
20%
)
IC/S
(2:
1)
IC/S
(1:
1)
IC/S
(1:
2)
IC/K
(2:
1)
IC/K
(1:
1)
IC/K
(1:
2)
ICSD
/S (
2:1:
20%
)
ICSD
/S (
1:1:
20%
)
ICSD
/S (
1:2:
20%
)
ICSD
/K (
2:1:
20%
)
ICSD
/K (
1:1:
20%
)
ICSD
/K (
1:2:
20%
)
SD/S
(2:
1:20
%)
SD/S
(1:
1:20
%)
SD/S
(1:
2:20
%)
SD/K
(2:
1:20
%)
SD/K
(1:
1:20
%)
SD/K
(1:
2:20
%)
Nimesulide Formulations
Solu
bilit
y of
NS
(µg/
ml)
PM
ICICSD
SD
Solubility (mg/ml) of physical mixtures and dispersions of NS with b-CD and Inutec SP1.
Ternary solid dispersions of nimesulide Khalil et al. 53
obtained using the solvent method, SD/S (1 : 2 : 20%). In
addition, the ternary SD obtained using the kneading
method, SD/K (1 : 2 : 20%), was also investigated.
The dissolution rates of fresh and aged samples using the
solvent method and those using the kneading method are
shown in Fig. 8a and b, respectively. Statistical analysis
showed that under the conditions of the accelerated test,
no significant changes occurred in the dissolution
behavior of the ternary dispersions of NS, b-CD, and
Inutec (P40.05).
The thermal (by DSC) and crystalline (by XRPD)
characteristics of the aged samples after 3 months of
accelerated stability testing did not show any significant
changes compared with those of the fresh samples,
indicating good stability in the solid state.
Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory activity in rats
The presence of edema is one of the prime signs of
inflammation [27]. It has been documented that carragee-
nan-induced rat paw edema is a suitable in-vivo model to
predict the efficacy of anti-inflammatory agents, which act
by inhibiting the mediators of acute inflammation [28]. The
efficiency of NS in the inhibition of the edema volume was
determined using the method described in the experi-
mental part.
The samples used in the study included the optimized
ternary SD obtained using the solvent method [SD/S
(1 : 2 : 20%)] and the commercially available NS tablet
(designated as market tablet) as well as the control. The
anti-inflammatory effect was monitored during 5 h
following carrageenan injection. The results are pre-
sented in Fig. 9.
The results shown in Fig. 9 indicate that there is a
marked increase (Po0.05) in the mean percentage
inhibition of edema volume with the SD when compared
with the commercially available tablet.
With respect to the pharmacodynamic parameters, it can be
seen that the maximum percentage inhibition of edema
volume for all samples occurred 1 h after dosing. Also, it can
be seen in Fig. 9 that the dispersion inhibited the increase
in paw volume during the early phase of inflammation
(1–3 h after carrageenan injection) and also showed a good
inhibitory effect at a later phase (up to 5 h). This is in
agreement with the studies of Garcia-Pastor et al. [29], who
suggested a biphasic model in carrageenan-induced edema.
The first phase begins immediately after injection and
decreases within 1–1.5 h. The second phase remains
through 3 h. The delayed phase is considered to result
from the effect of prostaglandins on mediator release.
ConclusionThe effects of the carriers investigated in this study that
resulted in the enhancement of the dissolution properties
and the anti-inflammatory activity of the water-insoluble
drug NS represent potential incentive toward the
development of a stable formulation that can lead to a
reduction in the dose without the need to modify the
basic molecule of the drug. The addition of a hydrophilic
polymeric surfactant (Inutec) in a small concentration
markedly enhanced the dissolution rate of NS compared
with the binary IC with b-CD.
Table 2 Dissolution rate (%D) and dissolution efficiency of different formulations
%D (min) DE (%) (min)
NS formulation 30 60 180 30 60 180
PM (2 : 1) 22.35 ± 2.1 30.6 ± 1.5 40.6 ± 3.9 12.7 ± 0.1 19.7 ± 0.2 29.9 ± 1.4PM (1 : 1) 27.25 ± 1.6 35.0 ± 3.4 47.3 ± 2.2 16.3 ± 1.1 23.9 ± 1.6 36.3 ± 0.3PM (1 : 2) 33.78 ± 2.5 42.1 ± 2.6 54.6 ± 1.9 19.0 ± 1.9 27.0 ± 2.4 40.1 ± 3.3PM (2 : 1 : 20%) 23.74 ± 2.2 31.7 ± 1.5 41.5 ± 4.0 13.7 ± 0.2 20.3 ± 0.2 30.9 ± 1.5PM (1 : 1 : 20%) 28.62 ± 1.7 35.6 ± 3.4 49.6 ± 2.3 17.1 ± 1.1 24.9 ± 1.7 37.5 ± 0.3PM (1 : 2 : 20%) 36.51 ± 2.7 43.9 ± 2.8 55.2 ± 1.9 21.7 ± 0.5 31.3 ± 1.5 44.6 ± 1.8IC/S (2 : 1) 43.62 ± 2.2 62.4 ± 2.3 77.2 ± 1.0 25.4 ± 1.0 40.2 ± 1.2 61.3 ± 0.9IC/S (1 : 1) 51.66 ± 2.8 68.9 ± 2.6 80.8 ± 1.8 28.0 ± 2.4 45.3 ± 2.2 65.5 ± 2.2IC/S (1 : 2) 64.71 ± 3.8 78.3 ± 2.5 84.9 ± 2.5 36.4 ± 2.1 54.5 ± 2.5 73.0 ± 2.8IC/K (2 : 1) 39.90 ± 3.6 54.9 ± 3.5 75.1 ± 4.2 20.5 ± 2.3 34.5 ± 2.3 56.5 ± 2.9IC/K (1 : 1) 44.77 ± 3.4 61.1 ± 2.9 78.3 ± 4.2 24.7 ± 2.4 39.8 ± 3.1 60.9 ± 3.5IC/K (1 : 2) 50.71 ± 2.5 72.4 ± 3.0 83.6 ± 2.9 26.2 ± 2.4 45.6 ± 2.7 66.8 ± 2.4ICSD/S (2 : 1 : 20%) 47.81 ± 4.5 66.0 ± 3.4 80.0 ± 3.7 26.0 ± 1.7 41.7 ± 1.0 62.5 ± 0.6ICSD/S (1 : 1 : 20%) 48.94 ± 2.6 65.6 ± 4.3 81.9 ± 3.1 23.0 ± 2.2 41.3 ± 2.1 64.9 ± 2.5ICSD/S (1 : 2 : 20%) 59.18 ± 2.1 79.4 ± 3.2 88.9 ± 2.1 32.5 ± 1.6 51.8 ± 2.1 73.8 ± 2.1ICSD/K (2 : 1 : 20%) 47.05 ± 3.3 58.6 ± 4.8 70.5 ± 3.2 26.0 ± 2.4 39.5 ± 2.3 57.4 ± 1.6ICSD/K (1 : 1 : 20%) 47.68 ± 3.3 65.8 ± 3.3 81.7 ± 3.8 25.0 ± 2.6 41.2 ± 2.9 63.1 ± 0.7ICSD/K (1 : 2 : 20%) 53.88 ± 3.3 75.2 ± 3.5 85.2 ± 3.3 31.7 ± 2.3 48.3 ± 2.6 69.6 ± 2.5SD/S (2 : 1 : 20%) 56.08 ± 2.9 69.4 ± 2.9 82.3 ± 3.6 35.9 ± 2.0 50.4 ± 0.8 67.5 ± 1.7SD/S (1 : 1 : 20%) 65.51 ± 3.8 77.6 ± 2.3 86.5 ± 3.3 40.7 ± 2.5 56.7 ± 2.5 73.6 ± 2.7SD/S (1 : 2 : 20%) 75.68 ± 3.2 86.7 ± 4.3 98.6 ± 2.8 48.5 ± 1.9 65.1 ± 2.8 84.5 ± 3.1SD/K (2 : 1 : 20%) 46.34 ± 2.7 59.9 ± 2.3 73.8 ± 2.3 25.3 ± 2.2 39.3 ± 2.7 59.0 ± 2.7SD/K (1 : 1 : 20%) 49.39 ± 4.4 69.3 ± 2.9 83.7 ± 1.2 28.7 ± 2.4 44.6 ± 2.4 66.5 ± 1.9SD/K (1 : 2 : 20%) 61.68 ± 2.3 77.5 ± 3.7 89.1 ± 3.9 33.2 ± 2.4 52.1 ± 1.6 74. 0 ± 2.5
DE, dissolution efficiency; IC/K, inclusion complex prepared using the kneading method; IC/S, inclusion complex prepared using the solvent method;ICSD/K, inclusion complex in solid dispersion prepared using the kneading method; ICSD/S, inclusion complex in solid dispersion prepared usingthe solvent method; NS, nimesulide; PM, physical mixture; SD/K, solid dispersion prepared using the kneading method; SD/S, solid dispersionprepared using the solvent method.
54 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
The polymeric surface-active agent Inutec, which was
shown to improve the anti-inflammatory activity of NS
but that has not as yet been fully investigated or reported
in the literature, might have huge potential as a carrier for
other water-insoluble drugs.
AcknowledgementsConflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest.
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Figure 9
0
10
20
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80
20 1 3 4 5 6
MTSD/S (1:2:20%)
Time (h)
Inhi
bitio
n of
oed
ema
(%)
Mean percentage inhibition of edema volume after administration of theselected NS formulations in Carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats:K, market tablet; ’, solid dispersion prepared using the solventmethod [SD/S (1 : 2 : 20%)]. NS, nimesulide.
Figure 8
0
10
20
30
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50
60
70
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90
100(a)
(b)
0 50 100 150 200
0
10
20
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0 50 100 150 200
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% D
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Dissolution profiles of fresh and aged solid dispersions prepared usingthe solvent method [(a) SD/S (1 : 2 : 20%)] and the kneading method[(b) SD/K (1 : 2 : 20%)]:m, fresh sample; ’, after 1 month; ~, after 2months; K, after 3 months. Data represent mean ± SD (n = 3).
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29 Garcia-Pastor P, Randazzo A, Gomez-Paloma L, Alcaraz MJ, Paya M. Effectsof petrosaspongiolide M, a novel phospholipase A2 inhibitor, on acute andchronic inflammation. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1999; 289:166–172.
56 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
DNA fingerprinting and profile of phenolics in root and root calli
of Arctium lappa L. grown in EgyptElsayed A. Aboutabla, Mona El-Tantawyb, Nadia Sokkara and Manal M. Shamsb
aDepartment of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy,Cairo University and bDepartment of Pharmacognosy,National Organization for Drug Control and Research(NODCAR), Cairo, Egypt
Correspondence to Elsayed A. Aboutabl, Departmentof Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, CairoUniversity, Kasr-el-Aini Str., 11562 Cairo, EgyptTel: + 20 100 242 8817; fax: + 20 223 628 426;e-mail: eaboutabl@ yahoo.com
Received 17 December 2012Accepted 19 February 2013
Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
2013,12:57–62
Aim
The aim of this study was the establishment of an efficient and promising protocol for
callus production from Arctium lappa L. roots (family Asteraceae) and comparison of
the metabolic profile of their phenolic and flavonoid content. DNA fingerprinting of
A. lappa L. was carried out using the molecular generic marker technique (random
amplification of polymorphic DNA-PCR), which was newly introduced in Egypt, for
identification and authentication of the plant.
Methods
The effect of different concentrations of benzyladenine and naphthalene acetic acid
added to MS media on initiation of root callus production and mass of callus produced
was investigated. The presence or absence of various secondary metabolites of the
root and calli was also determined using colorimetric methods and high performance
liquid chromatography.
Results and conclusion
The growth parameters of the callus were determined. Each callus differs from the root
in the profile of phenolic and flavonoid content. The calli have a higher phenolic content
than the root and differ in the flavonoid profile.
Keywords:
Arctium lappa L, DNA fingerprinting, flavonoids, phenolics, root callus
Egypt Pharm J 12:57–62& 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre1687-4315
IntroductionArctium lappa L. or burdock (Asteraceae) is native to
Europe and north Asia. Traditionally, it has been used as a
safe and edible food product [1,2] and for the treatment
different ailments [3–5]. Phytochemical investigation of
different organs of the plant revealed the presence of
fixed oil, phenolic acids, flavonoids, lignans [2,6], resin,
mucilage, essential oil [7], polyacetylenes [7], and
caffeoylquinic acid derivatives [8]. In a previous study [9],
bioactive lignans and phenolics and the biological
activities of extracts from different organs of A. lappa L.
cultivated in Egypt were studied. PCR sequencing was
carried out for six A. lappa L. breeds from southern
Taiwan using two primers, ITS1-5.8S and rRNA-ITS2,
which revealed that they all had an amplified fragment
that was 358 bp in length [10]. Automatic sequence
analysis showed that the DNA sequences for different
breeds of Arctium can differ [10]. Hypocotyls and cotyls of
the plant were induced to produce callus for high
frequency plant regeneration [11]. In the current
literature, few studies on tissue culture and DNA
fingerprinting of the plant were found, but no reports
dealing with the phenolic profile of the callus were found.
Accordingly, the aim of the present work was to carry out
PCR sequencing for the identification and authentication
of A. lappa L., a plant grown in Egypt, and to study the
root callus metabolites, as the accumulation of secondary
products in plant cell cultures depends on the composi-
tion of the culture medium.
Subjects and methodsPlant material
Authentic seeds of A. lappa L. were kindly provided to
Prof. Dr E.A. Aboutabl by the Botanic Garden, Bonn,
Germany and were cultivated in the Experimental
Station of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Faculty of
Pharmacy, Cairo University. For tissue culture, seeds were
collected from the cultivated plant during the fruiting
stage.
Plant material for DNA fingerprinting
Freeze-dried leaves of A. lappa (10 g) were powdered in
liquid nitrogen, and genomic DNA was extracted by a
modification of the cetyltrimethylammonium bromide
method [12].
Reference standards
Rutin, daidzein, genistein, isorhamnetin, luteolin, bio-
chanin A, hyperoside, gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic
acid, ferulic acid, and coumarin were obtained from the
Department of National Organization of Drug Control
and Research Standards.
Primers were obtained from Operon Technologies Inc.
(Almeda, California, USA).
Methods
DNA amplification was carried out using the random
amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD) technique
Original article 57
1687-4315 & 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre
DOI: 10.7123/01.EPJ.0000428269.66909.9a
with 15 primers (the sequences are shown in Table 1).
The GeneAmp PCR system 9700 (Perkin Elmer,
Cambridge, UK) and a gel documentation system
(Bio-Rad Gel Doc-2000, Bio-Rad Laboratories, GmbH,
Munich, Germany) were used for photographing of PCR
products.
PCR reactions[13,14] were carried out in a total volume
of 25 ml with 10 ng/ml of genomic DNA as a template, 3 ml
of random primer, 2.5 ml of 2 mmol/l dNTP mix (Abgene,
Surrey, UK), 2.5 ml of 10� PCR buffer, 2 ml of 25 mmol/l
MgCl2, and 0.3–5 U/ml of Taq DNA polymerase. An
aliquot of 22 ml of master mix solution was dispensed in
each PCR tube (0.2 ml Eppendorf tube) containing 3 ml
of the appropriate template DNA. The reaction involved
initial denaturation by heating for 4 min at 941C.
Complete denaturation of DNA indicated efficient
utilization of the template in the first amplification cycle
and a good yield of the PCR product. The reaction
mixture was then subjected to 40 cycles of the following
program: a denaturation step at 941C for 45 s, an
annealing step at 361C for 1 min, and an elongation or
extension step at 721C for 2 min. After the last cycle, the
mixture was subjected to a final extension step for 7 min
at 721C, followed by soaking at 41C until removal of the
reaction mixture from the PCR machine. The amplifica-
tion products were resolved by electrophoresis on a 1.4%
agarose gel containing ethidium bromide (0.5 mg/ml) in
1� tris-borate-EDTA buffer. A total of 15 ml of each PCR
product was mixed with 3 ml of loading buffer (tracking
dye) and loaded into the wells of the gel. The gel
was run at 85 V for about 3 h or until the tracking dye
reached the gel. An ultraviolet (UV) Polaroid camera
was used for visualization of RAPD. Polaroid camera was
used for 6 visualization of RAPD; markers being scored
as DNA fragments present in some lanes and absent
in others.
Tissue culture
The seeds were washed thoroughly with running tap
water for about 15 min and surface-sterilized by immer-
sion in 10% commercial Savlon solution (10th of
Ramadan, Sharkiah, Egypt) (an antiseptic solution
containing 0.3% w/v chlorhexidine gluconate and 3% w/v
cetrimide) for about 5 min with shaking. The seeds were
then washed three times with sterile distilled water and
immersed in 30% commercial Clorox solution (10th of
Ramadan) (a disinfectant containing 1.5% sodium hypo-
chlorite) with 1–2 drops of wetting agent (Tween 80)
while shaking on a shaker for 10 min. Thereafter, the
seeds were washed three times with sterile distilled
water. They were then cultured in a jar containing sterile
solid MS control media without a plant growth regulator
and incubated at 22–281C with a photoperiod of 16 h/day
(200–2500 lx). After 6–8 weeks, the plantlets grown were
used to obtain the explants used for callus cultures. The
6–8-week-old seedlings grown in vitro on sterile MS
medium (Fig. 1) were used as a sources of explants [15].
Dissection of uniformly-sized explants (about 0.5 cm in
length) from different organs – that is, shoot tips, leaves,
roots, and stems – was performed under aseptic condi-
tions using a sterile scalpel and forceps [16]. The
different explants were cultured in jars containing sterile
medium supplemented with different concentrations of
various plant growth regulators such as benzyladenine
(BA), kinetin, naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), indolebu-
tyric acid, 2,4-dichlorophenoxy acetic acid, and indole
acetic acid. For each condition, 30 jars were prepared,
each jar containing five explants. The cultures were
incubated at 211C ( ± 21C) with a photoperiod of
16 h/day (1500–2000 lx) for a period of 6 weeks.
Determination of total phenolics
Air-dried plant root calli 1 and 2 (1 g each) were defatted
with petroleum ether and extracted with 70% methanol
by sonication at room temperature. Stock solution
(concentration: 1 mg/ml) was prepared from the concen-
trated residue by dissolving in distilled water. The
phenolic compound in the root was found to be gallic
acid on Folin–Ciocalteau colorimetry [17] using a
Shimadzu 1601 spectrophotometer at 730 nm, and the
total phenolic content of the root was compared with that
Table 1 Sequence of 15 primers assayed using the RAPD-PCR
technique
Primer Sequences (50–30)
A-01 50-CAGGCCCTTC-30
A-11 50-CAATCGCCGT-30
B-06 50-TGCTCTGCCC-30
B-08 50-GTCCACACGG-30
B-15 50-GGAGGGTGTT-30
B-18 50-CCACAGCAGT-30
P-01 50-GTAGCACTCC-30
O-02 50-ACGTAGCGTC-30
O-09 50-TCCCACGCAA-30
E-08 50-TCACCACGGT-30
E-05 50-TCACCACGGT-30
E-11 50-GAGTCTCAGG-30
G-06 50-GTGCCTAACC-30
Z-13 50-GACTAAGCCC-30
G-17 5’- ACGACCGACA-3’
RAPD, random amplification of polymorphic DNA.
