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TECHNICAL NOTES

Overall Operational Guidelines for the

CURE Framework

CURE Framework – Technical Notes

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Background: The CURE Framework ........................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Culture in Post-Crisis Recovery ................................................................................................................. 6

GUIDELINES ................................................................................................................................................... 7

Module 1.A: Damage and Needs Assessment: Assessment ................................................................... 12

Module 1.1: Assessing Damage to Tangible Cultural Assets............................................................... 13

Module 1.2: Assessing Damage to Intangible Cultural Assets ............................................................ 15

Module 1.3: Assessing Damage to Creative and Cultural Industries .................................................. 16

Module 1.4: Assessing Damage to the Cultural Tourism Sector ......................................................... 17

Module 1.5: Assessing Damage to the Historic Housing Stock and Land Resources .......................... 18

Module 1.B: Damage and Needs Assessment: Scoping .......................................................................... 18

Module 1.6: Data Collection and Analysis .......................................................................................... 18

Module 1.7: Asset Mapping ................................................................................................................ 19

Module 1.8: Stakeholder Mapping ..................................................................................................... 20

Module 1.9: Vision Development ....................................................................................................... 21

Module 2: Policy and Strategy ................................................................................................................ 22

Module 2.1: Designing the Planning Process ...................................................................................... 23

Module 2.2: Regulatory Mechanisms ................................................................................................. 25

Module 2.3: Civic Engagement ........................................................................................................... 31

Module 3: Financing................................................................................................................................ 33

Module 3.1: Identifying Financial Resources ...................................................................................... 33

Module 3.2: Management of Land Resources .................................................................................... 35

Module 3.3: Land Value Capture ........................................................................................................ 36

Module 3.4: Land Readjustment ......................................................................................................... 37

Module 3.5: City-Led Financing Tools ................................................................................................. 38

Module 4: Implementation ..................................................................................................................... 38


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Module 4.1: Institutional Arrangement .............................................................................................. 38

Module 4.2: Risk Management ........................................................................................................... 46

Module 4.3: Communications and Engagement Strategy .................................................................. 48

Checklist for Operational Teams ............................................................................................................. 50

CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................... 51

RESOURCES ................................................................................................................................................. 52

ANNEX 1 ...................................................................................................................................................... 56

FRAMEWORK FOR ASSESSING DAMAGE TO TANGIBLE AND INTANGIBLE CULTURAL PROPERTIES .......... 56

ANNEX 2 ...................................................................................................................................................... 63

BUILDING A GEO-DATABASE OF CULTURAL RESOURCES ........................................................................... 63


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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS These technical notes complement the Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery Position Paper, which

was the product of a joint reflection between the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

Organization (UNESCO) and the World Bank, by a team led by Sameh Naguib Wahba and Ernesto Ottone

R., comprising Ahmed Eiweida, Lazare Eloundou Assomo, Dorine Dubois, Cristina Iamandi, Christianna J.

Brotsis, Rana Amirtahmasebi, Yuna Chun, Barbara Mínguez García, Sara García de Ugarte, and Inel Massali.

The three technical notes have been developed under the leadership of Christianna J. Brotsis by Laura

Bailey and Robert Wrobel (Peacebuilding, Recovery, and Prevention in the CURE Framework), Barbara

Minguez Garcia and James Newman (Disaster Risk Management in the CURE Framework), and Rana

Amirtahmasebi (Overall Operational Guidelines for the CURE Framework).

The technical notes greatly benefited from advice provided by peer reviewers Raja Arshad, Ellen Hamilton,

Ingo Wiederhofer, and Mike Turner.

They also benefited from the professional editorial services of Lisa Ferraro Parmelee.


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INTRODUCTION

Background: The CURE Framework In 2018, the World Bank and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

(UNESCO) jointly issued a position paper on Culture in City Reconstruction and Recovery (CURE), reflecting

the shared commitment of these two organizations to place culture at the forefront of the reconstruction

and recovery of cities in post-conflict, post-disaster, and urban distress situations. The paper presented a

new approach, the CURE Framework, intended to help practitioners integrate culture and cultural

heritage into post-crisis recovery processes. The CURE Framework draws from existing frameworks and

tools for reconstruction and recovery in urban settings. It seeks to knit together people-centered and

place-based approaches to produce integrated policies that share a common cultural thread (see figure

1). By integrating culture into sustainable urban development policies that address the impact of crises

on urban

communities, the

CURE Framework

will help make

cities more

inclusive, safe,

resilient, and

sustainable.

