d econstructing the n ervous s ystem smallest structural unit is the neuron do not divide and...
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DECONSTRUCTING THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
Smallest structural unit is the neuron Do not divide and aren’t replaced when they die
Glia are cells that support the neuron by providing nourishment and insulation of the axon More numerous than neurons
Consists of 2 main divisions
REFLEXES
Automatic responses to stimuli, i.e knee-jerk
5 main stages/components Receptor
Detects stimuli Sensory neuron
Signal towards CNS Integration center
Spinal cord Motor neuron
Signal exits CNS Effector
Produces a responseto stimuli
THE INCREDIBLE EDIBLE NEURON Cell body
Stores the organelles, including the nucleus, and neurotransmitters
Dendrites Receive signals and conveys information to cell body Highly branched and often shorter (than axon)
Axon Transmits signals to other cells
Coated in a thick insulating material called myelin sheath Each is a Schwann cell and the spaces between are nodes of
Ranvier Only place where axon is leaky Salutatory conduction
Multiple sclerosis (MS) immune system destroys myelin Singular and longer
Synaptic terminal, branched end of axon that meets other cells Forms a synapse or point of communication between
cells
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o Parasympathetico Neurons from brain and lower spinal cordo Synapse within target organs
o Sympathetico emerge from middle of spinal cordo Synapse at target organso Both cooperate to maintain homeostasis
THE HUMAN BRAIN
Brain is protected via multiple structures Blood brain barrier
Selective permeability Meningial layers
Cerebrospinal fluid Cushions CNS and
provides nutrients
3 main regions brainstem is pons,
medulla oblongata, and midbrain
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o Biological clock is regulated by the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) responding to visual input to maintain circadian rhythms
o Maintained without external clues
o Cerebrum has 2 hemispheres, connected by the corpus callosum
oControl opposite sides of body
CEREBRAL CORTEX Convolutions maximize
neurons in limited space
Responsible for human traits
Receives stimuli from all senses
Regulates voluntary movements
4 lobes Frontal, (2) parietal, (2)
temporal, and occipital Each with specialized
functions Association areas where
higher order processes occur, ‘thinking’
DECODING LOBES OF THE BRAIN Cerebral hemispheres demonstrate lateralization
Left=objective (language and logic) Right=subjective (creative endeavors)
Frontal lobe Motor cortex sends signals to muscles; higher order
processes Parietal lobe
Somatosensory cortex receives and integrates stimuli from sensory systems
Temporal lobe Memory, hearing, and language
Occipital lobe Vision
DECODING BRAIN STRUCTURES Cerebellum
Involved in coordination, balance, movement, posture, and planning learned movements
Brain stem Controls heart rate, breathing, and digestion; also emesis
center Olfactory bulb
Controls smell Optic bulb
Controls vision Reticular formation
Alertness and attentiveness Thalamus
Relays sensory info to cortex and multiple sensations Hypothalamus
Controls ANS, pituitary, and regulates brainstem
TURKEY MAKES ME SLEEPY
Arousal is a state of awareness while sleep is external stimuli that isn’t consciously perceived
Multiple brain areas contribute Reticular formation receives sensory info and
determines what reaches the cortex for processing More info = more alert and aware Can filter out repetitive stimuli
Pons and medulla promote sleep with stimulation 5-HT may be a neurotransmitter (milk before bed or
turkey = tryptophan) Midbrain causes arousal
Sleep is ESSENTIAL for survival and is an ACTIVE state for the brain
I REMEMBER LEARNING TO CRY
Limbic system controls memory, learning, and emotion Include thalamus, hypothalmus, amygdala, and
hippocampus Attaches ‘feelings’ to basic survival mechanisms Memory is ability to store and retrieve
information from experience Amygdala adds emotion, acts as a filter for
remembering Hippocampus helps form and recall memories Factual and procedural memories differ
Odors or music can trigger memories
DISEASES OF THE BRAIN Schizophrenia
Lose the ability to distinguish reality Strong genetic component Treatments focus on DA, but can induce Parkinson symptoms
Depression Major depression and bipolar disorder Sadness that interferes with normal life and extreme mood swings Genetic component 5-HT imbalance so SSRI’s (Prozac, Paxil, and Soloft) prescribed
Alzheimer’s Disease Dementia characterized by confusion and memory loss Progressive disease that is hard to diagnose while alive
Tangles and plaques trigger neuronal death, but cause or symptom? Parkinson’s Disease
Difficulty in initiating movement and slowness of movement Progressive disease where age increases risk No cure, but treatments with DA to alleviate
COMPARATIVE NEURAL ANATOMY
Cnidarians are 1st phyla to evolve a nervous system Radially symmetrical adults have symmetrical nervous systems Control digestive cavity contractions and tentacle movement
Bilateral symmetry usually demonstrate cephalization, nervous system concentration in the head and centralization, presence of CNS and PNS
Platyhelminthes with nerve cords to control animal movements is simplest
Subsequent phyla see an increase in neuron number and segmentation
MEMBRANE POTENTIALS Potential energy (PE) that exists as electrical
charge across the neuron’s PM Cytoplasm charge = (-) charge, extracellular fluid =
(+) charge Stored by holding opposite charges apart across the
PM Results in the resting potential (-70 mV)
Ionic differences of intra- and extracellular fluid produce electrical differences or voltage Potassium (K+) is high inside, sodium (Na+) is high
outside cell K+ diffuses out readily through K+ channels, leaving a
(-) charge inside Na+-K+ pump maintains by moving Na+ out and K+ in
Can change with changing permeability to ions
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o Can be electrical or chemical
o Electrical are found in the heart and digestive system, where steady rhythms are necessary
o Chemical release neurotransmitters stored in synaptic vesicles into the synaptic cleft
o Resulting events vary amongst synapse types
NEUROTRANSMITTERS Small molecules that
serve as chemical signals
Can be excitatory, inhibitory, or both Depends on action at
synapse and can vary in magnitude Excite if opens Na+
channels (flow into cell) Inhibit if open chloride
(Cl-) or K+ channels (flow in or out respectively)
Cell bodies can and often do receive both at 1 time Summation of signals
produces all-or-none response
TYPES OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS Acetylcholine (ACh) is excitatory and
inhibitory Contracts skeletal muscles, but relaxes cardiac Botulinum toxin (Botox) inhibits Ach so muscles in
eyes/mouth stop contracting = no wrinkles Monoamines have multiple roles in CNS
Include epinephrine (EPI), norepinephrine (NE), serotonin (5-HT), and dopamine (DA) Dual roles as hormones (first 3)
Amino acids Include aspartate, glutamate, glycine, and GABA
First 2 excitatory and last 2 inhibitory Soluble gases
Nitric oxide (NO) Viagra promotes NO release into erectile tissue