Figure 1
The random amplification of polymorphic DNA electrophoretic profileof Arctium lappa L., cultivated in Egypt, generated by 15 primers(M: 100 bp plus fermentas).
58 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
of the calli. Determination of total the phenolic content
of the cultivated roots, leaves, and seeds was carried out
in our previous work [9].
Colorimetric determination of total flavonoid content
Powdered, air-dried (2 g) plant root calli 1 and 2 were
defatted with petroleum ether, extracted with 70%
methanol till exhaustion, and evaporated to dryness.
The combined methanolic extract was adjusted to 50 ml.
A 5 ml aliquot of each extract was treated with a 5 ml
aliquot of 0.1 mol/l AlCl3 reagent [18]. The absorbance of
the color developed was measured at lmax 422 nm against
a blank, and the corresponding amount of rutin was
recorded.
HPLC determination of isoflavones
Dried root (1 g) and root calli (1 and 2, 0.25 g) were
separately defatted, filtered, and extracted with 50%
ethanol. The ethanol was evaporated under vacuum at
351C, and the phenolics in the remaining aqueous
solution were extracted with ethyl acetate (1 : 1). The
phenolic fractions were stored in the dark at 41C until
analysis by high performance liquid chromatography
(HPLC). An Aglient 1100 system (Agilent Technologies
Deutschland GmbH, Germany) equipped with a column
compartment, quaternary pump, degasser, auto sampler,
and UV detector was used for HPLC analysis. Elution was
performed at a flow rate of 1 ml/min with a mobile phase
of water/acetic acid (98 : 2 v/v, solvent A) and methanol/
acetonitrile (50 : 50 v/v, solvent B), starting with 5% B and
increasing the level of B to 30% at 25 min, 40% at 35 min,
52% at 40 min, 70% at 50 min, and 100% at 55 min; the
UV detector was set at 254 nm [19]. Retention times
were compared with those of certain standard isoflavones.
Before injection into the HPLC system, each sample was
filtered through a 0.4 mm membrane filter into the sample
vial for injection.
HPLC determination of phenolics
Extraction and HPLC analysis of phenolics were carried
out under the same conditions as those for isoflavones,
but measurements were made with a detector set at
330 nm. Retention times were compared with those of
available phenolic standards.
ResultsTotal genomic DNA profiling of A. lappa L., grown
in Egypt, was performed using 15 random primers.
The number of banding patterns generated by each
primer was recorded to obtain the DNA profile of A. lappaunder investigation, in order to compare it with
previously reported phenotypic characters as well as for
chemical investigations. Molecular size, in base pairs, of
amplified DNA fragments produced by 15 decamer
primers in A. lappa L. is listed in Table 1, and their
reproducible RAPD profiles generated are shown
in Fig. 1. The total number of bands generated by the
15 primers was 93, the smallest size of amplified product
being 245 bp, whereas the largest size of the amplified
product being 3030 bp. Primer P1 produced nine bands,
with 245 bp being the smallest size and 3030 bp being the
largest size; primer A1 was the least reproducible and
generated three bands with molecular sizes 1739, 724,
and 276 bp.
Callus production
Figure 2 shows 6–8-week-old seedlings of A. lappa grown
in vitro on sterile MS media; these were used as a source
of explants for callus production. Trials using different
explants (shoot tips, leaves, stems, and roots) and
different growth regulators were carried out for initiation
of callus. Calli were obtained successfully on MS media
supplemented with plant growth regulators for roots:
MS + 0.5 mg/l BA + 1 mg/l NAA (callus 1) and MS + 0.5
mg/l BA + 0.1 mg/l NAA (callus 2). The different callus
Figure 2
Six- to eight-week-old seedling of Arctium lappa L. grown in vitro in MSmedium.
Table 2 The effect of plant growth regulators on callus growth parameters of Arctium lappa L. root and total phenolic and flavonoid
content of Arctium lappa L. root and two calli
Root calli (greenish brown compact undifferentiated callus)
Characteristics Root Callus 1 Callus 2
Callus fresh weight (g) – 5.01 + 0.3 4.22 + 0.2Callus dry weight (g) – 0.48 + 0.05 0.36 + 0.03Total phenolic content (%; calculated as gallic acid content in dried material) 5.33 6.53 7.98Total flavonoid content (%; calculated as rutin content in dried material) 0.05 0.003 0.002
Phenolics of Arctium lappa root and calli Aboutabl et al. 59
growth parameters are listed in Table 2, and callus types
are presented in Fig. 3a and b.
Determination of total phenolic content of the root calli
compared with that of the root
Colorimetric determination showed that there was a
variation in the phenolic content of the root compared
with that of the calli (Table 2). Callus 2 showed a higher
phenolic content than callus 1 and the root because of the
effect of plant growth regulators (BA and NAA) on the
biosynthesis of polyphenols [15].
Determination of the flavonoid compounds of the root
calli compared with those of the A. lappa L. root
The flavonoid content in each of the two calli was less
than that in the root (Table 2).
HPLC determination of isoflavones in the root callus
compared with those in the main plant parts
The concentration of isoflavones (in mg/g; Table 3)
indicates that the root contains only genistein and differs
in metabolic profile compared with root callus 1 (MS +
0.5 mg/l BA + 1 mg/l NAA), which contains isorhamnetin
and biochanin A, and root callus 2 (MS + 0.5 mg/l
BA + 0.1 mg/l NAA), which contains daidzein and genis-
tein. The flavonoid content in callus culture differs
qualitatively and quantitatively from that in the parent
plant [20].
HPLC determination of the phenolic content of the root
callus compared with that of the root
The root differs in its phenolic metabolic profile
compared with the two calli. The phenolic compounds
present in the root were identified as gallic acid, ferulic
acid, chlorogenic acid, hyperoside, rutin, coumarin, and
luteolin. Callus 1 was found to contain gallic acid,
chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, ferulic acid, and coumarin,
whereas callus 2 was found to contain gallic acid,
chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, coumarin, and luteolin.
The corresponding concentrations are listed in Table 3
(in mg/g; Table 4).
Figure 3
(a) Callus 1 (�0.76; MS + 0.5 mg/l BA + 1 mg/l NAA). (b) Callus 2 (�1; MS + 0.5 mg/l BA + 0.1 mg/l NAA).
Table 3 Phenolics identified by high performance liquid
chromatography in Arctium lappa L. root and calli
Concentration (mg/g)
Compounds Rt (min) Root Callus 1 Callus 2
Gallic acid 2.51 0.49 0.36 0.78Daidzein 3.03 – – 0.054Genistein 3.57 0.005 – 0.014Isorhamnetin 4.29 – 0.080 –Chlorogenic acid 5.54 0.62 0.06 0.58Caffeic acid 6.15 – 0.06 0.70Biochanin A 7.17 – 0.018 –Hyperoside 7.95 0.31 – –Rutin 8.11 0.22 – –Ferulic acid 9.17 0.01 0.06 –Coumarin 9.70 0.02 0.22 0.66Luteolin 11.78 0.01 – 0.62
60 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
ConclusionFrom the present study, it was deduced that using BA and
NAA for the induction of root callus production caused an
increase in the phenolic content compared with that
of the main root. Decreasing the amount of NAA in callus
2 (MS + 0.5 mg/l BA + 0.1 mg/l NAA) resulted in a higher
phenolic content than that in callus 1 (MS + 0.5 mg/l
BA + 1 mg/l NAA). In addition, HPLC results for callus 2
show a marked increase in caffeic acid, coumarin, and
luteolin content; however, the flavonoid content in the two
calli decreased, and the metabolic profile of isoflavones
showed great variation. DNA fingerprinting helps in the
authentication and identification of A. lappa L., which is
grown in Egypt. This is the first report on tissue culture
and molecular biological study of this plant. The current
literature, our previous work [9], and also the results of the
present work prove the importance of the plant; hence,
the authors recommended that the study on the effects of
plant growth regulators, precursors, and other factors that
increase the main active constituents of the plant, which
can be used as a source of natural raw material for
phytopharmaceuticals, be continued.
Table 4 Molecular size, in base pairs, of amplified DNA fragments produced by 15 decamer primers in Arctium lappa L.
Molecular sizeof DNA marker (bp) A1 A11 O2 O9 E5 E8 E11 B6 B8 B15 B18 G6 G17 Z13 p1
245 + +268 +276 +310 +359 +370 +440 + +453 +467 +525 + +556 +573 +590 +644 + + +683 + + +703 + + + +724 +745 + + +813 +838 +862 +888 + + +914 +941 +969 + +998 + + + +1028 +1058 + + +1090 + +1122 + + +1155 +1189 + +1225 +1298 + +1337 +1377 +1417 + + + +15031547 + +1593 + + +1640 + + +1989 +1739 +1791 +1844 +1899 + + +2013 +2073 +2134 + +2197 + +2330 +2399 +2776 +2858 + + +3030 +Sum 3 7 5 7 4 9 8 7 5 4 7 6 5 6 9
Phenolics of Arctium lappa root and calli Aboutabl et al. 61
AcknowledgementsConflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest.
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17 Singleton VL, Orthofer R, Lamuela-Raventos RM. Analysis of total phenolsand other oxidation substrates and antioxidants by means of folin-ciocalteureagent. Methods Enzymol 1998; 299:152–178.
18 Karawya MS, Aboutabl EA. Phytoconstituents of Tabernaemontana cor-onaria Jacq. Willd and Tabernaemontana dichotoma Roxb. growing in EgyptPart IV. The flavonoids. Bull Fac Pharm Cairo Univ 1982; 21:41–49.
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62 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
Influence of formulation parameters on the physicochemical
properties of meloxicam-loaded solid lipid nanoparticlesRawia M. Khalila, Ahmed Abd El-Baryb, Mahfoz A. Kassema,Mamdouh M. Ghorabc and Mona Bashaa
aDepartment of Pharmaceutical Technology, NationalResearch Centre, bDepartment of Pharmaceutics,Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Cairo andcDepartment of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmacy,Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
Correspondence to Rawia M. Khalil, Departmentof Pharmaceutical Technology, National ResearchCentre, El-Bohowth St., PO Box 12622, Dokki,12311 Cairo, EgyptTel: + 20 1006935895/ + 1006550825;fax: + 20 233370931;e-mail: [email protected]
Received 26 November 2012Accepted 4 February 2013
Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
2013, 12:63–72
Objective
The aim of this research was to investigate novel particulate carrier systems such as
solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) for topical delivery of a lipophilic drug, meloxicam
(MLX).
Methods
MLX-loaded SLNs were prepared using a modified high-shear homogenization and
ultrasonication technique using different types of lipids and surfactants. Lipid
nanoparticles were characterized in terms of entrapment efficiency, particle size,
Zeta potential, differential scanning calorimetry, transmission electron microscopy,
and in-vitro release studies.
Results
The lipid nanoparticles showed mean diameters of 210–730 nm, whereas the
entrapment efficiency ranged from 50 to 84% depending on emulsifier and lipid
concentration or type. MLX-loaded SLNs showed spherical particles with Zeta
potentials varying from – 15.7 to – 30.5 mV. A differential scanning calorimetry study
revealed that MLX encapsulated in SLNs was in the amorphous form. All nanoparticle
formulations exhibited sustained release characteristics, and the release pattern
followed the Higuchi’s equation. The analysis of results revealed that the type and
concentration of the emulsifier or lipid used had a significant effect on the
physicochemical properties on the investigated SLNs formulations.
Conclusion
The present study indicates that SLNs could potentially be exploited as carrier systems
for MLX, with improved drug loading capacity and controlled drug release.
Keywords:
differential scanning calorimetry, in-vitro release study, meloxicam, solid lipid
nanoparticles, topical delivery
Egypt Pharm J 12:63–72& 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre1687-4315
IntroductionIn recent years, significant effort has been devoted to
develop nanotechnology for drug delivery. Solid lipid
nanoparticles (SLNs) are aqueous colloidal dispersions,
the matrix of which comprises solid biodegradable lipids.
SLNs combine the advantages and avoid the drawbacks
of several colloidal carriers of their class such as physical
stability, protection of incorporated labile drugs from
degradation, controlled release, and excellent tolerabil-
ity [1]. SLNs offer a suitable means of delivering drugs
for various application routes; they attract great attention
as novel colloidal drug carriers for topical use [2]. The
advantages of these carriers include negligible skin
irritation, controlled release, and protection of active
substances [3]. Because they are composed of nonirrita-
tive and nontoxic lipids, SLNs seem to be well suited for
use on inflamed and damaged skin. Moreover, SLNs have
distinct occlusive properties because of the formation of
an intact film on the skin surface upon drying, which
decreases transepidermal water loss and favors drug
penetration through the stratum corneum [4]. Besides
having a highly specific surface area, nanometer-sized
SLNs also facilitate the contact of the encapsulated drug
with the stratum corneum [4]. The nanometer-sized
particles can make close contact with superficial junctions
of corneocyte clusters and furrows between corneocyte
islands, which may favor accumulation for several hours,
allowing for sustained drug release [5]. Other advantages
of SLNs include a high drug payload and incorporation of
lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs [2]. SLNs have been
used to improve skin/dermal uptake of several drugs [6,7],
which supports the idea that SLNs can be used as carriers
for topical delivery of meloxicam (MLX).
MLX is a potent, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
water-insoluble drug [8,9]. It inhibits cyclooxygenase
(COX). MLX is more selective for the COX-2 isoform
of prostaglandin synthetase compared with the COX-1
form. Therefore, MLX has been labeled a ‘preferential’
inhibitor instead of a ‘selective’ inhibitor of COX-2
[10].
Original article 63
1687-4315 & 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre
DOI: 10.7123/01.EPJ.0000428643.74323.d9
The intention of this study was to prepare and evaluate
MLX-loaded SLNs and to optimize the formulation
parameters in order to fabricate SLN dispersions of
desired characteristics for topical delivery of MLX, aiming
to improve skin uptake and reduce systemic absorption
and dermal irritation.
Materials and methodsMaterials
MLX was supplied by Medical Union Pharmaceuticals
(Ismailia, Egypt). Geleol (glyceryl monostearate 40–55;
40–55% monoglycerides, 30–45% diglycerides, melting point
(m.p.) 54.5–58.51C), Compritol 888 ATO (glyceryl behe-
nate; 15–23% monoglycerides, 40–60% diglycerides, 21–35%
triglycerides, m.p. 69.0–74.01C), and Precirol ATO5 (glycer-
yl palmitostearate; 8–22% monoglycerides, 40–60% digly-
cerides, 25–35% triglycerides, m.p. 50–601C) were kindly
donated by Gattefosse (Saint-Priest, France). Tween 80
(polysorbate 80), methanol Chromasolv, and dialysis tubing
cellulose membrane (molecular weight cutoff 12 000 g/mole)
were purchased from Sigma Chemical Company (St. Louis,
Missouri, USA). Cremophor RH40 (polyoxyl 40 hydrogenated
castor oil) was kindly donated by BASF (Ludwigshafen,
Germany). All other chemicals and reagents used were of
analytical grade.
Methods
Preparation of solid lipid nanoparticles
SLNs were prepared by a slight modification of the
previously reported high-shear homogenization and ultra-
sonication technique [11,12]. Briefly, the lipid phase
consisted of Geleol, Compritol, or Precirol as the solid
lipid was melted 51C above the melting point of the lipid
used. MLX (0.5%w/w) was dissolved therein to obtain a
drug–lipid mixture. An aqueous phase was prepared by
dissolving the surfactant in distilled water and heated up
to the same temperature of the molten lipid phase.
The hot lipid phase was poured onto the hot aqueous
phase and homogenization was carried out at 25 000 rpm
for 5 min using a Heidolph homogenizer (Heidolph
Instruments, Schwabach, Germany). The resultant hot
oil-in-water emulsion was sonicated for 30 min (Digital
Sonicator; MTI, Michigan, USA). MLX-loaded SLNs
were finally obtained by allowing the hot nanoemulsion to
cool to room temperature. Blank SLNs were prepared
using the same procedure variables.
Meloxicam entrapment efficiency
The entrapment efficiency percentage (EE%), which
corresponds to the percentage of MLX encapsulated
within the nanoparticles, was determined by measuring
the concentration of free MLX in the dispersion medium.
The unentrapped MLX percentage was determined by
adding 500ml of MLX-loaded nanoparticles to 9.5 ml of
methanol and centrifuging this dispersion at 9000 rpm
(Union 32R; Hanil Science Industrial, Gangwondo, Korea)
for 30 min. The supernatant was filtered through a
Millipore (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, USA) membrane filter
(0.2mm) and analyzed for unencapsulated MLX at 360 nm
using a validated UV-spectrophotometric method (model
2401/PC; Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) after suitable dilution.
The EE% was calculated using the following equation [13]:
EE %¼Winitial drug�Wfree durg
Winitial drug
�100;
where Winitial drug is the initial mass of the drug used and
Wfree drug is the mass of the free drug detected in the
supernatant after centrifugation of the aqueous dispersion.
Particle size analysis
Particle size analysis of MLX-loaded nanoparticles was
performed using a laser diffraction (LD) particle size anal-
yzer (Master Sizer X; Malvern Instruments, Worcestershire,
UK) at 251C. The LD data obtained were evaluated using
volume distribution as diameter values of 10, 50, and 90%
and span values. The diameter values indicate the
percentage of particles possessing a diameter equal to
or lower than the given value. The span value is a
statistical parameter used to evaluate the particle size
distribution: lower the span value, narrower is the particle
size distribution. It is calculated using the following
equation [14]:
Span¼LD90 %�LD10 %
LD50 %
:
Zeta Potential and pH measurement
The z potential was measured in folded capillary cells
using a Laser Zetameter (Malvern Instruments). Measure-
ments were performed in distilled water adjusted with a
solution of 0.1 mmol/l NaCl at 251C. The z potential
values were calculated using the Smoluchowski equation.
The pH values of MLX lipid nanoparticles were
measured at 251C using a digital pH meter (Jenway,
Staffordshire, UK).
Transmission electron microscopy
Morphological examination of MLX-loaded SLNs was per-
formed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM)
(model JEM-1230; Jeol, Tokyo, Japan). One drop of the
diluted sample was deposited onto the surface of a carbon-
coated copper grid and negatively stained with a drop of
2% (w/w) aqueous solution of phosphotungstic acid for
30 s. Excess staining solution was wiped off with filter
paper, leaving a thin aqueous film on the surface. After
staining, the samples were allowed to dry at room
temperature for 10 min for analysis [15].
Differential scanning calorimetry
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis was
carried out using a Shimadzu Differential Scanning
Calorimeter (DSC-50; Shimadzu). About 10 mg of sample
was added into a 40 ml aluminum pan, which was sealed
and heated in the range of 30–3001C at a heating rate of
101C/min. An empty aluminum pan was used as a
reference standard. The analysis was carried out under
nitrogen purge.
64 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
Rheological study
The rheological properties of the prepared lipid nano-
particles were determined using Brookfield’s Viscometer
(Brookfield LV-DV II + ; Brookfield, Massachusetts,
USA). The sample (20 g) was placed in a beaker and
allowed to equilibrate for 5 min. The measurements were
carried out at ambient temperature using the suitable
spindle. The spindle speed rate was increased in
ascending order from 1 to 100 rpm and then decreased
in descending order from 100 to 1 rpm, with each kept
constant for 10 s before a measurement was made.