To complement

the previous work,

three technical

notes were

developed to

provide additional

guidance on the

nexus of culture,

peacebuilding, and

disaster risk

management. The

Technical Note on

Overall

Operational

Guidance provides

further

elaboration on the guidance and tools introduced in chapter 3 of the CURE position paper, “Implementing

the CURE Framework.” The Technical Note on Peacebuilding and Recovery adapts the CURE Framework

for implementation in fragile and conflict areas, and the Technical Note on Disaster Risk Management

reviews the role of culture, cultural heritage, and the CURE principles in the context of the disaster risk

management (DRM) discipline. The technical notes are meant to be used concomitantly by practitioners

working in post-crisis settings. They provide background information, checklists, and entry points based

on the relevant CURE guiding principles, of which the framework provides seven:


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These principles are applied through the implementation of four phases:

1. Damage and Needs Assessment and Scoping. The first phase includes assessment of damage and

impacts to tangible and intangible cultural heritage, cultural and creative industries, housing stock

and land resources, services and infrastructure, and the tourism sector, as well as the economic

losses to the affected population resulting from the interruption of services and use of assets.

Building on these damage and needs assessments, the scoping process includes data collection,

asset mapping, stakeholder mapping, and the development of a vision for city reconstruction and

recovery.

2. Policy and Strategy. The second phase covers the design of policies, strategies, and planning

processes that translate the damage and needs assessments and the vision into plans and

planning regulations, through participatory approaches in which stakeholders and communities

are fully engaged.

3. Financing. Modalities to finance the reconstruction and recovery process are identified that

combine public and private financing, as well as other funding sources, the management of land

resources, and the development of financing tools and incentives. Identifying specific sources of

funding for cultural heritage aspects of DRM is usually very challenging, and establishing the

necessary financing measures to develop and maintain the DRM plans for cultural heritage,

including budgeting for emergency situations, is fundamental to this process. Investment in the

protection and promotion of cultural heritage has proved profitable. The regeneration of historic

centers and cities, including measures to increase resilience, significantly improves living

conditions for both inhabitants and visitors. At the same time, it makes cities more appealing and

competitive, which enhances prospects for attracting private investments and fostering job

creation.

1•The city is regarded as a “cultural construct,” with its culture weaving through the urban (built and unbuilt) and social fabrics.

2•The reconciliation process can be started using cultural landmarks and places of significance to local communities.

3•Cultural expressions offer appropriate ways to deal with post-crisis trauma and reconcile affected communities.

4•Culture is prioritized to appear early in the planning process, starting with needs assessments and coupled with the implementation of quick-win interventions that reflect communities’ priorities.

5•Communities and local governments take part in every step of the recovery process.

6•Finance models are used that balance immediate/short-term needs with the medium-/long-term development time frame in reconstruction plans.

7•Effective management of the reconstruction process is ensured by striking a balance between people’s needs and the recovery of a city’s historic character.


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4. Implementation. Essential to implementation are setting up effective institutional and

governance structures, a risk management strategy, and a communication and engagement

strategy.

Culture in Post-Crisis Recovery Several sets of guidelines are available to lead teams starting a post-crisis reconstruction. Recovery and

peacebuilding assessments (RPBAs) were developed by the World Bank, the United Nations, and the

European Union under the Joint Declaration on Post-Crisis Assessment and Recovery Planning. RPBAs help

national governments “identify, prioritize and sequence recovery and peacebuilding activities; to provide

an inclusive process to support political dialogue and participation of stakeholders; and to coordinate

international support through a joint exercise and monitoring system.”1 Post-disaster needs assessments

(PDNAs), developed by the European Commission, the United Nations Development Group, and the World

Bank and published in 2008, help teams quantify physical damage and consequent economic losses and

identify socioeconomic recovery needs, based on information collected through field surveys and

interviews with the affected population. PDNAs for different sectors include guidelines specifically

designed for assessments of the culture sector in reconstruction and recovery processes.

While RPBAs and PDNAs provide guidance in developing city-level methodology for needs assessment in

post-crisis situations, both are meant to be implemented at the national level. In this document, the focus

is on creating a blueprint that can be executed on urban and suburban levels, utilizing a historic urban

landscape (HUL) approach. To do so, we selectively use some of the elements in the two mentioned

methods and alter them as needed for application to post-crisis needs assessment of historic and

culturally rich urban areas. We then add material from other published methods and knowledge about

World Bank operations to develop a cohesive structure and toolbox for post-crisis rebuilding in historically

and culturally rich cities.

The HUL approach acknowledges that a city’s cultural identity is shaped by an intertwining of tangible and

intangible culture and environmental values. Formative forces in historic areas include infrastructure,

diversity and identity, built environment, cultural practices, geomorphology, hydrology, topography, and

societal values, among others. Properly integrated with geographical factors, urban heritage can act as a

catalyst for socioeconomic development through tourism, commercial use, and higher land and property

values, generating revenues that pay for maintenance, restoration, and rehabilitation.2

In developing these operational guidelines, we also considered the time frame for rebuilding activities.