In-vitro release study
The in-vitro release of MLX was evaluated using the
dialysis bag diffusion technique described by Yang
et al. [16]. The release studies of MLX from SLNs were
performed in phosphate buffer (pH 5.5) and methanol
(75 : 25). Aqueous nanoparticulate dispersion equivalent
to 2 mg of MLX was placed in a cellulose acetate dialysis
bag and sealed at both ends. The dialysis bag was
immersed in the receptor compartment containing 50 ml
of dissolution medium, which was stirred in a water bath
shaker at 100 rpm (Memmert GmbH, Schwabach,
Germany) and maintained at 32 ± 21C. The receptor
compartment was covered to prevent evaporation of the
dissolution medium. A 2 ml sample of the receiver
medium was withdrawn at predetermined time intervals
(0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 24, and 48 h) and replaced by an
equivalent volume of fresh medium to maintain constant
volume. The samples were analyzed for drug content
spectrophotometrically at 360.5 nm. The data were
analyzed using linear regression equations, and the order
of drug release from the different formulations was
determined.
Statistical analysis
All experiments were repeated three times, and data were
expressed as mean value ± SD. The statistical analysis
was carried out using one-way analysis of variance.
A P value of less than 0.05 was considered statistically
significant.
Results and discussionPreparation of solid lipid nanoparticles
In the present study, MLX-loaded SLNs dispersions were
composed of Geleol, Compritol 888 ATO, or Precirol
ATO5 as core matrices used in different concentrations of
5, 7.5, and 10% (w/w). These lipid-based carrier systems
were stabilized using 0.5, 1, 2.5, and 5% (w/w) Tween 80
or Cremophor RH40. MLX was incorporated at a constant
concentration of 0.5% (w/w). The w/w percentage
composition of the investigated MLX SLNs is shown
in Tables 1 and 2.
Meloxicam entrapment efficiency
The entrapment efficiencies of all SLN formulations are
presented in Tables 1 and 2. The entrapment efficiencies
varied from 50.42 ± 2.07 to 84.38 ± 0.65%. It can be
observed that increasing the amount of surfactant from
0.5 to 1 to 2.5 to 5% (w/w) at a constant amount of lipid
(5% w/w) resulted in a gradual significant decrease
(Po0.05) in the entrapment efficiencies. However, no
change in EE% was observed (Table 1) for Compritol
(SLN7 and SLN8) and Precirol SLNs (SLN13 and
SLN14) on increasing the Tween 80 concentration from
0.5 to 1%. Moreover, for Geleol SLNs (SLN3 and SLN4),
no significant decrease in EE% was observed on increas-
ing the Tween 80 concentration above 2.5% (w/w)
(P40.05). Table 2 shows that using Cremophor RH40
resulted in the same gradual decrease in EE% (Po0.05);
however, in case of Geleol SLNs (SLN21 and SLN22)
and Precirol SLNs (SLN33 and SLN34), a further
increase in the Cremophor RH40 concentration from
2.5 to 5% did not result in significant changes in EE%
(P40.05). This observed decrease in EE% could be
Table 1 Composition and entrapment efficiency of meloxicam solid lipid nanoparticles (%w/w) of different lipids using Tween 80
Lipid
Formulas Type Concentration Tween 80 (%) Entrapment efficiency %a
SLN1 Geleol 5 0.5 59.78 ± 1.04SLN2 1 56.63 ± 0.88SLN3 2.5 51.03 ± 0.96SLN4 5 50.42 ± 2.07SLN5 7.5 0.5 62.30 ± 0.23SLN6 10 67.49 ± 1.27SLN7 Compritol 5 0.5 62.47 ± 0.25SLN8 1 62.22 ± 1.03SLN9 2.5 57.31 ± 1.92SLN10 5 54.79 ± 0.21SLN11 7.5 0.5 65.76 ± 1.77SLN12 10 72.63 ± 1.66SLN13 Precirol 5 0.5 65.68 ± 0.09SLN14 1 65.53 ± 0.40SLN15 2.5 62.00 ± 0.39SLN16 5 58.51 ± 0.71SLN17 7.5 0.5 70.02 ± 0.89SLN18 10 75.99 ± 3.36
SLN, solid lipid nanoparticle.aValues represent mean ± SD.
Meloxicam loaded solid lipid nanoparticles Khalil et al. 65
explained by the partition phenomenon. High surfactant
levels in the external phase might increase the partition
of the drug from the internal to the external phase of the
medium. This increased partition is due to the increased
solubilization of the drug in the external aqueous phase
such that more volumes of the drug can disperse and
dissolve in it [17]. However, some cases in which further
increase of surfactant concentration did not lead to a
significant change in EE% could suggest that an optimum
concentration of the surfactant was reached, sufficient to
cover the surface of the nanoparticles effectively. The
data also clearly showed that the formulations prepared
using Cremophor RH40 as a surfactant had higher EE%
compared with those prepared using Tween 80. Similar
results were reported by Lv et al. [18] for penciclovir-
loaded SLNs.
The structure of the lipid used has a great influence on
the capacity for drug incorporation. Therefore, the effect
of lipid type and concentration on the entrapment
efficiency of MLX SLNs was also investigated (Tables 1
and 2). Geleol SLNs exhibited the lowest entrapment of
MLX when compared with Compritol and Precirol. This
can be attributed to the difference in composition and
chain length of the three lipids used. The higher drug
entrapment efficiency observed with Precirol and Com-
pritol was attributed to the high hydrophobicity due to
the long chain fatty acids attached to the triglycerides,
resulting in increased accommodation of lipophilic
drugs [19].
The results also showed that increasing the lipid
concentration from 5 to 7.5 to 10% (w/w) led to a gradual
increase in the entrapment efficiency, which was
observed for lipids used at constant concentrations of
Tween 80 and Cremophor RH40 (Po0.05). However,
this increase in the entrapment efficiency is not
proportional to the increase in lipid content, which can
be observed for the three lipids. An exception was
observed for SLN31 and SLN35 wherein a significant
increase in EE% occurred only on increasing Precirol
concentrations from 7.5 to 10% (w/w). A possible
explanation for these observations is that the increase
in lipid content can afford more space to encapsulate
more drug, thus reducing drug partition in the outer
phase [18,20]. This may also be due to an increase in the
viscosity of the medium, resulting in faster solidification
of nanoparticles, which would further prevent drug
diffusion to the external phase of the medium [21].
Particle size analysis
The LD 90% of the formulated SLNs is presented
in Table 3. In case of Tween 80 and Cremophor RH40,
the nanoparticulate dispersions showed sizes ranging
from 210 ± 35.36 to 740 ± 14.14 nm and from 235 ± 21.21
to 730 ± 14.14 nm, respectively. The low span values of
different formulations indicate a narrow particle size
distribution. The results clearly showed that there was a
gradual decrease in particle size with an increase in
surfactant concentration from 0.5 to 1 to 2.5 to 5% (w/w)
(Po0.05). This was observed for all formulations except
for SLN1 and SLN2 and for SLN19 and SLN20, in which
an initial increase in surfactant concentration from 0.5 to
1% did not lead to a significant decrease in particle size
(P40.05). However, a further increase in surfactant
concentration above 2.5% for SLN33 and SLN34 did not
result in a significant change in particle size (P40.05).
The decrease in size of nanoparticles at high surfactant
concentrations might be due to an effective reduction in
the interfacial tension between the aqueous and lipid
phases, leading to the formation of emulsion droplets of
smaller sizes [22]. Higher surfactant concentrations
effectively stabilize the particles by forming a steric
barrier on the particle surface and thereby protect smaller
particles and prevent their coalescence into bigger
ones [17]. For the formulations in which further increase
of surfactant concentration above 2.5% did not reduce the
particle size significantly, the data clearly suggest that an
optimum concentration of the surfactant was reached,
Table 2 Composition and entrapment efficiency of meloxicam solid lipid nanoparticles (%w/w) of different lipids using
Cremophor RH40
Lipid
Formulas Type Concentration (%) Cremophor RH40 (%) Entrapment efficiency %a
SLN19 Geleol 5 0.5 63.31 ± 1.11SLN20 1 58.33 ± 1.42SLN21 2.5 52.28 ± 1.89SLN22 5 53.34 ± 1.20SLN23 7.5 0.5 65.89 ± 0.83SLN24 10 69.10 ± 0.42SLN25 Compritol 5 0.5 68.63 ± 0.34SLN26 1 62.16 ± 1.64SLN27 2.5 59.34 ± 0.32SLN28 5 56.64 ± 0.91SLN29 7.5 0.5 70.41 ± 0.58SLN30 10 77.47 ± 0.93SLN31 Precirol 5 0.5 78.77 ± 0.85SLN32 1 73.33 ± 1.31SLN33 2.5 67.71 ± 2.76SLN34 5 66.79 ± 0.92SLN35 7.5 0.5 79.51 ± 0.24SLN36 10 84.38 ± 0.65
SLN, solid lipid nanoparticle.aValues represent mean ± SD.
66 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
sufficient to cover the surface of nanoparticles effectively
and prevent agglomeration during the homogenization
process [23].
The results also showed that increasing the lipid content
from 5 to 7.5 to 10% (w/w) led to a subsequent increase
in particle size (Table 3). Statistical analysis of the data
showed no significant increase in particle size in case of
SLN19 and SLN23 on increasing the lipid concentration
from 5 to 7.5%. A similar result was obtained on increasing
the lipid concentration from 7.5 to 10% in case of SLN11
and SLN12 and in SLN29 and SLN30. This increase in
particle size may partially be related to the viscosity of
the samples, as viscosity is a key factor affecting the
ability to create a fine dispersion. At higher lipid
contents, the efficiency of homogenization decreases
because of a higher viscosity of the sample, resulting in
larger particles. Moreover, a high particle concentration at
high lipid contents increases the probability of particle
contact and subsequent aggregation [24]. The LD 90%
values of MLX SLNs of different lipids at a constant
surfactant concentration (0.5% w/w) are shown in Fig. 1.
For both surfactants used, Compritol showed the largest
particle sizes, followed by Precirol and then Geleol.
These differences in sizes may be due to differences in
the chain lengths and viscosities of the lipids used [25].
Compritol 888 ATO (m.p. 69.0–74.01C) is a solid lipid
based on glycerol esters of behenic acid (C22), in which
the main fatty acid is behenic acid (485%) but other fatty
acids (C16–C20) are also present. Precirol ATO5 (m.p.
50.0–60.01C) and Geleol (m.p. 54.5–58.41C) are com-
posed mainly of palmitic (C16) and stearic acids (C18)
(490%). A high melting temperature resulting in higher
viscosity and the long hydrocarbon chain length of
Compritol might result in larger particle sizes in
comparison with Precirol and Geleol.
f Potential analysis and pH measurements
As shown in Table 3, all formulations were negatively
charged; the z potential varied from – 15.7 mV (SLN14)
to – 30.5 mV (SLN18), indicating relatively good stability
and dispersion quality. It was noticeable that as the
amount of surfactant increased in the formulation the
z potential became more negative. However, the influ-
ence of surfactant type is less pronounced.
Tween 80 and Cremophor RH40 being nonionic surfac-
tants could successfully be used in the production of
relatively stable dispersions. This behavior could be a
result of the strong effect of surfactants in an emulsion
system on the adsorbed layer thickness [26]. Although
nonionic surfactants could not ionize into charged groups
like ionic ones, they still demonstrated an effect on the
z potential. This might be due to molecular polarization
and adsorption of emulsifier molecules onto the charge in
water: they were absorbed onto the emulsifier layer of the
Table 3 Particle size, f potential, and pH values of meloxicam solid lipid nanoparticles
Formulas LD 90% Span z potential (mV) pH Formulas LD 90% Span z potential (mV) pH
SLN1 420 ± 14.14 0.51 – 15.9 6.15 ± 0.03 SLN19 425 ± 17.68 1.39 – 15.8 5.97 ± 0.01SLN2 385 ± 7.07 0.63 – 16.0 5.68 ± 0.04 SLN20 370 ± 14.14 1.23 – 17.5 5.82 ± 0.02SLN3 250 ± 28.28 0.18 – 17.9 5.61 ± 0.06 SLN21 265 ± 7.07 1.10 – 19.8 5.88 ± 0.05SLN4 210 ± 35.36 0.34 – 20.9 5.53 ± 0.05 SLN22 235 ± 21.21 1.21 – 19.1 5.93 ± 0.08SLN5 480 ± 14.14 0.67 – 25.5 5.72 ± 0.16 SLN23 490 ± 28.28 1.61 – 20.5 5.85 ± 0.01SLN6 555 ± 7.07 1.15 – 25.5 5.80 ± 0.04 SLN24 565 ± 7.07 1.64 – 25.2 5.84 ± 0.07SLN7 580 ± 14.14 0.80 – 18.8 5.77 ± 0.02 SLN25 565 ± 3.54 1.64 – 15.9 5.87 ± 0.01SLN8 545 ± 7.07 1.27 – 21.1 6.26 ± 0.10 SLN26 505 ± 7.07 1.84 – 17.8 5.71 ± 0.03SLN9 440 ± 28.28 1.06 – 21.0 5.96 ± 0.08 SLN27 465 ± 21.21 1.72 – 21.6 6.08 ± 0.02SLN10 385 ± 7.07 0.80 – 22.3 6.09 ± 0.01 SLN28 390 ± 14.14 1.30 – 21.7 5.95 ± 0.07SLN11 680 ± 28.28 1.28 – 23.0 5.56 ± 0.01 SLN29 685 ± 10.61 1.90 – 19.8 5.92 ± 0.01SLN12 740 ± 14.14 1.27 – 27.1 5.67 ± 0.08 SLN30 730 ± 14.14 1.95 – 22.8 5.53 ± 0.02SLN13 470 ± 14.14 0.88 – 16.9 5.91 ± 0.01 SLN31 490 ± 14.14 1.36 – 20.2 6.24 ± 0.08SLN14 415 ± 21.21 0.83 – 15.7 6.42 ± 0.04 SLN32 435 ± 3.54 1.55 – 20.0 5.26 ± 0.03SLN15 310 ± 14.14 0.81 – 18.6 5.70 ± 0.05 SLN33 315 ± 7.07 1.29 – 21.4 5.63 ± 0.02SLN16 265 ± 7.07 0.48 – 22.4 5.70 ± 0.03 SLN34 285 ± 21.21 1.27 – 22.6 5.94 ± 0.03SLN17 570 ± 28.28 1.03 – 29.8 5.76 ± 0.06 SLN35 580 ± 28.28 1.30 – 20.4 5.56 ± 0.13SLN18 685 ± 7.07 1.34 – 30.5 5.49 ± 0.08 SLN36 685 ± 7.07 1.71 – 24.3 5.48 ± 0.28
LD, laser diffraction; SLN, solid lipid nanoparticle.
Figure 1
0100200300400500600700800
0.5 7.5 10.0Lipid conc.(%)
GeleolCompritolPrecirol
Part
icle
siz
e (n
m)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800(b)
(a)
0.5 7.5 10.0Lipid conc.(%)
GeleolCompritolPrecirol
z
Part
icle
siz
e (n
m)
Effect of lipid concentration and type on particle size measured by laserdiffraction 90% of meloxicam solid lipid nanoparticles using (a) Tween80 and (b) Cremophor RH40.
Meloxicam loaded solid lipid nanoparticles Khalil et al. 67
particle/water interface, and an electric double layer
similar to an ionic layer was formed. Considering the
effect of lipid type and concentration on the z potential
of the produced SLN formulations, the results showed no
direct relationship between the type of lipid used and the
measured z values. In contrast, as the lipid concentration
increased, the z potential was found to become more
negative. Rahman et al. [17] reported the same observa-
tion when studying the effect of increasing Compritol
concentrations in the final formulation.
The bulk pH values of the stratum corneum and upper
viable epidermis have been measured to be 4.0–4.5 and
5.0–7.0, respectively [27]. For a topical preparation to be
applied safely onto the skin, its pH should lie within this
range. The pH values of different MLX SLN formula-
tions ranged from 5.26 ± 0.03 to 6.42 ± 0.04 (Table 3)
and hence were in the required range.
Transmission electron microscopy
TEM was used to investigate the morphology of MLX-
loaded SLNs. It was evident from the TEM images that
the nanoparticles were almost spherical with smooth
morphology, appeared as black dots, and were well
dispersed and separated on the surface (Fig. 2). This
description is in agreement with a previous observation
that the use of chemically heterogeneous lipids in
combination with heterogeneous surfactants favors the
formation of ideally spherical lipid nanoparticles [11].
The figure illustrates the presence of a very thin layer
surrounding the particles, which suggests a drug-enriched
core model. This model can be achieved if during the
lipid solidification process, the drug precipitates first,
which results in a drug-enriched core covered with a lipid
shell that has a lower drug concentration. This drug
distribution within the nanoparticles will have its impact
on the in-vitro drug release profile discussed.
Differential scanning calorimetry analysis
Figure 3 shows the DSC thermograms of pure MLX, bulk
lipids (Geleol, Compritol 888 ATO, and Precirol ATO5),
and MLX-loaded SLNs. Pure MLX showed a sharp
endothermic peak at 259.541C, corresponding to its
melting point, indicating its characteristic crystalline
nature. Bulk Geleol showed a distinctive melting peak at
66.011C, whereas Compritol 888 ATO showed a sharp
peak at 74.221C. The bulk Precirol ATO5 exhibits a sharp
endothermic event, ascribing to melting, around 63.351C,
with a small but well-defined shoulder at 57.371C, which
might be due to melting of the a-polymorphic form [28].
These sharp melting endothermic peaks of bulk lipids
indicate that the starting materials were crystalline. As
observed in Fig. 3, the thermograms of all investigated
SLN systems did not show the melting peak of MLX,
indicating the conversion of crystalline MLX to the
amorphous form, which could be attributed to complete
dissolution of the drug in the molten lipid matrix. The
melting points of Geleol, Compritol 888 ATO, and
Precirol ATO5 in the SLN form were depressed, showing
a slight shift toward the lower temperatures when
compared with the corresponding bulk lipids. This
Figure 2
SLN4 SLN10 SLN16
SLN22 SLN28 SLN34
Transmission electron micrographs of meloxicam solid lipid nanoparticles.
68 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
melting point depression could be due to the small
particle size (nanometer range), the high specific surface
area, and the presence of a surfactant. In other words, the
depression can be attributed to the Kelvin effect [4].
Kelvin realized that small, isolated particles would melt at
a temperature lower than the melting temperature of
bulk materials. In the same way, the melting enthalpy
values of different lipids in SLN formulations showed
drastic depression compared with those of their bulk
lipids. These lower melting enthalpy values should
suggest a less-ordered lattice arrangement of the lipid
within the nanoparticles compared with those of the bulk
materials [13]. For the less-ordered crystalline or
amorphous state, the melting of the substance requires
less energy compared with the perfectly crystalline
substance, which needs to overcome the lattice force.