The developers of RPBAs and PDNAs assumed a very short-term window of opportunity of about four to

six weeks to assess damage and needs. As they were also aware that rebuilding could take decades,

however, they provided actions for a longer time period, based on a “build back better”3 approach. Recent

1 World Bank, “Recovery and Peace Building Assessments,” brief, last updated February 15, 2017, https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/fragilityconflictviolence/brief/recovery-and-peace-building-assessments. 2 UNESCO and World Heritage Centre, “New Life for Historic Cities: The Historic Urban Landscape Approach Explained,” brochure, UNESCO, July 2, 2013, https://whc.unesco.org/en/activities/727. 3 Build back better is defined in the CURE Framework as “the use of the recovery, rehabilitation, and reconstruction phases after a disaster to increase the resilience of nations and communities through integrating disaster risk reduction measures into the restoration of physical infrastructure and societal systems, and into the revitalization of livelihoods, economies, and the environment.”


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policy debates have moved beyond the “Build Back Better” approach to the “Build to Last” approach

which emphasizes a deeper understanding of risk at the outset.

In many countries, historic urban cores are registered in national or local lists of historic places or as World

Heritage Sites and, therefore, have site management plans and a wealth of information available about

the history and cultural significance of the urban areas. In such cases, the reconstruction team must

integrate into their efforts applicable elements of the site management plan that was previously

developed. The site management plan usually includes a comprehensive inventory of all heritage

objects—movable and immovable—and should contain the details of their locations and the condition

they were last in.

GUIDELINES

The operational guidelines that follow are based on the CURE framework and include four modules:

damage and needs assessment (consisting of assessment and scoping), policy and strategy, financing, and

implementation. While some of these modules and their components can be implemented during

conflicts and in the immediate period after natural disasters, others can only be implemented in periods

of relative peace and stability after a conflict or disaster has ended. Table 1 summarizes these modules

and their application at times of conflict and disaster. A detailed description of all the modules follows the

table.

Table 1. Assessment Application by Module (during/post crisis)

Module Status on the ground

Government Capacity

Prerequisites

Module 1.A: Damage and Needs Assessment

Module 1.1: Assessing Damage to Tangible Cultural Assets

During conflict

Post–natural disaster/conflict

Medium to high

• Assessment of damage to tangible cultural assets can be properly carried out when the disaster or conflict is over, but in situations where recording the remaining heritage assets during the conflict seems important, it may be done with a small local team.

• Assessing damage to intangible cultural assets requires the participation of skilled local consultants (architects, historians, and engineers) familiar with the arts and cultural heritage of the city.

• The structure and content of cultural properties should be assessed.

• Assigning present value to nonreplaceable cultural resources, such as original paintings and documents, is an essential step.

Module 1.2: Assessing Damage to Intangible Cultural Assets

During conflict


Medium to high

Module 1.3: Assessing Damage to Creative and Cultural Industries

During conflict

Post-natural disaster/conflict

Medium to high


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• It is more difficult to assess damage to intangible heritage in an ongoing conflict. A better scenario would be to develop a database of these assets (including well-known artists/craftspeople) and update it periodically.

Module 1.4: Assessing Damage to the Cultural Tourism Sector

During conflict


High • Conflicts can have a grave negative impact on the tourism industry.

• Assessing damage to the tourism industry is more challenging than to other cultural assets because it involves many different sectors and requires more rigorous analysis. The government needs to have a high capacity for analysis or the ability to hire specialized consultants to take on this task.

Module 1.5: Assessing Damage to the Historic Housing Stock and Land Resources

During conflict


Medium to high

• Many conflicts affect land ownership. It is very challenging to keep a record of land resources and ownership while a conflict is ongoing.

• It is recommended that any records or cadastres from before the conflict or disaster be kept and revised after the conflict or disaster has ended.

• Information on housing stock can be obtained post-crisis using satellite imagery, aerial photos, and existing street views. Information on masonry techniques and building materials and construction can be obtained by interviewing local craftspeople.

• In rebuilding after a natural disaster, it is important to assess these building and masonry techniques to determine the extent to which they contributed to or prevented losses.

• Land values differ from pre- to post-crisis. Creating a database or updating an existing one can be useful in keeping track of changes in land value.

Module 1.B: Damage and Needs Assessment: Scoping


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Module 1.6: Data Collection and Analysis

During conflict


High • Macro- and country-level data should be collected by the central government.

• Local and city-level data can be collected by the city government in collaboration with the affected communities.

• Micro-level analysis focuses specifically on the historic core and should (as much as possible) include pre- and post-crisis periods to enable comparison and the development of a baseline.

Module 1.7: Asset Mapping

During conflict

Post-natural disaster/conflict

Medium • Asset mapping is best implemented with input from the community

• At times of conflict and when a community is displaced, expert interviews can be conducted to generate a basic cultural assets map of the city.

• Depending on the availability of funds, data, and technology, asset maps should be used in conjunction with other maps showing socioeconomic attributes, risks/hazards, infrastructure, and so on.

Module 1.8: Stakeholder Mapping

During conflict


Medium • Ideally, stakeholders should be tracked during the conflict, but this is close to impossible.

• In the post-crisis period, the community and stakeholders must be mapped to obtain an understanding of how the crisis has shaped or altered community representation and dynamics.

Module 1.9: Vision Development

During conflict


Medium to high

• A collective vision can only be developed with the participation of the community after the immediate impacts of disasters or conflict have been brought under control.

• The government needs to have the capacity (or to hire consultant with such capacity) to moderate different ideas at a conference to determine the future of the historic core.

Module 2: Policy and Strategy


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Module 2.1: Designing the Planning Process

During conflict


High • Note that the planning process in this module applies to the period after the emergency response has ended and the community has more time to think about long-term impacts of the reconstruction process.

• Depending on each country/city governance system, post-crisis reconstruction may be planned at the local or national level. A combined, or “hybrid,” effort at these two levels may also be applicable.

Module 2.2: Regulatory Mechanisms

During conflict


High • Developing different types of regulatory mechanisms (even if they did not exist before the crisis) is a proper way to ensure “build back better” principles are integrated into the rebuilding process.

• The development of processes to regulate land use in post-conflict situations could be a point of contention, especially if the source of conflict had roots in the economy or distribution of resources or land.

Module 2.3: Civic Engagement

During conflict


Medium to high

• Meaningful participation should be the goal, not mere outreach.

• The findings of Module 1.8 (stakeholder mapping) should guide the engagement process.

• Civic engagement during conflict is challenging. It is best just to keep track of the displaced and affected populations to start a meaningful civic engagement process afterward.

Module 3: Financing

Module 3.1: Identifying Financial Resources

During conflict


Medium to high

• In managing land resources, special consideration should be given to


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the conflict and post-conflict situations.

• Land resources are rarely the sole cause of conflict, but they relate to wider processes of exclusion, discrimination, and economic and social marginalization.

• During conflict and times of instability, displacement and secondary occupation should be monitored by registering land rights as the population flees, obtaining witness testimonies, comparing before and after satellite imagery, and reviewing other evidence.

• When displaced communities return, a just system of restitution should be ensured.

Module 3.2: Management of Land Resources

Medium to high

Module 3.3: Managing Land in the Times of Conflict

Medium

Module 3.4: Land Value Capture

During conflict


High

• Use of these financing instruments requires a strong and capable government.

• For these measures to be effective, the situation post-crisis must have calmed down and basic needs of the community met.

Module 3.5: Land Readjustment

Module 3.6: City-Led Financing Tools

Module 4: Implementation

Module 4.1: Institutional Arrangement

During conflict


Medium to high

• While some of the institutional models for reconstruction can be very complex and require high expertise, in other cases a simple office or task force responsible for reconstruction can start the process.

Module 4.2: Risk Management

During conflict


High

• This module requires high expertise and capacity.

Module 4.3: Communications

During conflict

Medium to high

• During conflict or an ongoing disaster, opportunities always exist


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and Engagement Strategy


to engage, inform, and consult the community.

Module 1.A: Damage and Needs Assessment: Assessment The main objective of needs assessment is to identify and assess damage to different sectors after a crisis.

Although years of dealing with disasters and conflicts have left the international community with well-

developed and comprehensive damage assessment tools, the intangible nature of some cultural assets

and institutions makes needs assessment in the cultural sector challenging and different from the

processes in other sectors. Furthermore, cultural resources are nonrenewable, and, in many cases, simply

rebuilding a cultural asset is not sufficient to revitalize the way of life associated with it. In such cases,

recovery may not mean reconstruction of cultural assets but, rather, regeneration of the ties between the

affected population and their cultural resources, which convey a certain way of living.4 As a result, needs

assessment in the cultural sector has to be conducted with active participation of the affected population

and deep understanding of community dynamics and features.

The needs assessment process proposed here is to be conducted on the scale of the city and historic area.

The goal is to assess specific damage to tangible and intangible cultural heritage elements. Since the

historic area is part of the larger city, however, the assessment must also consider the impacts of crisis on

the city as a whole, especially if the historic area was a major part of the central business district or a

major tourism center.

In the discussion that follows, we will explain what information must be collected as part of the needs

assessment process. Information can be obtained mostly by conducting interviews with individuals in the

formal and informal commerce sectors and the cultural tourism establishments and through

observational studies, qualitative research, and analysis of institutions and social networks. The team can

use the following methods:

● Primary research (participant-based interviews) ● Site surveys ● Secondary literature searches ● Archival research ● Participatory planning methodologies ● Mapping and global positioning system (GPS) logging ● Photogrammetry techniques

In addition to gathering information by these means, the team must develop a specific data profile for

each sector that relates to culture. Each profile provides a brief overview of damage and of short-,

medium-, and long-term needs and high-priority interventions. This is not an exhaustive sectoral review

but a snapshot to guide the reconstruction process.

4 World Bank, GFDRR, and UNESCO. PDNA Volume B, Culture.


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Also important to consider is that each community defines cultural assets differently. The team must

ensure the participation of community members in an effort to develop a comprehensive plan that

includes all tangible and intangible cultural assets in the assessment.

The following presents modules of the damage needs assessment of the culture sector in cities with

significant historic resources.