Rheological study
The rheological properties of MLX SLNs were presented
by plotting the shear stress (SS) versus the shear rate
(SR) (flow curves) and the viscosity versus the shear rate
(viscosity curves) curves [29,30]. The rheograms of
selected different SLN formulations are shown
in Fig. 4. As shown from the continuous shear rheometry,
SLN dispersions revealed a non-Newtonian flow. The
viscosity of non-Newtonian fluids changes according
to the shear rate, that is, has no constant viscosity [31].
This flow was characterized by the shear-thinning
behavior, in which the viscosity of the SLN dispersions
decreased with an increase in the shear rate. At present,
shear-thinning materials are also considered thixotropic,
because it always takes time, even though limited, to
regroup the microstructural elements [32]. In addition,
the type of lipid affected the viscosity of the final
product. For both surfactants used, Geleol SLNs showed
lower viscosities compared with Precirol and Compritol
SLNs.
In-vitro release studies
To compare the drug release profile from the prepared
SLN formulations, the release efficiency (RE%) after
48 h was used. The data clearly showed that the release of
the drug from the investigated SLN formulations can
be influenced by the type and concentration of the
surfactant, in addition to the nature and concentration of
lipid matrix used. Some formulations of Tween 80 and
Cremophor RH40 SLNs were selected, representing
those of highest and lowest surfactant and lipid
concentrations. The selected formulations of Tween 80
SLNs were SLN1, SLN4, SLN6, SLN7, SLN10, SLN12,
SLN13, SLN16, and SLN18, whereas those of Cremo-
phor RH40 SLNs were SLN19, SLN22, SLN24, SLN25,
SLN28, SLN30, SLN31, SLN34, and SLN36. The
percentage of MLX released during B48 h ranged from
Figure 3
Hea
t flo
w (
W/g
)
Hea
t flo
w (
W/g
)
Temperature (oC) Temperature (oC)
(a) (b)
Differential scanning calorimetry thermograms of pure meloxicam (MLX), bulk lipids (Geleol, Compritol, and Precirol), and MLX solid lipidnanoparticles (SLNs) using. (a) Tween 80 and (b) Cremophor RH40.
Meloxicam loaded solid lipid nanoparticles Khalil et al. 69
Figure 4
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
SS (dyne/cm2)
SR (
sec-1
)
upward curvedownward curve
0
10
20
30
40
50
0
SR (sec-1)
Vis
cosi
ty (
cP)
upward curve
downward curve
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
SS (dyne/cm2)
SR (
sec-1
)
upward curvedownward curve
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
SR (sec-1)
Vis
cosi
ty (
cP)
upward curve
downward curve
0
20
40
60
80
100
0
SS (dyne/cm2)
SR (
sec-1
)
upward curvedownward curve
010203040506070
SR (sec-1)
Vis
cosi
ty (
cP)
upward curve
downward curve
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0
SS (dyne/cm2)
SR (
sec-1
)
upward curvedownward curve
0
10
20
30
40
50
SR (sec-1)
Vis
cosi
ty (
cP)
upward curvedownward curve
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0
SS (dyne/cm2)
SR (
sec-1
)
upward curvedownward curve
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
SR (sec-1)
Vis
cosi
ty (
cP)
Vis
cosi
ty (
cP)
upward curvedownward curve
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
0
SS (dyne/cm2)
SR (
sec-1
)
upward curvedownward curve
0
10
20
30
40
50
SR (sec-1)
upward curvedownward curve
SLN4
SLN10
SLN16
SLN22
SLN28
SLN34
20015010050
400300200100
25020015010050
600400200
300200100
20015010050
15010050
0 15010050
0 15010050
0 15010050
0 15010050
0 15010050
Rheograms of meloxicam solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs). SR, shear rate; SS, shear stress.
70 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
29.42 (SLN18) to 76.61% (SLN4) in case of Tween 80
SLNs and from 29.33 (SLN31) to 72.72% (SLN28) in
case of Cremophor RH40 SLNs (Fig. 5). Interestingly,
the amount of surfactant used had a great influence on
the release pattern of SLNs. Increasing the surfactant
concentration from 0.5 to 5% (w/w) led to an increase in
the percentage of MLX released and the RE% (Po0.05)
(Fig. 5 and Table 4).
The fast or rapid release and higher release efficiency
observed at higher surfactant concentrations could be
explained by the partitioning of the drug between the
melted lipid phase and aqueous surfactant phase during
particle production. During particle production by the
hot homogenization technique, the drug partitions from
the liquid oil phase to the aqueous water phase. The
amount of drug partitioning to the water phase will
increase with the increase of drug solubility in the water
phase as a result of increasing the temperature of
the aqueous phase and surfactant concentration. Higher
the temperature and surfactant concentrations, greater
is the solubility of the drug in the water phase. During
cooling of the produced O/W nanoemulsion, the solubility
of the drug in the water phase decreases continuously
with decrease in the temperature of the water phase,
which implies a repartitioning of the drug into the lipid
phase. When reaching the recrystallization temperature
of the lipid, a solid lipid core starts forming, including the
drug that is present at this temperature in this lipid
phase. Reducing the temperature of the dispersion
further increases the pressure on the drug because of
its reduced solubility in water to further repartition into
the lipid phase. The already crystallized core is not
accessible anymore for the drug; consequently, the drug
concentrates in the still liquid outer shell of the SLN
and/or on the surface of the particles. The amount of drug
in the outer shell is released relatively rapidly, whereas
the drug incorporated into the particle core is released
gradually [33].
As regards the type of lipid matrix, the results clearly
showed that among the glycerides used, the highest
release was achieved with Geleol when compared with
Compritol and Precirol. Being the lipid of highest
monoglyceride content, Geleol showed the highest
release efficiency and consequently lower t50%. In case
of Compritol and Precirol, the relatively slow release and
higher t50% can be attributed to the hydrophobic long
chain fatty acids of the triglycerides that retain the
lipophilic drug, resulting in a more sustained re-
lease [23,34]. This effect was evident in Tween 80
SLN formulations, whereas in case of Cremophor RH40
SLNs the difference between the three lipids was less
pronounced (Fig. 5 and Table 4).
The results also indicate the effect of lipid concentration
on SLNs’ release profile: increasing the lipid concentra-
tion from 5 to 10% (w/w) resulted in a corresponding
decrease in the percentage of MLX released and a
consequent increase in t50% for Tween 80 and Cremophor
RH40 SLNs (Fig. 5 and Table 4). However, in case of
Geleol SLNs (SLN1, SLN6, SLN19, and SLN24), a
slight increase in RE% was observed (Table 4). This
observed decrease in the release profile can be attributed
to the higher lipid content encapsulating the drug, thus
reducing drug partition in the outer phase and conse-
quently its release in the receiver media. The release
profiles of these SLNs resemble the drug-enriched core
model [35]. In such a model, the drug-enriched core is
surrounded by a practically drug-free lipid shell. Because
of the increased diffusional distance and hindering effects
by the surrounding solid lipid shell, the drug has a
sustained release profile.
The release pattern of the drug from all SLN formula-
tions followed the Higuchi’s equation. The R2 values
Figure 5
0102030405060708090
100(a)
(b)Times (h)
% M
LX r
elea
sed
SLN1SLN4SLN6SLN7SLN10SLN12SLN13SLN16SLN18
0102030405060708090
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60Times (h)
% M
LX r
elea
sed
SLN19SLN22SLN24SLN25SLN28SLN30SLN31SLN34SLN36
The release profile of meloxicam (MLX) from solid lipid nanoparticles(SLNs) using (a) Tween 80 and (b) Cremophor RH40 as surfactants.
Table 4 Release efficiency and t50% (h) of the selected
meloxicam solid lipid nanoparticles formulations
Surfactants
Tween 80 Cremophor RH40
Formulasa RE 48 (%) t50% (h) Formulaa RE 48 (%) t50% (h)
SLN1 32.42 ± 1.28 33.72 SLN19 33.74 ± 2.50 33.10SLN4 55.55 ± 1.70 18.73 SLN22 50.18 ± 1.70 23.28SLN6 38.93 ± 4.37 43.46 SLN24 37.08 ± 4.31 44.17SLN7 26.62 ± 0.72 56.19 SLN25 34.97 ± 0.89 39.39SLN10 39.98 ± 1.82 25.12 SLN28 48.00 ± 0.88 20.65SLN12 20.58 ± 1.98 92.44 SLN30 24.67 ± 1.52 68.74SLN13 29.05 ± 1.77 47.14 SLN31 20.78 ± 1.51 117.54SLN16 51.08 ± 0.77 20.14 SLN34 48.95 ± 3.49 24.03SLN18 21.58 ± 2.57 132.75 SLN36 23.35 ± 3.23 45.501
RE, release efficiency; SLN, solid lipid nanoparticle; t50% (h), timerequired to release 50% of the drug.aSee Tables 1 and 2 for the description of the formulations.
Meloxicam loaded solid lipid nanoparticles Khalil et al. 71
ranged from 0.9151 to 0.9977 in case of Tween 80 and
from 0.9115 to 0.9984 in case of Cremophor RH40. This
result is generally in agreement with many studies that
reported that drug-loaded SLNs provide a controlled release
pattern following Higuchi’s square root model [36,37].
ConclusionIn this study, the MLX-loaded SLNs were successfully
prepared using modified high-shear homogenization and
ultrasound techniques. Physicochemical characterization
revealed that the prepared drug-loaded SLNs were of
spherical shape and homogenously distributed. The DSC
analysis showed the amorphous state of MLX in SLNs.
SLNs achieved high drug incorporation with small-sized
particles (nanosize) and showed shear-thinning rheologi-
cal behavior. The in-vitro release behavior was greatly
affected and can be controlled by optimizing the
compositional variables. The sustained release behavior
of MLX-loaded SLNs together with the favorable
physicochemical characteristics supports that SLNs are
promising delivery systems for poorly water-soluble drugs
such as MLX and can form a foundation for further
clinical studies for the topical delivery of MLX.
AcknowledgementsConflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest.
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72 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
Effect of pollution on the chemical content and secondary
metabolites of Zygophyllum coccineum and Tamarix niloticaHanan E. Osmana and Reham K. Badawyb
aDepartment of Plant and Microbiology, Facultyof Science (Girls Branch), Al-Azhar University andbEnvironmental Pollution Unit, Department of PlantEcology and Range Management, Desert ResearchCenter, Cairo, Egypt
Correspondence to Hanan E. Osman, PhD,Department of Plant and Microbiology, Facultyof Science (Girls Branch), Al-Azhar University,Nasr City 11651, Cairo, EgyptTel: + 20 22633998; fax: + 20 22633101;e-mail: [email protected]
Received 4 November 2012Accepted 14 February 2013
Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
2013,12:73–82
Objectives
This study investigated the uptake and translocation pattern of trace metals from two
medicinal plant species namely: Zygophyllum coccineum and Tamarix nilotica from two
contaminated sites and a noncontaminated (NC) site. The effects of heavy metals on
the amino acids and secondary metabolites of the tested plant species were assessed.
Materials and methods
Medicinal plant samples and soil samples were collected from three different sites: two
contaminated and one NC site. The concentration levels (mg/kg) of the selected trace
metals (Al, B, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Pb, V, and Zn) were estimated in the tested plant
species and associated soil.
Results
Heavy metal contents in the investigated plant species reflected the metal
concentration in the soil samples. The highest content of the determined heavy metals
were detected in both tested plants from contaminated sites in comparison with those
from the NC site.
The concentrations of free amino acids in T. nilotica and Z. coccineum plants from the
contaminated sites were higher compared with those in plants from the NC site. Moreover,
the concentration of free amino acids in plants from the wastewater-contaminated sites
was higher compared with that in plants from the Suez industrial emission site.
The content of secondary metabolites (tannins, saponins, and alkaloids) was
decreased in plants from polluted sites compared with those from the NC site. The
concentration of tannins ranged from 0.07 to 0.33 g, saponins from 9.99 to 8.22%,
and alkaloids from 7.95 to 1.00%. Moreover, the maximum tannins and alkaloid content
was detected in Z. coccineum from the noncontaminated site.
Conclusion
The plants collected from the investigated sites pose a serious danger. However, a
periodical assessment of plants used for traditional medicine should be encouraged as
this will assist in ensuring their quality and safety in herbal use, especially for people
living in urban areas where the level of pollution may be very high.
Keywords:
free amino acid, heavy metals, medicinal plant, secondary metabolites, Tamarix nilotica,
Zygophyllum coccineum
Egypt Pharm J 12:73–82& 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre1687-4315
IntroductionMedicinal plants are widely used as home remedies and
raw materials for pharmaceutical industries. The past
decade has seen a significant increase in the use of herbal
medicine. The environmental conditions in developing
countries; pollution in irrigation water, atmosphere, and
soil; sterilization methods; and storage conditions all play
an important role in the contamination of medicinal
plants by pesticides and heavy metals. The sources of
environmental pollution with toxic metals are quite
varied, ranging from industrial and traffic emissions to
the use of purification mud and agricultural expedients,
such as cadmium-containing dung, organic mercury
fungicides, and the insecticide lead arsenate [1].
Heavy metal contamination in agricultural environments
can result from an atmospheric fallout, pesticide for-
mulations, contamination by chemical fertilizers, and
irrigation with water of poor quality [2]. Heavy metals
rank high among the chief contaminants of leafy
vegetables and medicinal plants [3].
Uptake of trace elements by plants varies and depends
largely on several factors such as soil pH and organic matter
content. Plant uptake is one of the major routes of exposure
of the food chain to trace elements in the soil [4].
Trace elements play an important role in the chemical,
biological, metabolic, and enzymatic reactions in the
living cells of plants, animals, and human beings [5].
However, the release of trace metals through human
activities into the environment has increased over the
years, and the excess of these metals in the environment
has been reported to be extremely dangerous to human
health [6]. The accumulation of trace metals by plants is
Original article 73
1687-4315 & 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre
DOI: 10.7123/01.EPJ.0000428268.89779.59
one of the most serious environmental concerns. This is
as a result of the harmful effects of toxic metals on animal
and human health [7].
Evidence of severe poisoning caused by some metal
compounds and the proven carcinogenicity of some metal
ions has fostered intensive research into the different
uptake and translocation patterns in food crops [8]. The
broad use of traditional medicines by rural communities
because of the accessibility and affordability of herbal
medicine has also necessitated a further research into the
uptake and translocation pattern of trace metals by some
medicinal plants from urban areas [3].
Zygophyllum coccineum belongs to the Zygophyllaceae
family. The leaves, stems, and fruits of this plant are
used in folk medicine as a drug active against rheuma-
tism, gout, asthma, and hypertension. It is also used as a
diuretic, local anesthetic, antihistaminic, and antidiabetic
agent [9].
Several species of plants belonging to the genus Tamarix(Family: Tamaricaceae) have been used in traditional
medicine. Antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of T.hispida [10] and T. aphyla [11] have also been described.
Tamaricaceous plants produce a unique class of hydro-
lysable tannins with diverse structures [12].
The environmental conditions, atmosphere, pollution,
soil, and harvesting and handling are some of the factors
that may play important roles in the contamination of
medicinal plants by metals and microbial growth [3]. It is
therefore of major interest to evaluate the composition
of some metallic elements in herbal plants, because at
elevated levels, these metals can be dangerous and
toxic [13,14].
Although some trace metals may have both curative and
preventive roles in combating diseases, it has been
established that an overdose or prolonged ingestion of
medicinal plants may lead to chronic accumulation of
different elements that may cause various health
problems [15].
The overall objectives of this research were to determine
the concentrations of the 10 tested heavy metals in
Tamarix nilotica and Z. coccineum plant biomass from
contaminated and noncontaminated (NC) sites and to
determine the effect of heavy metal contamination from
industrial emissions or by wastewater irrigation on the
content of secondary metabolites and amino acids of both
tested plant species.
Materials and methodsSite description
This study was carried out at three sites: two contami-
nated and one NC. The NC site was located at Sokhna
Road, 35 km from Cairo governorate.
The first contaminated site is a wastewater-contaminated
(WWC) site near the domestic wastewater channel. This
site is located at El-Saff, Cairo governorate, which is
south of the industrial complex of Helwan (including the
Iron and Steel Factory and Weaving, Coke, and fertilizer
industries). These industrial activities produce large
amount of wastes that are usually dumped into an
artificial canal extending over a large area behind the
factories. The source of irrigation in this site is the
sewage effluent, which comes from the sewage treatment
station at Helwan since the past 23 years (according to
the report of the committee preparing the Egyptian code
for reuse of wastewater, 2004). The second contaminated
site, the Suez industrial emission (SIE) contaminated
site (SEC), is located near the fertilizer and ceramic
factories in Ain Sokhna, Suez governorate. The fertilizer
plant of the Egyptian Fertilizers Company (EFC)
manufactures granulated urea.
Soil and plant sampling
During June 2009, Z. coccineum and T. nilotica plant
samples, based on their coverage at the site, together
with the associated soil samples were collected. The
tested medicinal plants were collected from their natural
habitats. The plants were not exposed to any agricultural
treatments. Five random samples were collected from
each site to obtain a comprehensive profile of the site for
statistical analysis.
The soil samples were collected from a depth of 0–60 cm.
The collection of plant samples was based on plant
coverage at the site and plant health.
Soil and plant analysis
Soil samples were air dried at room temperature and then
sieved using a 2-mm stainless steel sieve. The soil : water
extracts (1 : 2.5) were prepared and used in the
determination of pH, electrical conductivity, and cationic
and anionic compositions according to the methods
described by Richards [16] and by Jackson [17]. The
total carbonates were determined according to the
methods described by Piper [18]. The organic matter
was determined according to the method described by
Nelson and Sommers [19]. The available nitrogen in
the soil was extracted using a solution of 2 mol/l KCl
according to the method described by Keeney and
Nelson [20]. The available phosphorus was extracted
using a solution of 0.5 mol/l NaHCO3, pH 8.5, according
to the method described by Watanabe and Olsen [21].
The soil samples were analyzed for the total content of
the studied elements in the filtered soil extracts obtained
from samples digested by HNO3, H2SO4, and 60%
HClO4, as outlined by Hesse [22]. Total tested heavy
metals were determined by inductively coupled plasma
optical emission spectrometry (ICP).
The plant samples were washed with distilled water to
remove any adhering soil. After washing, the plant
samples were oven dried at 651C and then ground to a
powder. The plant samples were digested with H2O2 and
H2SO4 [23] and then subjected to analysis of nitrogen
and phosphorus. The nitrogen content was determined
using a modified Micro-Kjeldahl method, as described by
Peach and Tracey [24]. The phosphorous content was
74 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
determined according to the method described by
Rowell [25]; this method depends on the formation of a
blue complex between phosphate and ammonium molyb-
date in the presence of ascorbic acid (reducing agent). The
samples were measured with a spectrophotometer at an
absorbance of 880 nm. The plant samples were analyzed
for the total content of the studied elements using the
digested extracts, which were obtained with 0.5 g of
concentrated HNO3 and H2O2 [26]. The heavy metal
content in all the samples was determined by aspirating
directly to ICP. The alkaloid content was determined
according to the method described by Jenkins et al. [27].
The saponin content was determined according to the
method described by Wall et al. [28]. The tannin content
was determined according to the method described by
Claus [29]. The free amino acid content was determined
according to the method described by Block et al. [30].
Metal translocation factor
The root-to-shoot translocation factor (TF) was de-
scribed as the ratio of heavy metals in the plant shoot
to that in the plant root [31]. The TF is determined
according to the equation: BF = C [HM in shoot]/C [HM
in root].
Statistical analysis
The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete
block design with three replications. There were two
factors in the study: three sites (NC, WWC, and SEC)
and two types of plant species (Z. coccineum and T. nilotica).
Data were subjected to analyses using M-STATC., as
described by Russell [32]. The mean values were
compared using the Duncan New Multiple range test
as described by Waller and Duncan [33]. Mean values
indicated by the same alphabetical letters in the same
column are not significantly different at P = 0.05.
The data on the TF, alkaloid content, tannin content,
and saponin content of the samples were presented as
mean ± SD of the three replicates and were analyzed
using Excel 2007 for Windows.
Results and discussionSoil properties and heavy metal concentrations
Chemical properties of the soil from the three tested sites
are presented in Table 1. The data shows that salinity of
the saturated extract from the soil, as evidenced by the EC
values, was very high in soil from the WWC site
(11.28 mMho). The values of soil pH ranged from 8.83 in
the soil from the WWC site to 8.71 in that from the
industrial emission site, indicating that the soils are alkaline
in these locations. The soil from the NC site was slightly
alkaline with a pH of 7.97. Schipper et al. [34] reported that
after long-term wastewater irrigation, the soil pH increased
and that this may be due to the high content of cations
such as Na, Ca, and Mg in the wastewater.
The organic matter content was high in the soil from the
contaminated sites; it was 1.24% at the WWC site and
0.69% at the SIE site compared with 0.43% at the NC
site. The cationic composition of the total salts is mostly
dominated by Na + , followed by Ca2 + and Mg2 + , and
then by K + . The most dominant anion was SO42 – ,
followed by Cl – , and then by HCO3. The highest OM,
Ca2 + , Mg2 + , Na2 + , K + , Cl – , and SO4– concentrations
were detected in the WWC sample, whereas the highest
HCO3 content was detected in the SIE sample.
Accumulation of K in the soil with wastewater application
was attributed to the original content of this nutrient in
the wastewater applied [35]. Irrigation with wastewater
increased the total cation concentration of Ca and
Mg [36].
As shown in Table 2, the available N and P content in the
soil samples from the contaminated sites is significantly
higher compared with those from the NC site as a result
of contamination with wastewater at the WWC site and
Table 1 Electrical conductivity (EC), pH, concentration organic matter content (OM) and some anions and cations (mEq/l) in the
studied soil samples from the noncontaminated (NC) site, El-Saff wastewater-contaminated (WWC) site, and Suez industrial
emission (SIE) site
Cations (mEq/l) Anions (mEq/l)
Sites EC (mMho) pH OM (%) Ca2 + Mg2 + Na + K + CO32 – HCO3
– Cl– SO42 –
NC 1.206 7.97 0.43 5.5 3 3.65 1.01 0 0.8 3.125 9.235WWC 11.28 8.83 1.24 32 22 140.50 2.05 0 0.8 86.25 109.5SIE 0.468 8.71 0.69 3 2.5 9.90 0.75 0 1.2 1.25 13.7
Table 2 Interaction effects of the site and plant species on nitrogen, phosphorus, and heavy metal contents (mg/kg) of the studied
soil samples from the noncontaminated (NC) site, El-Saff wastewater-contaminated (WWC) site, and Suez industrial emission (SIE)
site
Site Plant N P Al B Cr Cu Fe Mn Mo Pb V Zn
NC T. nilotica 24.4 d 4.6 b 449.4 d 51.1 d 23.0 d 32.4 d 163.4 c 22.8 c 1.4 d 21.7 b 3.3 b 25.5 bZ. coccineum 21.0 d 2.7 b 368.0 d 42.8 d 17.3 d 35.8 d 119.5 c 30.4 c 1.6 d 21.7 b 3.9 b 25.3 b
WWC T. nilotica 65.1 c 5.5 b 3221.0 b 111.7 b 54.8 a 117.9 a 1533.5 a 131.0 ab 4.1 c 123.3 a 16.3 a 122.5 aZ. coccineum 194.5 b 4.9 b 3493.1 a 128.7 a 49.2 ab 112.3 a 1215.1 b 127.6 ab 5.0 b 121.9 a 15.1 a 124.6 a
SIE T. nilotica 228.9 a 18.8 a 2306.6 c 94.4 c 36.8 c 96.2 b 1264.3 ab 116.6 b 6.1 a 113.9 a 12.6 a 135.2 aZ. coccineum 34.9 d 5.0 b 2303.3 c 103.3 bc 41.6 bc 83.9 c 1510.7 a 141.3 a 5.3 b 115.6 a 14.3 a 125.8 a
Mean values for each column having common letters are not significantly different at the 0.05 level.
Pollution effect on two wild plants Osman and Badawy 75
with fertilizer factory effluent at the SIE site. These
elements are essential nutrients for plant growth.
Heavy metal contents of the three sites are represented
in Table 2. The total heavy metal contents were increased
significantly many folds in the samples from the
contaminated sites compared with those from the NC
site. Heavy metal concentrations of the contaminated
sites were increased by 8.21, 2.56, 2.58, 3.38, 9.72, 4.86,
3.14, 5.65, 4.36, and 4.86 times at the WWC site, whereas
they were increased by 5.64, 2.11, 1.95, 2.64, 9.81, 4.84,
3.94, 5.29, 3.74, and 5.14 times at the SIE site for Al, B,
Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Pb, V, and Zn, respectively compared
with the NC site.
The results show a great variability in the heavy metal
content according to site of plant collection. The
maximum concentrations of Al, B, Cr, Cu, Mn, Pb, and
V were found at the WWC site: significantly for Al, B, Cr,
and Cu and nonsignificantly for Mn, Pb, and V. Mean-
while, the maximum but not significant concentrations of
Fe, Mo, and Zn were detected in plants from the SIE site.
Soils, especially those found in or near the metalliferous sites
and metal smelters, are highly contaminated with heavy
metals, including Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Zn. For example,
soils sampled from a former Zn/Cd smelter site contained up
to 99 500 mg/kg Zn in addition to 1005–7220 mg/kg Pb,
2500–4500 mg/kg Cu, and 28–578 mg/kg Cd [37].
Heavy metal concentrations in plants
Metal concentrations in plants vary with plant spe-
cies [38]. Plant uptake of heavy metals from soil occurs
either passively with the mass flow of water into the roots
or through active transport across the plasma membrane of
root epidermal cells. Under normal growing conditions,
plants can potentially accumulate certain metal ions an order
of magnitude greater than the surrounding medium [39].
The plant species has a considering effect on the heavy
metal content in both roots and shoots of T. nilotica and Z.coccineum plants. The contents of Al, B, and Fe in T. niloticaroots and those of Al, B, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, and Zn in T.nilotica shoots were significantly higher compared with
those in Z. coccineum roots and shoots, respectively.
Meanwhile, the contents of Cu, Mn, and Zn in Z.coccineum roots were higher compared with those in
T. nilotica roots (Figs 1 and 2). The contents of B, Cr,
Mo, and V and Mn, Mo, and Zn in roots and shoots,
respectively for both plants were the same.
The effect of the site on the heavy metal concentrations
in both T. nilotica and Z. coccineum plants are depicted
in Figs 3 and 4. The results showed that, in most cases,
the concentrations of the tested heavy metals in plants
from the WWC site were significantly higher compared
with those in plants from the SIE site. The increase in Al,
B, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Pb, V, and Zn concentrations was
7.74, 3.10, 4.36, 3.81, 4.17, 7.42, 4.22, 9.30, 6.10, and 5.30-
fold, respectively in plant shoots from the WWC site and
was 6.57, 1.96, 3.39, 2.73, 3.91, 5.35, 6.31, 7.35, 5.55, and
4.39-fold, respectively in plants from the SIE site
compared with that in plants from the NC site.
Figure 2
Effect of plant species on shoot heavy metal content (mg/kg) of Tamarixnilotica and Zygophyllum coccineum. Values followed by differentletters within columns are significantly different at the 0.05 probabilitylevel.
Figure 3
Effect of the site on shoot heavy metal content (mg/kg) of Tamarixnilotica and Zygophyllum coccineum. Values followed by differentletters within columns are significantly different at the 0.05 probabilitylevel.
Figure 1
Effect of plant species on root heavy metal content (mg/kg) of Tamarixnilotica and Zygophyllum coccineum. Values followed by differentletters within columns are significantly different at the 0.05 probabilitylevel.
76 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
On comparing the two contaminated sites, mostly there
was a significant increase in the determined heavy metal
content in plants from the WWC site compared with
plants from the SIE site (Figs 3 and 4).
The data in Table 3 shows the interaction effect of the
plant species and site on the tested heavy metal contents
for T. nilotica and Z. coccineum. The high heavy metal
contents for both roots and shoots, mostly, were detected
in plants from the WWC site.
The content of heavy metals in industrialized regions were
determined by Januz et al. [40], who reported that the plants
growing in an industrialized region have higher contents of
heavy metals compared with plants growing in a second less
industrialized region. Some metals such as Cu, Mn, and
Zn are the natural essential components of enzymes and
coenzymes and are important for growth, photosynthesis,
and respiration, although other metals such as Pb and Cd
have no biochemical or physiological importance, therefore
they are considered as very toxic pollutants.
Although the concentrations of the tested heavy metals
in soils at contaminated sites were above the critical
concentrations in soil for these elements [41], no visual
phytotoxicity symptoms on both tested plants were
observed.
The Al, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, and Pb concentrations were
all above the normal range for roots and shoots of both
tested plants from the contaminated sites, whereas the
concentrations of B and Zn were within the permissible
level (Table 3).
The variation in the elemental content from plant to
plant is mainly attributed to the differences in the
botanical structure and mineral composition of the soil in
which the plants are cultivated. Other factors responsible
for a variation in the elemental content are preferential
absorbability of the plant, use of fertilizers, irrigation
water, and climatic conditions [38].
Translocation factor of heavy metals
A plant’s ability to translocate metals from the roots to
shoots is measured using the TF, which is defined as the
ratio of metal concentration in the shoots to that in the
roots. The TF index showed that the both tested plant
species most efficiently translocated the tested heavy
metals to the shoot system. The mean TF (average TF
values for each metal in different sites for both tested
plants) values revealed that T. nilotica showed great
efficiency for translocating metals from the roots to
shoots. The TF values for T. nilotica for all tested metals
under study were higher than 1, except for B and V
(Figs 5 and 6). The trends of the TF values for heavy
metals in T. nilotica were in the order of Cr4Cu4Mo4Fe4Pb4Zn4Mn4Al4V4B. Meanwhile, Z. coccineumhad a TF higher than 1 for Cr, Cu, Pb, and V. The results
in Figs 5 and 6 show that TF of Z. coccineum for these
considered metals were in the order of
Cr4Cu4Pb4V4Zn4Fe = Mo4Al = B4Mn. A TF
higher than 1 indicated a very efficient ability to transport
metals from the roots to shoots, most likely due to
efficient metal transport systems [43].
Figure 4
Effect of the site on root heavy metal contents (mg/kg) of Tamarixnilotica and Zygophyllum coccineum. Values followed by differentletters within columns are significantly different at the 0.05 probabilitylevel.
Table 3 Interaction effect of the site and different plant species on heavy metal contents (mg/kg) in roots and shoots of T. niloticaand Z. coccineum plants from the noncontaminated (NC) site, El-Saff wastewater-contaminated (WWC) site, and Suez industrial
emission (SIE) site
Site Plant Al B Cr Cu Fe Mn Mo Pb V Zn
RootNC T. nilotica 84.83 d 24.37 b 1.29 c 19.68 c 113.6 d 8.32 d 0.33 d 6.92 c 0.75 d 21.64 d
Z. coccineum 104.00 d 24.12 b 1.66 c 23.84 c 161.1 c 11.7 d 0.37 d 6.88 c 1.47 d 32.25 cWWC T. nilotica 644.20 a 67.26 a 6.02 a 58.88 b 564.8 a 82.97 a 1.84 b 82.24 a 8.49 a 58.23 b
Z. coccineum 545.10 b 44.28 ab 5.19 b 74.65 a 494.4 b 85.28 a 1.39 c 86.38 a 7.59 b 62.21 abSIE T. nilotica 438.80 c 43.75 ab 5.65 ab 55.55 b 556.2 a 41.08 c 1.7 b 81.25 a 6.62 c 56.55 b
Z. coccineum 402.20 c 33.78 b 5.01 b 68.31 b 502.9 b 52.32 b 2.45 a 60.54 b 6.55 c 69.80 aShootNC T. nilotica 77.80 e 15.49 d 1.47 c 20.38 e 131.6 d 10.71 d 0.45 e 8.55 d 0.74 e 11.39 d
Z. coccineum 58.92 e 19.11 d 1.77 c 16.00 e 139.30 d 8.17 d 0.26 f 9.04 d 1.62 d 11.79 dWWC T. nilotica 570.00 a 66.18 a 8.70 a 79.72 a 655.8 a 69.28 a 1.37 d 88.89 a 7.60 a 67.84 a
Z. coccineum 488.20 c 41.04 b 5.42 b 58.79 c 474.50 c 67.54 a 1.67 c 74.84 b 6.71 bc 55.05 bSIE T. nilotica 530.5 b 31.79 c 5.73 b 63.88 b 559.5 b 43.27 c 2.39 a 71.84 b 6.92 ab 53.88 b
Z. coccineum 368.30 d 35.97 bc 5.24 b 35.52 d 498.90 c 55.30 b 2.15 b 57.43 c 6.55 c 47.98 cPL 135a 14–78a 5b 1.1–33.1a 450b 44.25b Up to 1a 0.3–18.8a – 6–126a
PL, permissible limits according to Kabata Pendias & Pendias [41]a and FAO/WHO [42]b standards for metal concentrations in consumablevegetables and edible parts.Mean values for each column having common letters are not significantly different at the 0.05 level.
Pollution effect on two wild plants Osman and Badawy 77
The mean TF for the tested heavy metals ranged from 0.62
to 1.21 and 0.83 to 1.21 for T. nilotica and Z. coccineum,
respectively. According to Baker [44], there are three basic
types of tolerance strategies to heavy metals (accumulation,
exclusion, and indication), which describe the relationship
between the total soil and plant metal concentration and
that excluder and accumulator plants could grow together
in the same environment. The relationships between the
soil and plant metal concentrations should be thoroughly
tested for each plant species separately to understand the
physiological mechanisms.
Accumulation and exclusion are two basic strategies by
which plants respond to elevated concentrations of heavy
metals [45]. In metal accumulator species, TFs greater
than 1 were common, whereas in metal excluder species
the TFs were typically lower than 1 [44].
Nitrogen and phosphorus content in plants
Nitrogen (N) is the essential mineral element required
in the greatest amount by plants, comprising 1.5–2% of
plant dry matter [46]. Phosphorus (P) is the second
nutritional element after nitrogen that limits plant growth,
having a concentration of about 0.2% of the total plant dry
weight [47]. P is a macronutrient that is a key component
in many molecules (i.e. nucleic acids, phospholipids, and
ATP) that participates in basic plant processes [48].
The concentration of nitrogen and phosphorus were
significantly higher in tested plants from the contami-
nated sites compared with those from the NC site. The
highest content of N was detected in plants from the
WWC site, whereas the highest P content was detected
in plants from the SIE site (Fig. 7).
Amino acid contents
Under heavy metals stress, plants exhibit a number of
physiological changes in their cells [49,50]. Several
mechanisms allow plants to tolerate the presence of
Figure 7
Interaction effect of the site [noncontaminated (NC) site, El-Saff wastewater-contaminated (WWC) site, and Suez industrial emission (SIE) site] andplant species (Tamarix nilotica and Zygophyllum coccineum) on nitrogen and phosphorus contents (ppm) in plants. Values followed by differentletters within columns are significantly different at the 0.05 probability level.
Figure 6
Translocation factors with SDs of Al, B, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Pb, V, andZn in Zygophyllum coccineum plants from the noncontaminated (NC)site, El-Saff wastewater-contaminated (WWC) site, and Suez industrialemission (SIE) site. Error bars represent ± SE of the mean values forthree separate plant extractions.
Figure 5
Translocation factors with SDs of Al, B, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Pb, V, andZn in Tamarix nilotica from the noncontaminated (NC) site, El-Saffwastewater-contaminated (WWC) site, and Suez industrial emission(SIE) site. Error bars represent ± SE of the mean values for threeseparate plant extractions.
78 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
heavy metals inside the cells, and synthesis of phyto-
chelatins has been particularly concerned, as phytoche-
latins may chelate heavy metals, leading to detoxification
of these metals in cells [51]. The interaction of heavy
metals with sulfhydryl-containing amino acids and pep-
tides/proteins plays a major role in their environmental
and biochemical behavior [52].
Sixteen types of amino acids were detected in the shoots
of the tested plant species from the three sites (NC,
Table 4 Mean free amino acid (FAA) contents of Tamarix nilotica and Zygophyllum coccineum from the noncontaminated (NC) site,
El-Saff wastewater-contaminated (WWC) site, and Suez industrial emission (SIE) site
NC WWC SIE
FAA (%) T. nilotica Z. coccineum T. nilotica Z. coccineum T. nilotica Z. coccineum
Aspartic Acidic 0.3109 0.3637 0.4752 0.6929 0.3893 0.6369Glutamic 0.3549 0.4244 0.6011 0.9076 0.4433 0.6742Histidine Alkali 0.1642 0.2343 0.2725 0.3422 0.2005 0.2515Arginine 0.1828 0.2866 0.3877 0.3321 0.4278 0.2527Lysine 0.1658 0.2139 0.2912 0.4333 0.2768 0.2422Threonine Neutral 0.1224 0.1481 0.2433 0.3333 0.1931 0.1568Serine 0.1446 0.1756 0.2816 0.3608 0.1926 0.2127Proline 0.4923 0.4405 0.6181 0.8159 0.5669 0.6279Glycine 0.1314 0.1756 0.2669 0.2898 0.2017 0.2086Alanine 0.1796 0.1914 0.2899 0.4014 0.2510 0.2735Valine 0.1193 0.1455 0.2327 0.3260 0.2070 0.1451Methionine 0.0005 0.0026 0.0005 0.0210 0.0147 0.0014Isoleucine 0.0947 0.1145 0.1336 0.2393 0.1453 0.1125Leucine 0.1860 0.2191 0.3622 0.4993 0.3056 0.2357Tyrosine 0.0543 0.0601 0.1538 0.1623 0.0868 0.0794Phenylalanine 0.1192 0.1400 0.2240 0.3264 0.1488 0.1596
Table 5 Correlation coefficients between the contents of free amino acids and heavy metals in shoots of Tamarix nilotica
Amino acid Al B Cr Cu Fe Mn Mo Pb V Zn
Aspartic 0.888 0.984 0.992* 0.958 0.930 0.996* 0.449 0.940 0.896 0.952Threonine 0.938 0.955 1.00** 0.986 0.968 0.999* 0.556 0.975 0.944 0.983Serine 0.813 0.999* 0.963 0.907 0.667 0.972 0.315 0.881 0.823 0.898Glutamic 0.818 0.999* 0.965 0.911 0.872 0.975 0.325 0.886 0.828 0.903Proline – 0.958 – 0.586 – 0.803 – 0.887 – 0.924 – 0.779 – 0.944 – 0.913 – 0.953 – 0.897Glycine 0.909 0.975 0.997* 0.971 0.947 0.999* 0.491 0.956 0.916 0.966Alanine 0.960 0.932 0.998* 0.996* 0.984 0.995* 0.613 0.988* 0.965 0.993*Valine 0.989* 0.873 0.980 0.999* 0.999* 0.971 0.716 1.00** 0.992 1.00**Methionine 0.436 – 0.202 0.103 0.260 0.343 0.064 0.881 0.315 0.420 0.280Isoleucine 0.957 0.582 0.800 0.885 0.923 0.776 0.945 0.911 0.951 0.895Leucine 0.969 0.918 0.995* 0.998* 0.989* 0.990* 0.641 0.993* 0.974 0.997*Tyrosine 0.797 1.00** 0.955 0.896 0.854 0.966 0.290 0.869 0.807 0.886Histidine 0.767 0.999* 0.940 0.873 0.827 0.952 0.243 0.844 0.778 0.863Lysine 0.802 1.00** 0.958 0.900 0.959 0.968 0.299 0.873 0.813 0.891Arginine 0.955 0.577 0.797 0.883 0.920 0.773 0.947 0.908 0.950 0.892
*Correlation is significant at the level 0.05.**Correlation is significant at the level 0.01.