Module 1.1: Assessing Damage to Tangible Cultural Assets UNESCO defines cultural heritage as “the legacy of physical artefacts and intangible attributes of a group

or society that are inherited from past generations, maintained in the present and bestowed for the

benefit of future generations.”5 This definition includes “objects,” “sites,” and “buildings,” in addition to

intangible cultural heritage, which ensure cultural diversity of generations. The goal of the damage

assessment is to assess specific damage to all cultural resources. Table 2 summarizes these different

categories of assets.

Table 2. Categories of Tangible and Intangible Cultural Heritage, UNESCO

Tangible cultural assets

Movable ● Monuments, which have a known architectural or historic value ● Buildings, including residential, commercial, and so on ● Structures, such as dams, bridges, tunnels, canals, and so on ● Sites, such as traditional gardens, battlefields, historic urban landscapes,

and archaeological sites ● Districts, including whole neighborhoods or campuses; may include a

group of buildings that have no significant individual heritage value but collectively shape a significant land use pattern

Immovable ● Cultural and historic heritage, such as archaeological collections, artworks, maps, family records, and historic documentation and artifacts housed in libraries, museums, and archives

Intangible cultural heritage

Experiential and performing

arts

Music, dance, ethnic/religious practices, festivals and events, cuisine

Traditional craftsmanship Clothing, home decor, looms, baskets, and other symbolic items that may have

been commercialized

Cultural tourism Heritage experiences that enable tourists to stay and experience local housing,

food, performances, and the environment

5 UNESCO, “Tangible Cultural Heritage,” UNESCO Office in Cairo, 2017, www.unesco.org/new/en/cairo/culture/tangible-cultural-heritage/.


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Traditional knowledge Medicine and knowledge and practices concerning nature, religion, and the

universe

Oral traditions Languages, writing, and linguistics

The assessment of tangible cultural assets involves recording damage to structures and their contents and

collecting information on the economic value associated with loss of function. Annex 1 (table A1.1)

provides a comprehensive list of attributes to account for.

To record losses to immovable tangible cultural assets, the team should assess all damage, ranging from

structural damage to damage to surface designs and architectural decorations and ornaments. Based on

a tally of these attributes, a team of architects and engineers must determine the types and degrees of

damage, using historical documentation or old photographs. The next step is to determine a “replacement

value” for the damaged structure. Doing so is best based on a conceptual estimation, because cultural

resources are nonrenewable, and their reconstruction does not necessarily preserve the actual historic

value of the artisanship and indigenous building techniques used to create them in the first place,

especially when such knowledge and skills are not available anymore. Even harder is assigning present

value to such nonreplaceable cultural resources as original paintings and documents. Nonetheless, the

careful recording of damage to the structure and design features still makes it possible to arrive at an

estimated replacement value. Based on Maurato and Maazanti’s economic impact studies, appraisals can

be determined through hedonic pricing methods, travel cost methods, and contingent valuation methods

(see table 3).

Table 3. Frameworks for Assessment and Appraisal of Economic Losses

Category Field

consultants

Activities

Historic

structures and

buildings

Architects and

engineers, real

estate

professionals

Consult with heritage artifact appraisal experts.

Heritage appraisal through replacement cost valuation:

● Hedonic pricing methods: Nonuse heritage values reflected in related market transactions in proximity to a real estate parcel

● Travel cost methods: Proxy of travel expenditures related to the consumption of heritage sites or objects

● Contingent valuation methods: Value ascribed by an individual’s willingness to pay or to accept compensation for loss

Cultural

institutions and

museums

Antique dealers

and experts

Consult with heritage artifact appraisal experts.


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Commercial

cultural

institutions

Cultural tourism

experts

Calculate the losses using a simple formula like this: [daily economic revenue] x

[days out of business] = potential economic loss from disruption

In the aftermath of crisis and to record losses to the contents of cultural institutions, the team must look

for historic sites and for museums, art centers, and libraries that house artifacts, documentation,

photographs, and furnishings. The team should also collect information on losses to these movable

cultural resources. Common threats to movable artifacts include theft, fire, and losses resulting from wars

and explosions. As with the immovable structures, the replacement of these artifacts should be calculated

by comparison to the sales of similar historic items in international markets and based on quotes from

skilled antique dealers and experts.

Last, the team must determine losses resulting from disruption to cultural properties and institutions. All

historic properties have functions. Some that are less architecturally significant are used as residential,

commercial, and manufacturing centers. Other, more significant structures or monuments are used as

museums or cultural centers catering to domestic or international tourists. Whatever the function, the

needs assessment team should estimate losses incurred from when the damaged historic property is out

of use. These are calculated in terms of economic value, based on the amount of time the property is

nonfunctional, and they may occur in revenue generation, if the property is a tourist destination, or based

on loss of function as a housing or commercial unit.