Table 6 Correlation coefficients between the contents of free amino acids and heavy metals in shoots of Zygophyllum coccineum
Amino acid Al B Cr Cu Fe Mn Mo Pb V Zn
Aspartic 0.993 0.998* 0.993 0.915 0.976 0.999* 0.919 0.995 0.998* 1.00**Threonine 0.744 0.709 0.572 0.908 0.483 0.693 0.313 0.732 0.615 0.658Serine 0.835 0.806 0.687 0.960 0.608 0.792 0.450 0.825 0.725 0.762Glutamic 0.974 0.961 0.896 0.998* 0.845 0.954 0.731 0.969 0.918 0.939Proline 0.969 0.955 0.887 0.999* 0.834 0.948 0.717 0.964 0.910 0.932Glycine 0.883 0.858 0.753 0.982 0.680 0.846 0.532 0.874 0.786 0.820Alanine 0.931 0.911 0.822 0.997* 0.759 0.901 0.625 0.924 0.851 0.880Valine 0.714 0.677 0.536 0.889 0.445 0.661 0.271 0.701 0.580 0.625Methionine 0.677 0.638 0.491 0.864 0.397 0.620 0.220 0.663 0.536 0.583Isoleucine 0.706 0.669 0.526 0.884 0.434 0.652 0.260 0.693 0.570 0.615Leucine 0.752 0.717 0.581 0.913 0.493 0.701 0.324 0.739 0.623 0.666Tyrosine 0.828 0.799 0.679 0.957 0.598 0.785 0.440 0.818 0.717 0.755Histidine 0.779 0.746 0.616 0.930 0.530 0.731 0.364 0.768 0.656 0.698Lysine 0.811 0.780 0.657 0.948 0.574 0.766 0.413 0.801 0.696 0.735Arginine 0.993 0.985 0.940 0.984 0.899 0.981 0.802 0.991 0.956 0.971
*Correlation is significant at the level 0.05.**Correlation is significant at the level 0.01.
Pollution effect on two wild plants Osman and Badawy 79
WWC, and SIE) (Table 4). Amino acids are divided into
three types (i.e. acidic, alkali, and neutral) on the basis of
their characters [53].
The concentrations of amino acids in T. nilotica and Z.coccineum plants from the contaminated sites were higher
compared with those in plants from the NC site. The
most abundant amino acid in all the plant tissues was
glutamic acid. Moreover, the concentration of amino acids
in plants from the domestic wastewater site was higher
compared with that in plants from the SIE site for both
tested plants. These results are in agreement with those
of Wu et al. [54] and of Kovacik et al. [55].
On computing correlation coefficients it was revealed that
levels of aspartic acid and threonine in shoots of T. niloticawere significantly positively correlated with their respective
Cr and Mn concentrations (Table 5). As regards the levels
of serine, glutamic acid, tyrosine, histidine, and lysine,
only boron (B) showed a positive relationship. In case of
levels of proline, methionine, isoleucine, and arginine, no
correlations were detected. Levels of valine, alanine, and
leucine were positively and significantly correlated with
more than one metal. Concentrations of Al, Cu, Fe, Pb, and
Zn; Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn; and Cr, Cu, Mn, Pb, and
Zn, respectively were correlated with levels of valine,
leucine, and alanine, respectively.
In Z. coccineum, a significant positive correlation was
detected between levels of aspartic acid and concentra-
tion of B, Mn, V, and Zn in the shoot, whereas levels of
glutamic, proline, and alanine correlated with shoot
concentrations of Cu (Table 6).
In most agricultural soils, nitrate (NO3– ) is the most
important source of N for plants [56]. For nitrogen
metabolism, the nitrate must be taken up across the
plasma membrane. Once inside the symplast of a plant,
Figure 8
Content of secondary metabolites (alkaloids, saponins, and tannins) and fat (%) of Tamarix nilotica and Zygophyllum coccineum plants from thenoncontaminated (NC) site, El-Saff wastewater-contaminated (WWC) site, and Suez industrial emission (SIE) site. Mean values for each columnhaving common letters are not significantly different at the 0.05 level.
80 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
NO3– is reduced to NO2
– by nitrate reductase (NR), and
NO2– is converted to NH4-N by nitrite reductase. The
resulting NH4-N is then assimilated into amino acids,
nucleic acids, proteins, chlorophylls, and other metabo-
lites [57]. Factors influencing the enzymatic regulation
responsible for N assimilation include: contents of
Mo [58] and Cu [59].
The content of amino acids in shoots of T. nilotica and Z.coccineum plants from the three tested sites were in the
order of WWC4SIE4NC, in line with the nitrogen and
phosphorus concentrations in plants. The amino acid
content (acidic, alkali, and neutral amino acids) showed
an increase in plants from the WWC site compared with
those from the other sites, which may be due to an
elevation of nitrogen, phosphorus, Mo, and Cu concen-
trations in shoots of the plants (Table 3).
Cruz et al. [60] reported that activities of nitrogen
metabolism-related enzymes such as nitrate reductase are
considerably lower in a low nitrate supply compared with
a high supply of nitrates.
Mo, one of the essential microelements for plant growth
and the metal component of the Mo cofactor, is
responsible for the catalytic activity of NR, aldehyde
oxidase, xanthine dehydrogenase, and sulfite oxidase. Mo
promotes N accumulation and utilization in wheat plants,
which is directly related to nitrate reductase. A higher Mo
status also results in higher accumulation and utilization
of plant N [58]. Cu exposure results in increase in the
concentration of free amino acids [59]. It can be observed
that there is superiority of Z. coccineum plants in terms of
amino acid content compared with T. nilotica; this may be
due to the higher content of shoot Mo in Z. coccineumcompared with T. nilotica and a genetic variation between
the two plants.
Effect of heavy metals on secondary metabolites
Phytochemicals are divided into two main groups
according to their function in the plant body: primary
and secondary constituents. The primary constituents are
sugars, amino acids, proteins, and chlorophyll and the
secondary constituents consist of alkaloids, terpenoids,
saponins, flavonoids, tannins, and phenolic com-
pounds [61].
The content of secondary metabolites (tannins, saponins,
and alkaloids) and fat were lower in plants from the
polluted sites compared with those from the NC site.
The tannin content ranged from 0.07 to 0.33 g, saponin
from 9.99 to 8.22%, and alkaloids from 7.95 to 1.00%.
Moreover, the maximum tannin and alkaloid contents
were detected in Z. coccineum from the NC site (Fig. 8).
Heavy metal-induced changes in the phenolic com-
pounds may further affect their functions in plant cells.
Phenolic compounds, including tannins, are often in-
volved in responses to different kinds of abiotic and biotic
stresses [62].
Cobbett and Goldsbrough [63] hypothesized that sec-
ondary metabolism may be an integral part of the plant’s
capacity to modify metabolic processes to survive and
grow in adverse conditions, including in the presence of
phytotoxic metals.
Individual plant species differ in their capacity to modify
their metabolism to tolerate or accumulate heavy metals.
The modifications may involve sequestration of the
metals in vacuoles, biosynthesis of organic compounds
that detoxify these metals, or synthesis of modified
tissues to exclude the contaminant [64]. These processes
often alter the uptake and distribution of other metal
ions, as was seen in the present study with altered heavy
metal concentrations in both tested plant tissues. A
consequence of this modified metabolism may include
the loss of specific enzymes or nonessential biomolecular
synthetic processes such as secondary metabolite bio-
synthesis.
ConclusionThese results prove that industrial pollutants and their
metal contamination can change the chemical composi-
tion of the soil and its properties, which reflects on some
medicinal plants, thereby, seriously impacting the quality,
safety, and efficacy of natural plant products produced by
medicinal plant species. The plants from polluted areas
cannot be used as herbal medicine. It is also important to
implement good quality control practices for screening
of herbal medicines to protect consumers from toxicity.
The data presented in this study provide the evidence
of the detrimental effects of naturally occurring or
industrially generated metal contamination in T. niloticaand Z. coccineum.
The plants collected from the investigated sites pose a
serious danger; however, a periodical assessment of plants
used for traditional medicine should be encouraged as
this will assist in ensuring their quality and safety in
herbal use, especially for people living in urban areas
where the level of pollution may be very high.
Amino acids are well-known biostimulants that have
positive effects on plant growth and yield. The higher
content of amino acids in the studied plant species from
the contaminated sites led us suggest extraction of amino
acid and their usage as foliar sprays for different plant
species (agricultural uses), especially plants of Z. coccineumthat have a short life cycle. Further studies are warranted
to extract these amino acids and to ensure the safety and
heavy metal-free status of these amino acids for their use.
AcknowledgementsConflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest.
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82 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
Optimization of growth conditions and continuous production
of inulinase using immobilized Aspergillus niger cellsNagwa A. Atwaa and Enas N. Daniala,b
aDepartment of Chemistry of Natural and MicrobialProducts, Division of Pharmaceutical Industries,National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt andbDepartment of Biochemistry, Faculty of Girls Science,King Abdulaziz University Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Correspondence to Nagwa A. Atwa, PhD, Departmentof Chemistry of Natural and Microbial Products,Division of Pharmaceutical Industries, NationalResearch Centre, El-Behoos St. 33, Dokki, Cairo12622, EgyptTel: + 20 100 522 7200; fax: + 20 234 25490;e-mail: [email protected]
Received 7 January 2013Accepted 17 March 2013
Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
2013,12:83–89
Aim
The aim of the study was the optimization of growth conditions for the production
of inulinase as well as the continuous production of the enzyme in an airlift bioreactor
using Aspergillus niger cells.
Methods
First, inulinase production by A. niger cells, using different carbon and nitrogen
sources, was studied on a shake flask level. Second, the cells were adsorbed onto
different carriers, and their production over several successive batches was tested.
Finally, the economically-favorable continuous production of inulinase by A. niger cells
immobilized onto linen fibers was carried out in an airlift bioreactor using crude inulin
juice as the fermentation medium.
Results
Although all tested substances resulted in the biosynthesis of certain amounts of
inulinase enzyme, the highest titer of 163.5 U/ml was obtained when the producing
cells were incubated for 96 h at 271C and 180 rpm in a fermentation medium
containing both inulin and peptone as sole carbon and nitrogen sources, respectively.
Moreover, when the cells of the tested microorganism were adsorbed onto different
carriers, especially linen fibers, their productivity was also successfully maintained, to
different extents, for five successive batches. However, as commercially pure inulin is
very expensive and available in only small quantities, the fermentation medium was later
substituted by a crude inulin extract obtained by mechanical crushing and filtration of
Jerusalem artichoke tubers. The crude inulin juice was able to sustain inulinase
production during the second batch cultivation of A. niger cells that were immobilized
by their adsorption onto linen fibers to a satisfactory level of about 122 U/ml.
Furthermore, the use of the previously mentioned crude inulin preparation was also
compared with the use of either complete or minimal media, composed solely of 1%
pure inulin, for the continuous production of inulinase enzyme by A. niger cells that
were immobilized in their maximum production phase and packed inside an external
loop airlift bioreactor. The results of this experiment were very encouraging as, using
this technique, an inulinase production of about 838 U/ml over an incubation period of
48 h was obtained compared with a production of about 996 and 1013 U/ml, which
resulted from the use of either minimized or complete media, respectively, for the same
incubation period.
Conclusion
The method adopted in this study for inulinase production is simple, economic, time
saving, and nontoxic to the microorganism. Moreover, the loaded linen fiber pads are
reusable.
Keywords:
airlift bioreactor, Aspergillus niger, inulin, inulinase
Egypt Pharm J 12:83–89& 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre1687-4315
IntroductionInulin is a widespread polyfructan, naturally occurring in
more than 30 000 edible plant species [1]. It consists of
linear chains of b(2,1)-linked fructose residues attached
to a terminal sucrose molecule [2]. Apart from its role as a
food component, inulin has also received great impor-
tance as a raw material for the production of fructose
syrup [3,4] and inulooligosaccharides [5]. Fructose is a
safe alternative to sucrose, which is known to be the
cause of many health problems including corpulence,
carcinogenicity, atherosclerosis, and diabetes [2]. In
addition, fructose also increases the absorption of iron,
as it forms an iron–fructose complex whose absorption
was found to be much better than that of inorganic
Original article 83
1687-4315 & 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre
DOI: 10.7123/01.EPJ.0000428964.32893.44
iron [6]. Fructose can be produced from inulin either
enzymatically or chemically through acid hydrolysis.
The latter method is not recommended because of
the undesirable coloring of inulin hydrolysate and the
formation of difructose anhydride, which has practically
no sweetening properties [2]. Moreover, the enzymatic
production of organic products, especially those used in
food and pharmaceutical industries, has many advantages
over chemical processes: The productivity is generally
higher, because of the high specificity of the enzymes for
their substrates; the production cost is relatively lower;
and most importantly it creates less pollution. Therefore,
many efforts have been made to replace chemical
processes with enzymatic ones [7]. Unfortunately, the
conventional enzymatic production of fructose from
inulin involves many steps and results in only a 45%
fructose yield. In contrast, the almost complete hydrolysis
of inulin (90–95%) into fructose can be performed in a
single step using inulinase enzyme [b(2,1)-fructan
fructanohydrolase] [6,8]. Inulinase is produced by many
microorganisms, including filamentous fungi, yeasts, and
bacteria. The fermentation of inulinase by these micro-
organisms can be greatly improved by modifying some
parameters, including the physiochemical and nutritional
conditions of growth required by the producing cells. In
this study, Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus) was
used as a cheap source of inulin, as about 80% w/w (dry
weight basis) of the tuber acts as a store for carbohy-
drates [7]. Moreover, in comparison with conventional
fermentations, immobilization of living cells provides
several important advantages such as a faster production
rate, easier purification of products, and a higher
productivity over a certain period of time [9]. One of
the most reliable, safe, and easy methods of immobiliza-
tion is the adsorption of the producing cells onto an inert,
suitable support [10–12]. Therefore, the present study
was carried out to examine the inulinase productivity of
Aspergillus niger cells under different cultivation conditions
and to study the effect of adsorption immobilization of
these cells onto different carriers on the productivity.
Finally, the continuous production of inulinase by the
producing cells that were immobilized onto linen fibers
and packed inside an external loop airlift bioreactor was
also investigated over a number of successive batches,
using either complete or minimal media as well as crude
inulin juice.
Materials and methodsMicroorganism
The production of inulinase was carried out using a locally
isolated strain of A. niger. The microorganism was
maintained on Czapek’s Dox (CD) agar medium [13]
at 301C for 7 days and then stored in the refrigerator
until use.
Authentic enzyme and chemicals
Inulinase (EC.3.2.1.7) was supplied by NOVO Industry
(A/S, Seoul, Korea). Pure inulin and the remaining
chemicals used were obtained from Sigma (St. Louis,
Missouri, USA). All solvents (analytical grade) were
obtained from Merck (Darmstadt, Germany).
Supports tested for cell immobilization
The immobilization of Aspergillus cells, and eventually
their inulinase productivity, was tested by the adsorption
method using three different carriers: glass wool (Pyrex
fiber glass, Sliver 8 mm; Corning Glass Work, Corning,
New York, USA), linen, and synthetic fibers (the latter
two were locally provided).
Preparation of crude inulin solution
Twenty grams of Jerusalem artichoke tubers (H. tuberosus),
collected locally, were washed, sliced, and grinded using a
blender along with 100 ml of distilled water, then filtered
through a fine gauze. The pH of the solution was
adjusted to 6.2 by addition of concentrated sodium
hydroxide. The resulting juice was sterilized at 1211C and
1.5 atmospheric pressure for 15 min [14]. The raw inulin
extract was analyzed, and its inulin content concentration
was estimated, according to the method described by
Ashwell [15], to be B1.5% (w/v).
Recovery and activity assay of inulinase
Inulinase activity was assayed by measuring the amount
of reducing sugars released from inulin [16]. The
fermentation broth was centrifuged at 3000g and 41C
for 5 min. The obtained supernatant was used as the
crude enzyme. A reaction mixture of 0.1 ml of the enzyme
sample and 0.9 ml of acetate buffer (0.1 mol/l, pH 5.0)
containing 2% inulin was incubated at 501C in a water
bath for 15 min. The mixture was then kept at 1001C for
10 min to inactivate the enzyme. The same mixture to
which the same amount of inactivated crude enzyme
(heated at 1001C for 10 min) was added before the
reaction was used as a control. The reaction mixture was
assayed for reducing sugars according to the method of
Nelson–Somogyi cited by Spiro [17]. The calibrating
curve was drawn with fructose (10–100 mg). One unit of
inulinase was defined as the amount of enzyme that
released one micromole of fructose from inulin per min
under assay conditions.
Media and cultivation conditions
Shake flask fermentation of free cells
Unless otherwise mentioned, inulinase production was
carried out in 250 ml Erlenmeyer flasks, each containing
50 ml of basal CD medium [13] comprising (g/l): inulin,
10; NaNO3, 3; K2HPO4, 1; MgSO40.7H2O, 0.5; KCl, 0.5;
and Fe2SO40.7H2O, 0.01 (pH 6.5). The flasks were then
sterilized, inoculated with about 2� 109 spores/ml of the
producing microorganism, and incubated for 96 h at
120 rpm and 301C. The effect of various carbon sources,
such as fructose, glucose, maltose, starch, and lactose, was
investigated. Each carbon source was added to the basal
medium (without inulin) at a concentration of 10 g/l
either individually or in combination with inulin, which
was then supplemented at a concentration of either 1 or
5 g/l. Similarly, various organic and inorganic nitrogen
sources were individually added to the basal medium as a
substitute for NaNO3 in order to study their effect on
84 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
inulinase production. The tested organic nitrogen sources
(peptone, urea, and yeast, beef, and meat extracts) were
added at a concentration of 50 g/l. The inorganic nitrogen
sources under study (NH4SO4 and NH4Cl) were added
according to their nitrogen content such that it was
equivalent to that of NaNO3, which was omitted from the
medium.