Module 1.2: Assessing Damage to Intangible Cultural Assets UNESCO asserts that cultural heritage is not limited to monuments or collections of objects but also

includes cultural expressions transferred between generations.6 UNESCO’s references for intangible

assets are as follows:

(a) oral traditions and expressions, including language as a vehicle of the intangible cultural heritage;

(b) performing arts;

(c) social practices, rituals, and festive events;

(d) knowledge and practices concerning nature and the universe; and

(e) traditional craftsmanship7

As important as it is to assess damage to intangible cultural heritage, it is difficult to record such losses as

they happen over time and as disruptions to a way of life. Such destruction is not always visible and can

be hard to detect. Within the categories listed above, some losses are easier to assess. Disruption to a

festival or performing arts routine, for example, or the loss of a dying dialect is more readily understood

than losses to social or religious rituals or indigenous practices.

6 Ibid. 7 UNESCO, “Text of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage,” 2003, ich.unesco.org/en/convention#art2.


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In assessing damage to intangible cultural heritage, the community has to take the lead. UNESCO’s “Ethical

Principles for Safeguarding Intangible Cultural Heritage” specifically states that “each community, group

or individual should assess the value of its own intangible cultural heritage and this intangible cultural

heritage should not be subject to external judgements of value or worth.”8 In short, the needs assessment

team must involve the community in conversations regarding intangible cultural resources.

Module 1.3: Assessing Damage to Creative and Cultural Industries Damage to the creative and cultural industries as a result of crisis may occur in both the commercial

sector and the manufacturing sector.

Commercial Sector

Damage to commercial enterprises may be in the form of destruction of physical assets or interruption to

sales or operation. Intangible cultural industries include heritage arts and crafts unique to the area that

can be commercialized. Often the most vulnerable to loss, they are intrinsically tied to a sense of place

and community.

To assess losses from damage to a cultural commercial asset, five areas should be considered: the product

or service, its market and sales value, the demographics of participants, the size of the enterprise

economically, and its governing authority and structure (see table A1.2 in annex 1 for details). Special

attention must be paid to determining which skills or intangible knowledge or knowhow (if any) have been

lost. Also important to assess is if any schools of crafts and arts or informal training centers were

demolished or if any well-known craftspeople were displaced by the crisis. Who were the people

practicing these arts, and what do they need to continue pursuing them? The team should also see if any

authority previously protected or regulated these economic assets, or if products in any form of arts or

culture were sold before the crisis. Was any form of marketing or promotional agency tasked with

advertising or promoting the local creative and cultural industries?

Annex 1 (table A1.2) provides a more specific list of items to consider when assessing damage to creative

and cultural industries. In addition, the team can try to locate the country’s commerce sector survey and

documents belonging to chambers of commerce, if any exist. In countries with well-developed insurance

markets, some insurance data may be available for larger enterprises.

Manufacturing Sector

In many cities, the historic urban core is a hub for small-scale manufacturing. Each country has a different

method for classifying manufacturing and industrial activity, and the team must review such definitions

by the central government. The United Nations also has a categorized list of manufacturing activities.9

Damage to the manufacturing sector may affect buildings, equipment, machinery, and raw materials.10 As

in other sectors, it is important not to double count the damage. For its assessment, the team must use

8 Ibid. 9 United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Statistics Division, Tourism Satellite Account: Recommended Methodological Framework 2008, Studies in Methods, series F, no. 80, rev 1, 2010, www.oecd.org/cfe/tourism/TSA_EN.pdf. According to the United Nations, the manufacturing sector comprises various individual economic activities and products, including food and beverages, tobacco, textiles, apparel, leather goods, wood and wood products (except furniture), paper products, printing and media reproduction, coke and refined petroleum products, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, rubber and plastic products, other nonmetallic mineral products, basic metals, fabricated metal, computers and electronics, electrical equipment, motor vehicles, other transport equipment, furniture, and repair and installation of machinery and equipment. 10 World Bank, GFDRR, and UNESCO.2016. Post Disaster Needs Assessment Guidelines (PDNA) Volume B, Culture.


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the replacement cost method, which accounts for the necessary funds to rebuild the industry by analyzing

the value of its economic losses and its potential cash inflows. Understanding the disaster’s impact on the

manufacturing sector is more challenging than for some other sectors if a large number of manufacturing

establishments (varying in type or size) exist throughout the historic center.

To measure economic loss, the team first must obtain an understanding of the pre-crisis situation by

collecting any available baseline data; annex 1 (table A1.3) specifies attributes of the data needed. Some

examples include the number, type, and size of manufacturing units; characteristics of the manufacturing

facilities, including building typologies and machinery; data on annual production and equivalent dollar

amounts; and information on the destination of the manufactured goods—that is, whether they are for

local or domestic consumption or part of the country’s exports.11 By the end of the process, the team is

expected to have a directory of manufacturing business pre-crisis that includes typologies, sizes, and gross

unit production and sales.

Module 1.4: Assessing Damage to the Cultural Tourism Sector Disasters or conflicts can have a grave impact on the tourism sector in cities, which in turn reduces the

amount of foreign exchange earnings for the city and the country as a whole, especially where tourism

contributes a large share of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP). In addition, the tourism sector is

highly vulnerable to fear of or misconceptions about potential dangers of disasters. Mexico, for example,

lost US$2.3 billion of its tourism revenue in 2009 due to the swine flu epidemic, even though the epidemic

was relatively mild in the tourist areas.12 For this reason, the tourism sector may take longer than other

sectors to recover fully after a crisis, even if the necessary infrastructure and accommodation are rebuilt.

As in manufacturing, it is important in assessing damage to the tourism sector not to double count assets

and services that may be included in other sectors of the damage and needs assessment. We must

assume, for example, that the damage to roads and the transport network within the historic district is

already included under the infrastructure sector, so we do not account for them under cultural tourism,

even though they are vital to the attractiveness of the area as a tourist destination.13 Also important to

remember is that, while most PDNAs assess damage at the country level to account for visa and airport

fees, value-added and other types of national taxes, and so on, the goal here is to assess the damage to

the tourism sector only at the city level.

Accounting for tourism revenues and subsequent damage assessment is an extremely technical field that

involves economists, civil engineers, data analysts, and statisticians. These guidelines are not intended to

provide detailed information about the intricacies of accounting for tourism-related activities. Instead,

they provide higher-level instructions for including all sectors and assets in the historic area related to

assessing damage to economic sectors.

Finally, damage and needs assessment for the tourism sector must include demand-side and supply-side

assets.14 During the recovery process, the two sides correspond with each other—for example, the

schedule for rebuilding accommodations on the supply side should correspond with the estimated tourist

arrivals on the demand side. To boost demand after crisis, it is important to design marketing or

11 Ibid. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. 14 United Nations, Tourism Satellite Account.


18

information campaigns to advertise the destination to the domestic and international community as safe

and reliable.

See annex 1 (table A1.4) for a list of attributes to consider when assessing damage to the cultural

tourism sector.

Module 1.5: Assessing Damage to the Historic Housing Stock and Land Resources Housing is one of the most basic and important sectors in the reconstruction of post-crisis cities. The

assessment of damage must include formal and informal housing and should be viewed in coordination

with thorough assessment of land resources in the historic core. Housing stock and land resources go hand

in hand because many housing units in the historic core are built on ambiguously owned land, which may

be publicly, privately, or communally owned. Furthermore, the team must count the tenants or informal

settlements that may not have legal rights to their land. In assessing damage to the housing sector alone,

factors to be considered include characteristics of urban housing, local and national institutions, housing

policy, and finance.

See annex 1 (table A1.5) for ideas on how to collect damage information on the housing sector.

Module 1.B: Damage and Needs Assessment: Scoping After a thorough damage assessment has been conducted, the scoping activities set the stage for starting

the rehabilitation and rebuilding process. In the scoping module, the team collects macro- and micro-level

data, maps assets and stakeholders, and creates a vision to guide the process through the years and

decades to come.

Module 1.6: Data Collection and Analysis Data collection is essential to measuring progress, creating accountability, and attracting further funding to sustain efforts. Collecting the right data and making the information available early in the planning process enables agencies and stakeholders to make strategic decisions and save time and money as they proceed. Strategies for structuring effective data collection include setting a baseline, identifying macro- and micro-level data, and understanding the distinction between more output- versus more outcome-oriented metrics.

Baseline Data

From the start, baseline assessments should be created to benchmark progress against an existing situation. A data set containing baseline data describes an area as it was before a disaster in terms of, for example, the original condition of the infrastructure and housing. Geographic information system (GIS) databases and remote sensing data sets dating from before the disaster are good sources for spatial baseline data. For socioeconomic attributes, the team should look to the census bureau, humanitarian information centers, household surveys, or community survey data sets. Once baseline data are established, metrics for progress can be set against them to assess the direction of change.

Macro-Level Data

While this document focuses on the historic area only, we would like to emphasize the need for a big-picture framing of the city’s overall development pattern and growth dynamics. Only within this larger framework does the needs assessment for the historic core make sense. Within it are gathered cultural data, economic


19

data, growth dynamics, socioeconomic and demographics analysis, physical analysis, fiscal analysis, political analysis, historical analysis, and so on. The collection of data relevant to these aspects is usually the responsibility of the government agencies, depending on which ones are functional post-crisis.

Micro-Level Data

On the micro level, the aim is to develop a data-rich context for the master planning module for the historic area following a crisis. Micro-level analysis focuses specifically on the historic core. Having baseline data is helpful to understanding the vibrancy and efficiency of the historic urban landscape before the crisis. The collection of these data should focus on natural and cultural assets, creative and cultural industries, economic data, social data, the geography and boundaries of the historic area, growth dynamics, market assessment, obstacles to growth, and so on.

Module 1.7: Asset Mapping The aim of this module is to identify the main anchors and strengths of the cultural sector in the urban

area. The resulting document is mainly a database of assets, with suggested techniques for using

technology to record lost or at-risk cultural relics.

In the context of post-crisis reconstruction in a historic urban environment, cultural and relevant

noncultural assets should be considered. Together with the cultural assets described above, the historic

urban area possesses other assets that build on its historic and geographical characteristics and give the

area its cultural vibrancy. These include educational, health, environmental, and other community assets

and infrastructure deemed important by the team in consultation with the community.