Shake flask fermentation of immobilized cells
The immobilization of A. niger was studied using the
adsorption method [11,12]. A total of 1.4 g of each tested
support (glass wool and synthetic and linen fibers) was
added to a 250 ml flask containing 50 ml of the optimized
medium composed of (g/l): inulin, 10; peptone, 50; K2HPO4,
1; MgSO40.7H2O, 0.5; KCl, 0.5; and Fe2SO40.7H2O, 0.01
(pH 6.5). The flasks were then sterilized, inoculated with
about 2� 109 spores/ml of the producing microorganism,
and incubated for 96 h at 120 rpm and 301C. To assess the
productivity of the immobilized cells for another batch, the
loaded pads were washed thoroughly with normal saline,
carefully squeezed under sterile conditions, and used to
inoculate 50 ml of a fresh sterile medium, which was then
reincubated under the former conditions but for a shorter
incubation period of 72 h.
An experiment was carried out as an attempt to reduce
the quantity of the constituents of the fermentation
medium used during repeated batch cultivation of the
cells previously adsorbed onto linen fibers in their
maximum inulinase production phase. This was achieved
to decrease the growth of the escaped cells and to
produce inulinase using the cheapest possible medium.
Therefore, as described previously, A. niger cells were
inoculated in 50 ml of sterile medium along with 1.4 g of
linen fibers in each flask. After 96 h of incubation at 301C
and 120 rpm, the linen fiber pads saturated with the cells
in their maximum production phase were washed
thoroughly with normal saline solution and carefully
squeezed using sterilized forceps. These pads were then
transferred to new flasks containing different ratios of the
constituents of the main medium as shown in Table 1.
Crude inulin, obtained by mechanical crushing and
filtration of Jerusalem artichoke tubers, as previously
explained, was also tested. These flasks were then
reincubated at 301C and 120 rpm for another 72 h. At
the end of this incubation period, inulinase production
and the cell dry weight of unadsorbed cells in each flask
were estimated.
Airlift bioreactor fermentation of immobilized cells
The production of inulinase enzyme by A. niger cells
immobilized onto linen fibers was investigated in an
external loop airlift bioreactor [12], using either complete
or minimized fermentation media as well as raw inulin
juice. A schematic diagram of the designed apparatus is
illustrated in Fig. 1. The bioreactor consists mainly of a
riser column with a height of 40 cm and a downcomer
tube with a diameter of 1 cm. The riser column is
composed of an inner perforated column with an internal
diameter of 3 cm jacketed by an outer column that has an
internal diameter of 4 cm. The inner column was
designed to hold up the linen fiber pads, on which the
producing cells were previously immobilized, and to
prevent their fluidization. The perforation of the column
allowed the fermentation broth to come in contact with
the immobilized cells in many parts and also helped
achieve a good oxygen transfer to the packed fibers.
Table 1 Optimization of the fermentation medium used in the
second batch production of inulinase by Aspergillus niger cells
immobilized onto linen fibers
Inulin (g/l) Peptone (g/l) Salt content (%)
Control medium number1 10 50 1002 10 50 100
Second batch medium number1 10 50 1002 10 25 1003 10 5 1004 10 1 1005 10 0 1006 10 50 507 10 50 258 10 50 09 8 50 10010 5 50 10011 2 50 10012 7.5 37.5 7513 5 25 5014 2.5 12.5 2515 10 0 016 10 0 0
Controls 1 and 2, inulinase production by free cells and by the firstbatch of cultivated immobilized cells, respectively.
Figure 1
Schematic diagram of the airlift bioreactor and its accessories used forthe production of inulinase by immobilized Aspergillus niger cells. 1,riser column; 2, inner perforated column; 3, downcomer tube; 4, one-way valve; 5, air sparger; 6, air inlet; 7, air outlet; 8, medium inlet; 9,medium outlet; C1–C5, clamps; F1, F2, F3, air filters; P1, P2, peristalticpump; P3, air pump; R1, medium feeding reservoir; R2, productcollection reservoir.
Optimization of inulinase production Atwa and Danial 85
The whole system was mounted inside an incubator
adjusted at 301C.
The inoculum was in the form of eight firmly squeezed
linen pads supporting Aspergillus cells that were previously
immobilized by their cultivation in the optimized
medium for 96 h at 120 rpm and 301C. The linen pads
loaded with the immobilized cells were packed, under
aseptic conditions, inside the inner column of the
bioreactor. A working volume of 360 ml of each tested
medium was fed one at a time. The aeration rate of the
bioreactor was adjusted at 0.5 v/v/m. The fermentation
medium once introduced by a peristaltic pump P1 into
the riser column was left without circulation for 30 h in
contact with the immobilized cells. This phase was
performed to reinitiate the inulinase production of the
immobilized cells. Thereafter, peristaltic pump P2 was
adjusted such that the medium could circulate at a rate of
30 ml/h. During the experiment, 20 ml aliquots of the
culture were systematically withdrawn with a syringe
through an inline air filter. These samples were assayed to
monitor inulinase production and cell escapement.
Results and discussionOptimization of growth and inulinase production
parameters of free cells on shake flask level
Effect of different incubation periods
The production of inulinase by A. niger cells on inulin
basal CD fermentation medium was monitored over a
period of 120 h under the previously mentioned shaking
cultivation conditions of 120 rpm and 301C. The results
illustrated graphically in Fig. 2 show that the activity of
inulinase was 0.88 U/ml in the fermentation medium after
6 h of incubation. This recorded enzyme activity was
found to increase linearly with time by a production rate
(Qp) of 1.6 U/ml/h and reached a maximum volumetric
production of 139.349 U/ml after about 96 h of incuba-
tion. After this incubation period, a gradual decrease in
inulinase activity was observed. The reported production
decrease rate (– Qp) was about 0.69 U/ml/h. Cell growth
was also studied during the course of fermentation and
was found to increase gradually with time by a specific
growth rate (m) of about 0.35 g/l/h. A maximum cell dry
weight (Xmax) of about 9.98 g% was recorded after 96 h of
incubation. Thereafter, a slight cell lysis was observed
with a specific degradation rate (– m) of about 0.02 g/l/h,
resulting in a cell dry weight of 9.51 g/l after 120 h of
incubation. This result showed that inulinase production
was growth-dependent and that the maximum inulinase
productivity of the producing organism was just before
the onset of its stationary phase of growth. Moreover, a
maximum yield coefficient (units of inulinase per gram of
cell mass formed) of 1396.3 U/g cells was recorded after
96 h of incubation.
Effect of different carbon sources
Different carbon sources were tested for their ability to
sustain substantial amounts of inulinase enzyme produc-
tion (Fig. 3). Among them, inulin resulted in a maximum
enzyme production of about 140 U/ml, followed by
sucrose, which resulted in B114 U/ml of the enzyme.
Lower enzyme titers ranging between 96 and 80 U/ml
were recorded upon using other carbon sources including
(in descending order of enzyme activity recorded):
fructose, glucose, maltose, starch, and finally lactose.
However, because the use of inulin as a sole carbon source
in the fermentation medium was inconvenient owing to
its high cost, it was therefore added to the medium
containing each individual carbon source, in small
percentages of 0.1 and 0.5%, as an attempt to initiate
higher inulinase production. This goal was achieved as
the addition of inulin in these percentages resulted in
significant increases in enzyme production (results
ranging from 5.6 to 12%). However, none of these
enzyme titers could exceed the level obtained when
inulin was added as a sole carbon source in the
fermentation medium.
Figure 2
Effect of different incubation periods on the growth of and inulinaseproduction by free Aspergillus niger cells cultivated in basal Czapek’sDox medium.
Figure 3
Effect of different carbon sources, added either individually or inaddition to 0.1 or 0.5% inulin, on inulinase production by freeAspergillus niger cells.
86 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
Effect of different nitrogen sources
Different nitrogen sources, either organic or inorganic,
were also tested for inulinase productivity. The results
in Fig. 4 show that a maximum production of about
163.5 U/ml could be achieved when peptone was used as
a sole nitrogen source in the fermentation medium. Much
lower yields ranging between 124 and 93 U/ml were
recorded upon using other organic nitrogen sources
including (in descending order of enzyme productivity):
yeast and beef extracts, urea, and then finally meat
extract. In contrast, the use of inorganic nitrogen sources
such as NaNO3, NH4SO4, and NH4Cl resulted in en-
zyme titers of approximately 131, 125, and 99.5 U/ml,
respectively.
Optimization of growth and inulinase production
parameters of immobilized cells on shake flask level
Effect of immobilizing Aspergillus niger cells on different
carriers
A. niger cells were tested for their ability to produce
inulinase while immobilized by adsorption onto different
carriers including glass wool and synthetic and linen
fibers. The enzyme production results were compared
with those obtained when free cells of the fungus were
cultivated on the same optimized culture medium under
similar cultivation conditions. The results in Fig. 5
indicate that the cells immobilized onto linen fibers
were only slightly affected by the immobilization process,
as they were able to produce a satisfactory enzyme
concentration of about 131 U/ml compared with 164 U/ml
produced by cultivation of free cells for the same
incubation period of 96 h. Successive batch cultivation
of the immobilized cells was performed to test their
inulinase productivity. This result was very promising
because this previously mentioned inulinase titer was,
more or less, attained after a much shorter incubation
time of 72 h, as the cells were inoculated in their
maximum production phase. The obtained yield of
inulinase could also be more or less sustained within
appropriate ranges for five consecutive batches, resulting
in a total enzyme yield of 630 U/ml within a combined
serial incubation period of 384 h. In contrast, the first
batch cultivation of the A. niger cells adsorbed onto either
synthetic fibers or glass wool resulted in lower inulinase
yields of 112 and 103 U/ml, respectively. It was observed
that these titers were maintained, with only a slight
decrease, during the experiment.
Optimization of the fermentation medium used for the second
batch production of inulinase by Aspergillus niger cells
immobilized onto linen fibers
The results illustrated in Fig. 6 show that a maximum
inulinase production of about 162 U/ml was obtained
when free cells were cultivated for 96 h (control 1).
Moreover, the first batch cultivation of immobilized cells
(control 2) resulted in a satisfactory inulinase production
of 134.5 U/ml for the same incubation period. However,
the results showed no significant differences between the
inulinase titers estimated in the fermentation broths of
media no. 1 to 8 (used in the second batch cultivation of
72 h), which ranged between 130.28 and 120.44 U/ml.
Figure 4
Effect of different organic and inorganic nitrogen sources on inulinaseproduction by free Aspergillus niger cells.
Figure 5
Inulinase production during repeated batch cultivation of Aspergillusniger cells immobilized onto different support materials. Control,inulinase production by free cells.
Figure 6
Optimization of the fermentation medium used in the second batchproduction of inulinase by Aspergillus niger cells immobilized onto linenfibers. Controls 1 and 2, inulinase production by free cells and by thefirst batch of cultivated immobilized cells, respectively.
Optimization of inulinase production Atwa and Danial 87
This means that the inulinase productivity of the cells
was more or less maintained in the second batch even
when the peptone or salt content of the medium was
reduced or even eliminated. However, it was found that
the inulin content of the medium was critical for both the
growth of the producing organism and its productivity, as
its reduction, keeping the percentage of the other
constituents constant, affected the inulinase titer and
cell growth greatly (media no. 9 to 11). The critical effect
of inulin on inulinase production was also revealed when
different percentages ranging between 75 and 25% were
used in the media (media no. 12 to 14), as the production
of inulinase decreased to 87.16 and 47.21 U/ml, respec-
tively. However, medium 15, composed of only pure
inulin (10 g/l), and medium 16, composed of crude inulin
solution (15 g/l), resulted in satisfactory inulinase levels
of 126 and 122 U/ml, respectively. Relying on these
results, the complete medium could be substituted by
either medium 15 (minimal medium) or medium 16 (raw
inulin extract) for the production of inulinase during the
repeated batch cultivation of A. niger cells immobilized
onto linen fibers.
Optimization of fermentation medium used for the
continuous production of inulinase by immobilized cells
in an airlift bioreactor
Inulinase production using complete medium
The results illustrated in Fig. 7 show that inulinase
production increased gradually at the rate of 1.56 U/ml/hr
and reached a volumetric production of 102.6 U/ml after
only 48 h of incubation. This maximum inulinase
production level was maintained until 78 h of incubation.
Inulinase production using minimal medium
The experiment was repeated using minimal medium as
previously described. Although this medium was only
composed of 10 g/l pure inulin, lacking any other media
component, the inulinase productivity of the cells, of
about 100 U/ml, was satisfactorily restored after only 24 h
of incubation wherein the recorded productivity rate was
2.54 U/ml/h. This titer was more or less maintained until
the end of the fermentation time (Fig. 7). The obtained
results could be attributed to the fact that immobilized
cells need nutrients that will only maintain their
inulinase productivity on the expense of their growth.
It was also observed that the use of a minimal medium
resulted in a reduction in unwanted growth of escaping
cells, which favors recovery of the produced enzyme.
Inulinase production using crude inulin solution
The experiment was finally performed using the crude
inulin solution, prepared as previously mentioned in the
Material and methods section. The latter resulted in a
slightly reduced inulinase yield compared with that
obtained using either complete or minimal media
(Fig. 7). The recorded productivity rate under these
conditions was 2.03 g/l/h for the first 36 h of the
incubation period. However, a satisfactory production
level ranging between 85.9 and 79.9 U/ml was then
reached and approximately sustained for another 42 h.
These results were very encouraging as, using this
technique, a combined production of about 838 U/ml of
inulinase was obtained from a very economic crude
extract of inulin in only 48 h, which is comparable with
yields of 996 and 1013 U/ml that were obtained when
immobilized cells were cultivated using pure inulin in
either minimized or complete media, respectively, for the
same incubation period.
ConclusionFrom these experiments, we can conclude that the
production of inulinase by A. niger cells immobilized by
their adsorption onto the surface of linen fibers, using
crude inulin extraction, is a very promising method that
could be performed on large scales for economic,
industrial production of the enzyme. The main advantage
of this method is the higher productivity of the
immobilized cells compared with that of the free cells,
considering the possibility of their repeated batch
cultivation. It was also observed that the production time
during the repeated batch cultivations reduced by more
than half. Moreover, with the use of crude inulin juice, a
low percentage of cell growth, and eventually cell
escapement, was attained. The latter made the recovery
and purification of the enzyme much easier. As a final
conclusion, this method is simple, economic, time saving,
and nontoxic to the microorganism. In addition, the
loaded linen pads are reusable.
AcknowledgementsThe authors express their deepest gratitude to Prof. Dr. A.I. El-Diwanyand Prof. Dr. M.A. Farid for their generous participation in designing andfunding the airlift bioreactor and for their continuous invaluable support.
Conflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest.
Figure 7
Continuous production of inulinase by Aspergillus niger cells immobi-lized onto linen fibers in an airlift bioreactor, using either complete orminimized media as well as crude inulin juice.
88 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
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11 Farid MA, El-Batal AI, El-Diwany AI, El-Anshasy HA. Optimization of glutamicacid production with immobilized cells of Corynebacterium glutamicum.Adv Food Sci 1996; 18:34–38.
12 Atwa NA. Microbial and biochemical studies on the production of anti-biotics for veterinary uses [PhD thesis]. Microbiology Department, Faculty ofSciences, Cairo University; 2003..
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16 Sheng J, Chi Z, Li J, Gao L, Gong F. Inulinase production by the marine yeastCryptococcus aureus G7a and inulin hydrolysis by the crude inulinase.Process Biochem 2007; 42:805–811.
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Optimization of inulinase production Atwa and Danial 89
Chemical constituents from the aerial parts of Salsola inermisFatma S. Elsharabasya,c and Ahlam M. Hosneyb
Departments of aChemistry of Natural and MicrobialProducts, bTheraputic Chemistry, National ResearchCenter, Dokki, Egypt and cCollage of Science andHumanities, Salman bin Abdul Aziz University, AlkharjCity, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Correspondence to Fatma S. Elsharabasy, PhD,Department of Chemistry of Natural and MicrobialProducts, National Research Center, El-Behooth St,Dokki 12311, EgyptTel: + 20 101 468 5611; fax: + 20 233 370 931;e-mail: [email protected]
Received 22 July 2012Accepted 31 October 2012
Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
2013,12:90–94
Background and objective
The hydroalcoholic extract from the aerial parts of Salsola inermis exhibited antioxidant,
anti-inflammatory, and antinociceptive effects. The present study deals with the
isolation and identification of the chemical constituents of this hydroalcoholic extract.
Materials and methods
The aerial parts of S. inermis (Forsskal) were collected from wild plants growing near
the El-Alamein area in October 2005. Air-dried and powdered aerial parts of S. inermis
were extracted with 70% alcohol in H2O. The extract was partitioned successively with
CHCl3, EtOAc, and n-BuOH. The structures of the isolated compounds were
determined by chemical and spectroscopic analyses.
Results and conclusion
Phytochemical investigation of the alcoholic extract from the aerial parts of
S. inermis revealed 12 compounds, identified as long chain hydroxyl fatty acid
9,12,13-trihydroxydecosan–10,15,19-trienoic acid; trans-N-feruloyl tyramine-40 0 0-O-b-
D-glucopyranoside; umbelliferone; scopoletin; 3-methyl kaempferol; olean-12-en-3,28-
diol; olean-12-en-28-oic acid; stigmasterol-3-b-O-D-glucopyranoside; 3-O-[b-D-
glucopyranosyl]oleanolic acid; kaempferol 3-O-b-glucopyranoside; and isorhamnetin
3-O-b-glucopyranoside, in addition to b-sitosterol, stigmasterol, and stigmastanol.
Some of these compounds have hydroxyl groups, which help in scavenging free
radicals and inhibit COX and various mediators involved in the pathogenesis of
pain relief.
Keywords:
aerial parts, coumarins, flavonoids, NMR, Salsola inermis, terpenes
Egypt Pharm J 12:90–94& 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre1687-4315
IntroductionThe genus Salsola, family Chenopodiaceae (Goosefoot
family), includes over 100 species found in the dry
regions of Asia, Europe, and Africa [1]. The Salsolaspecies represents 16 species in Egypt, most of which
grow in the Egyptian deserts [2]. Previous phytochemical
investigation of the genus resulted in the isolation of
alkaloids, saponins, sterols and their glucosides, comarino-
lignan, isoflavonoids, and flavonoids [3–10]. Some Salsolaplants are widely used as folk medicine for the treatment
of hepatitis [11] or infections caused by tapeworm and
parasites [12]; they also have pronounced vasoconstric-
tive, hypertensive, and cardiac stimulant action [13]
and can act as an allergenic substance [14,15]. Reactive
oxygen species (ROS) are always present in cells as
metabolic products of normal cellular respiration. How-
ever, oxidative stress, an imbalance caused by excessive
ROS originating from endogenous and exogenous sources,
might cause inflammation and therefore play a pivotal
role in many diseases [16]. Cytopreventive antioxidants
prevent the formation of free radicals and scavenge them
or promote their decomposition [17]. In chemical terms,
polyhydroxy flavonoids efficiently modulate the redox
status and thus may play a critical role in regulating the
inducible gene expression of inflammatory mediators in
the lipopolysaccharide-stimulated mouse leukemic mono-
cyte macrophage cell line (RAW 2647macrophages) [18].
As a continuation of our previous studies that showed that
the ethanol extract of Salsola inermis has antioxidant and
anti-inflammatory properties [19], the present study
deals with the isolation and identification of chemical
constituents of the hydroalcoholic extract from the aerial
parts of S. inermis.
Materials and methodsElectron impact mass spectra (EIMS) were obtained using
Varian MAT 711 (Germany), Finnigan SSQ 7000 (San Jose,
California, USA), and OMM 7070 E spectrometers
(Maryland, USA). 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR spectra were
recorded at 500 MHz on a JEOL 500 A spectrometer
(JEOL Inc., USA). The 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR chemical
shifts are expressed in ppm relative to tetramethylsilane.
Infrared (IR) spectra were measured on a Perkin Elmer FT-
IR1700 spectrometer (Perkin Elmer, USA) at the National
Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt. Ultraviolet (UV) spectra
were recorded on a Shimadzu UV-Vis spectrophotometer
(Shimadzu, USA). Thin layer chromatography (TLC)
plates (aluminum sheets) precoated with silica gel G 60
(F 254; Merck) were used for chromatography. Special
reagents used were iodine–potassium iodide for detection
of coumarins and chlorosulfonic acid spray reagent for the
detection of sterols and triterpens. The two-dimensional
paper chromatographic technique using the solvent system
90 Short communication
1687-4315 & 2013 Division of Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research,National Research Centre
DOI: 10.7123/01.EPJ.0000428060.24957.95
BuOH : HOAc : H2O (4 : 1 : 5) and HOAc (15%) was also
used [20].
Plant material
The aerial parts of S. inermis (Forsskal) were collected
from wild plants growing near the El-Alamein area in
October 2005. The plant specimen was authenticated by
Dr N. El-Hadidi, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, and
was compared with reference herbarium specimens.
General procedure for extraction and isolation
Air-dried and powdered aerial parts of S. inermis were
extracted with 70% alcohol in H2O after evaporation of
the solvent under reduced pressure. It was essential that
the extract (200 g) be partitioned successively with
CHCl3, EtOAc, and n-BuOH.
The CHCl3 fraction (8 g) was applied onto a silica gel
column and eluted with a gradient of n-hexane, CHCl3, and
MeOH (100–0, 90–10, 80–20, 70–30, 60–40, 50–50, 40–60,
20–80, 0–100) to give five fractions A1–A5. Further
purification of A1 (0.8 g) by preparative TLC with
n-hexane/CHCl3 as an eluent afforded compounds I
(0.05 g) and II (0.02 g). Moreover, column chromatography
of A2 with CHCl3 afforded compounds III (0.28 g) and IV
(0.10 g). Column chromatography of A4 with gradient
elution using EtOAc/MeOH yielded compound V
(0.18 g). The EtOAc fraction (7 g) was chromatographed
over silica gel with successive petroleum ether/EtOAc
(80–20, 20–80, 0–100) and EtOAc/MeOH (90–10, 0–100)
elution to give eight fractions, B1–B8. Column chromato-
graphy of B6 (1.24 g) with CHCl3/MeOH elution (9–1 and
9–2) afforded compounds VI (5 mg) and VII (3 mg).
Further, column chromatography of B8 with CHCl3/MeOH
elution (9–1 and 8–2) afforded compound VIII (6 mg).
BuOH (12 g) applied onto a flash column chromatography
column with H2O/MeOH gradient elution afforded three
fractions, C1–C3. Purification of C2 and C3 carried out on a
Sephadex LH-20 column with CHCl3/MeOH elution (1–9
and 0–10) afforded compounds IX, X, XI, and XII.
The physical and spectral data of the isolated compounds
are as follows.
Compound I
Gummy white solid, EIMS, m/z 386: [M] + calculated for
C22H42O5; IR (KBr) nmax cm – 1 3437, 2925, 2854, 1740,
929; 1H-NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) dH 0.9 (3H, t, J = 7.3,
H-22), 1.35 (11 H, bs, H-4, H-5, H-6, H-7, H-8a), 1.45
(1H, m, H-8b), 1.61 (2H, m, H-3), 2.05 (2H, t, J = 6,
8 Hz, H-21), 2.17 (1H, m, H-14a), 2.33 (1H, m, H-14b),
3.46 (1H, m, H-13), 3.98 (1H, t, J = 5.3 Hz, H-12), 4.05
(1H, m, H-9), 5.42, O, (1H, J = 11.2, 5.2 Hz, H-16), 5.47,
O, (1H, J = 11.2, 5.2 Hz, H-15), 5.68 (1H, dd, J = 15.7,
5.2 Hz, H-11), 5.73 (1H, dd, J = 15.7, 5.2 Hz, H-10).
Compound II
Amorphous powder, IR (KBr) nmax cm – 1 3416, 2925,
1725, 1646, 1515, 1269, 1074. EIMS, m/z: 476 [M] + calcd
for C24H30NO9. UV lmax (MeOH) nm (loge): 225 (3.12),
278 (2.99), 311 (3.1). 1H-NMR and 13C-NMR spectral
data are presented in Table 1.
Compound III
White crystals, m.p. 225–2281C, Rf 0.42 (TLC, S1); UV
lmax nm (MeOH) 217, 245, 260sh, 279sh, and 322 nm;
EIMS m/z 162 [M] + , C9H6O3. 1H-NMR (500 MHz,
CDCl3) dH 6.15 (1H, d, J = 9.6 Hz, H-3), 6.58 (1H, d,
J = 2.6 Hz, H-8), 6.85 (1H, dd, J = 8.6 Hz, H-6), 7.35
(1H, d, J = 8.6 Hz, H-5), 7.81 (1H, d, J = 9.3 Hz, H-4).
Compound IV
Colorless needle crystals (CHCl3), m.p. 221–2231C, Rf
0.5 (TLC, S1); UV lmax nm (MeOH) 229, 250sh, 260sh,
295sh and 342 nm. 1H-NMR (500 MHz, CDCl3) dH 6.26
and 7.58 (2H, d, J = 9.6 Hz, H-3 and H-4), 6.85 and 6.92
(2H, s, H-8 and H-5) and 3.92 (3H, s, Me-6).
Compound V
Colorless needles, m.p. 131–1321C, showed [M+] peak at
m/z 412 (25.0%), 414 (17%), and 416 (1.40%) and
characteristic fragmentation peaks at m/z 275, 255, 231, 213.
Compound VI
White needles (0.22 g), m.p. 2541C. M + peak at m/z 441
(9.30%), corresponding to C30H50O, and an intensive
peak at m/z 411 (18.92%), corresponding to M + –
CH2OH. IR showed characteristic absorption bands at
3395 (OH), 2925 cyclic (CH2), 1730, and 1446 (C = C).
D12 double bond proved to be readily recognizable by
mass spectra and 1H-NMR shows seven tertiary methyl
proton singlets at 0.81, 0.82, 0.84, 0.86, 1.18, 1.22, and
1.84, an olefin proton at d 5.4 (br.s.), and a hydroxyl
methylene proton at 5.14.
Compound VII
Isolated as white crystals (0.01 g), m.p. 259–601C, IR
spectrum showed strong bands near 3415 cm – 1 (OH),
1735 cm – 1 (CO), two bands 1390–1375 and 1369–1354
cm – 1 in the ‘A-region’, and three bands at 1328–1318,
1303–1296, and 1267–1248 cm – 1 in the ‘b-region’; its
Table 11H-NMR (300 MHz) and
13C-NMR (300 MHz) for
compound II (CHCl3-d6)
Position dH dC
1 1752 6.47 121.73 7.43 140.9810 129.1820 7.17 br d (1.6) 114.030 14840 148.650 6.74 d (8.5) 115.6460 6.95 dd (8.2, 1.7) 121.410 0 3.34 t (7.3) 40.5520 0 2.76 t (7.3) 40.3910 0 0 132.020 0 0, 60 0 0 7.17 d (8.5) 13030 0 0, 50 0 0 7.1 2 d (8.5) 115.040 0 0 156Glc-1 4.2 d (7.4) 101.32 3.33 (overlap) 74.013 3.39 (overlap) 77.444 3.25 (overlap) 70.625 3.25 (overlap) 67.936 3.99 dd (12.0, 1.9) 63.61
3.73 dd (12.0, 5.5)OCH3 3.81s 56.42
Chemical constituents of Salsola inermis Elsharabasy and Hosney 91
mass gave an M + + 1 peak at m/z 457 (2.02%), corres-
ponding to C30H48O3, fragmentation characteristic with
respect to oleanane triterpenoids having D12 : 13 unsaturation.
The ion at m/z 189 stands for rings A and B in the
dehydrated form [21].
Compound VIII
Yellow powder, m.p. 275–2781C, Rf 0.47 (TLC, S2); UV
lmax nm (MeOH) 268 and 363, (MeOH/NaOMe) 279
and 423, (MeOH/AlCl3) 269 and 423; 1H-NMR
(500 MHz, DMSO) dH 6.16 and 6.42 (2H, d,
J = 2.2 Hz, H-6 and H-8), 6.90 and 8.0 (each 2H, d,
J = 8.7 Hz, H-30, -50 and H-20,-60).
Compound IX
White powder, m.p. 265–2681C, Rf 0.47 (TLC, S2);
EIMS, M + peak at m/z 576, 9.45%, corresponding to the
molecular formula C35H60O6, m/z 163 (13.54) of one
hexose sugar; IR spectrum (KBr) Vmax cm – 1, 3421 (OH),
1730–1446 (C = C), 1129, 1076, 1055, and 1015 (ether
linkage of glycoside); 1H-NMR (500 MHz, DMSO-d6) dH
0.64 and 1.02 (each 3H, s, H-18 and H-19), 0.78–0.85
(9H, m, H-26, 27 and H-29), 0.89 (3H, d, J = 6.6 Hz,
H-21), 0.94 (3H, m, H-29), 4.39 (1H, m, H-3), 5.38 (1H,
broad s, H-6), and 4.30 (1H, d, J = 7.7 Hz, H-10).
Compound X
White powder, m.p. 260–2631C, Rf 0.57 (TLC, S2); EIMS,
M+ at m/z 618 compatible with C36H58O8, m/z 456 ascribe
to the mass of triterpene (aglycone), corresponding to
C30H47O3, m/z 438 (aglycone-H2O), 426 (aglycone-2Me),
410 (aglycone-COOH + Me), 248 and 189, 133, the ion at
m/z 161 stands for a hexose sugar.
Compound XI
Yellow powder, UV lmax nm: (MeOH) 256, 267.1, 292sh,
357; MeOH + NaOMe, 272, 291, 325sh, 415; MeOH +
NaOAc, 273, 315, 390; MeOH + AlCl3, 274, 292, 340sh,
425 MeOH + AlCl3 + HCl; 272, 303sh, 360sh, 403.1H-NMR (500 MHz, DMSO) dH 7.82 (2H, d,
J = 8.2 Hz, H-20, 60), 6.84 (2H, d, J = 8.2 Hz, H-30,50),
6.28 (1H, d, J = 1.9 Hz, H-6), 5.30 (1H, d, J = 7.6 Hz,
H-100 of glucose), 3.27–3.57 (m, rest of glucose protons).
Acid hydrolysis gave kaempferol and glucose.
Compound XII
Yellow powder, m.p. 224–226oC; brown fluorescence in
UV, Rf 0.34, UV lmax nm: (MeOH) 254, 265sh, 353;
(NaOMe) 270, 331sh, 415; (NaOAc) 271, 311sh, 394;
(AlCl3) 264, 296, 366sh, 400; (AlCl3 + HCl) 262, 300, 366,
400. Acid hydrolysis gave isorhamnetin and glucose.
92 Egyptian Pharmaceutical Journal
Results and discussionsThe aqueous ethanolic extract was successively parti-
tioned in H2O/CHCl3, H2O/EtOAc, and H2O/n-BuOH.
The three fractions were then subjected to a sequence of
column chromatography procedures to yield compounds
I–V, VI–VIII, and IX–XII, respectively.
9,12,13-Trihydroxydocosan–10,15,19-trienoic acid (I) was
isolated as a white solid with the molecular formula
C22H42O5, calculated from the [M + ] peak at m/z 386. Its
IR spectrum showed OH and CO absorptions at 3437 and
1740 cm – 1, respectively. 13C-NMR was characteristic of
an unsaturated long chain fatty acid with a methyl group
at dC 14.3, several methylene carbons from 23.2 to 39.91,
two sp2carbons at 139.3 and 157.4, and a substituted
carboxyl carbon at dC 166.98, in addition to three low-
field oxygenated carbons at dC 72.99 and 77.0, bearing
methane protons at dH 4.2, 3.89, and 3.58, respectively,
which confirmed the presence of three hydroxyl groups;
an olefinic proton signal appeared at d 5.27. Analysis of
the spectra provided evidence for the fragment and
established the structure of compound I [22].
Trans-N-feruloyl tyramine-4000-O-b-D-glucopyranoside (II)
showed EIMS, M + at m/z 476 calculated for the
molecular formula C24H30NO9. Its IR spectrum exhibited
characteristic absorption bands for a hydroxyl group
(3416 cm – 1), conjugated carbonyl group (1646 cm – 1),
and conjugated double bond (1515 cm – 1). Acid hydrolysis
of II afforded D-glucose as determined by comparing the
Rf of the hydrolysis product with that of an authentic
sample using the paper chromatographic technique. The1H-NMR spectrum (Table 1) indicated the presence of
one 1,4-disubstituted aromatic ring at dH 7.19 (2H, d,
J = 8.4 Hz, H-2000, 6000) and dH 7.19 (2H, d, J = 8.5 Hz, H-
3000, 5000); one 1,3,4-trisubstituted aromatic ring at dH 6.95
(1H, dd, J = 8.2, 1.7 Hz, H-60) and dH 6.75 (1H, d,
J = 8.2 Hz, H-50); one trans olefin at dH 6.68 (1H, d,
J = 15.2 Hz, H-3) and dH 4.22 (1H, d, J = 12.1 Hz, H-2);
and one methoxy proton at dH 3.99 (3H). From the
coupling constant of the anomeric proton at dH 4.24
(1H, d, J = 7.4 Hz, Glc-1), C-1 of the D-glucopyranose
was determined to be in the b-configuration. Analysis of
the 13C-NMR (Table 1; dC-1" 175, dC-1 40.5) and the
molecular formula of II revealed that C-100 and C-1were
linked by a nitrogen atom. The current analysis and
comparison with the data in the literature suggested the
structure of compound II [23].
The two coumarins III and IV were isolated from the
CHCl3 extract. Umbelliferone (III) showed shine blue
fluorescence under UV light (366) and when sprayed
with I2/KI reagent turned into a colorless spot. From
the results of 1H-NMR analysis and by cochromato-
graphy with the reference substance, compound III was
identified.
Scopoletin (IV) showed strong blue fluorescence under
UV light (366) and when sprayed with I2/KI reagent
turned into brown spot. The UV spectrum of IV in
MeOH showed absorption bands at 229, 250sh, 260sh,
295sh, and 342 nm, which suggested a 6,7-dioxgenated
coumarin skeleton. From the results of 1H-NMR analysis
and by cochromatography with the reference substance,
compound IV was identified [24].
Three known sterols (V) isolated from the CHCl3 extract
gave positive results for the Liebermann test for sterols
and showed an [M + ] peak at m/z 412 (25.0%), 414
(17%), and 416 (1.40%) corresponding to C29H48O,
C29H50O, and C29H52O, respectively. Because of its
occurrence with the identified sterols [25], the sterol
with M + at m/z 414 (17.0%) was identified as b-
sitosterol, the sterol with M + at m/z 412 (25.0%) was
identified as stigmasterol, and the sterol with M + at m/z416 was identified as sitostanol.
Three compounds VI, VII, and VIII were isolated from
the EtOAc extract.
Olean-12-en-3,28 diol (VI) gave a positive Liebermann
test for triterpenes. The compound with M + at m/z 441
(8.02%) was identified as C30H50O2, with a peak at 411
(45.0%). Spectral analysis suggested the structure of the
compound [21].
Olean-12-en-28-oic acid (VII): the IR spectrum showed
strong bands near 3415 (OH) and 1735 cm – 1 (CO): two
bands, 1390–1375 and 1369–1354 cm – 1, in the so called
‘A-region’ and three bands at 1328–1318, 1303–1296, and
1267–1248 cm – 1 in the ‘b-region’; its mass gave an
M + + 1 peak at m/z 457 (2.02%), corresponding to
C30H48O3, fragmentation characteristic with respect to
oleanane triterpenoids having D12 : 13 unsaturation. The
ion at m/z 189 represents rings A and B in the dehydrated
form. Previous spectral data and chemical analysis
elucidate the structure of this compound [21].
3-Methyl kaempferol (VIII) was identified from the
analysis of its UV spectra in MeOH before and after the
addition of different shift reagents and from the analysis
of its 1H-NMR spectral data [20]; this was further
confirmed by cochromatography with a reference sub-
stance.
Stigmasterol-3-b-O-D-glucopyranoside (IX) showed an
EIMS M + peak at m/z 576 (9.45%), corresponding to
the molecular formula C35H60O6, m/z 163 (13.54) of one
hexose sugar. IR spectroscopy revealed bands Vmax cm – 1,
3421 OH, 1730–1446 (C = C), 1129, 1076, 1055, and
1015 (ether linkage of glycoside). 1H-NMR revealed one
anomeric proton at 4.43 (d, J = 6.78), indicating the sugar
to be in the b-configuration. Thus, from the large JH1,H2
Chemical constituents of Salsola inermis Elsharabasy and Hosney 93
coupling constant, the structure of this compound was
elucidated as stigmasterol-3-b-O-D-glucopyranoside [25].
3-O-[b-D-glucopyranosyl]oleanolic acid (X) showed an
M + peak at m/z 618, corresponding to the molecular
formula C36H58O8, and a fragment ion at m/z 456,
corresponding to H30H48O3. This is ascribed to the mass
of triterpene acid having a D12 aglycone. IR revealed
bands Vmax cm – 1, 3421 OH, 1730–1446 (C = C), 1129,
1076, 1055, and 1015 (ether linkage of glycoside).
Kaempferol 3-O-b-glucopyranoside (XI) and isorhamne-
tin 3-O-b-glucopyranoside (XII) gave typical brown
fluorescence under UV for the C-3-substituted flavonoid
glycosides. Acid hydrolysis yielded glucose and kaemp-
ferol or isorhamnetin, respectively. The structures of
compounds XI and XII were confirmed by 1H-NMR and
cochromatography with authentic reference samples [26].
Isolation of these compounds from S. inermis has not been
reported previously.
ConclusionTwelve compounds were isolated and identified for the
first time from the 70% ethanolic extract of S. inermis.Some of these compounds contain different hydroxyl
groups and the others were terpenoids, which help
scavenge free radicals and inhibit COX and various
mediators involved in the pathogenesis of pain relief.
The chloroform fraction showed more potent inhibitory
activity than the ethanol extract, whereas the 70%
ethanolic extract was more potent than the chloroform
fraction in antinociceptive activity.
AcknowledgementsConflicts of interestThere are no conflicts of interest.
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