An inventory of cultural assets (sometimes called a cultural resource map, if presented spatially) is a

database compiled from property data and information about each asset. It represents a systematic

approach to identifying and classifying a community’s cultural heritage and assets15 and is best created

using available technology tools, such as GIS software or other similar but open-source mapping tools.

The use of these tools has many benefits. Digital maps of cultural resources are easily superimposed on

other maps that present urban data, such as information on hazards, demographics, economic activity,

and transportation, which makes the master planning process easier. In the absence of such tools, the

team can conduct surveys instead.

It is important to note that this information is the most basic to be collected. Depending on the character

of the urban area, levels of damage, and amount of input from the community, more information may be

added to the inventory in a spreadsheet format that can later be merged with a mapping platform to run

queries and analysis. Much of this information may be obtained through secondary searches through

databases and previously developed inventories, especially if the historic property is part of a national or

local historic register.

While the use of technology is costly, open-source mapping and database tools can provide a more

economical solution. Building an in-depth GIS database with a custom mapping application, for example,

could cost more than US$100,000. But similar databases can be built using an Excel spreadsheet and an

15 “Cultural Planning” The website of Ministry of Heritage, Sport, Tourism, and Cultural Industries of Ontario. http://www.mtc.gov.on.ca/en/culture/cul_planning.shtml


20

open-source mapping platform, such as Carto DB, Open Street Map, or Urban Footprint, at a cost of less

than $20,000. In such cases, most of the expense will be associated with data collection and labor.16

It is important that a cultural resource map be updated regularly. Several technical models can be used to

build a database that can be updated. In one, the “centralized model,” one entity or agency leads the

process and has exclusive editing privileges. Other partners are either inactive or may submit edits to the

lead agency for incorporating in the database. In this model, the main responsibility is with the lead

agency.

A second model, the “shared model,” grants different partners access to a shared software platform. Each

partner has direct access to the database and is responsible for updating the information. A city’s cultural

heritage organization, for example, could update the building construction database, while the land

management agency updates the ownership data. The lead agency’s role in this case is monitoring and

problem solving. This model can save a great deal of time for the lead agency and make the data more

accessible to other partners.

The third, “open-source model,” allows anyone to access and contribute to parts of the cultural resource

map online. In a post-crisis situation, where the involvement of the community in decision making is

important, this method could be an efficient way of incorporating the community’s ideas and evaluation

of their cultural heritage resources based on their local knowledge. People could, for example, contribute

pictures of local assets or identify how certain resources may have changed since the data were last

entered. For both shared and open-source models, a system of oversight and monitoring must be in place,

and the lead agency must regularly monitor the suggested edits before they are incorporated.17

b provides details for building a geo-database of cultural resources and on an open-source digital

conservation approach and techniques.

Module 1.8: Stakeholder Mapping Engaging the stakeholders has two steps. The first is to identify them, meaning the team should first be

clear on what the “community” is and who represents it. The process should include the stakeholders who

are directly affected by the rebuilding process and decisions, such as community leaders and

organizations, religious and ethnic groups, the private sector, owners, renters, the informal settlements,

youth, and women. In addition, educational and academic institutions, local government officials, policy

and planning professionals, and technical experts should be engaged. Once these stakeholders have been

identified, the team must then map out the power dynamics, incentives, and relationships among them.

The following activities will aid in the identification and mapping process:

1. Create an initial list. Ask who is affected, and who can affect the results of reconstruction. 2. Categorize and prioritize. Determine which stakeholders are more essential and what level of

influence they have on one another. 3. Create a diagram or a matrix of these stakeholders. 4. Indicate in the diagram or matrix the relationships among the stakeholders to aid in

understanding how these different group interact.

16 Ibid. 17 Ibid.


21

As conflict situations can damage societal ties and bonds and deepen already existing divides, mapping

the community afterward is a difficult task that requires special expertise and extensive knowledge of the

society. The divides could be even deeper when a displaced community is returning and the urban

environment is being rebuilt for its settlement. Hiring local consultants with strong ties to the community

will help ensure every group is included and consulted.

Module 1.9: Vision Development The completion of the activities mentioned above leads to development of a vision for reconstruction and

recovery. To be binding and effective, this vision should be developed collectively with the participation

of all stakeholders. Usually the team leads the community in carrying out this task after presenting the

findings of the needs assessment process. The community’s input is collected in a document, usually called

a vision plan or a framework plan, which articulates the big-picture ideas, goals, and principles that will

guide the project.18 This short document is conceptual and includes the following elements:

• Context and rationale. This section of the vision plan builds on the data collected in the damage

and needs assessment process to paint an accurate picture of the post-crisis historic area within

the city, region, and country. It outlines the desired future of the historic area and

interrelationships among the social, economic, cultural, and physical dimensions of the

reconstruction process. It should cover issues and problems, the extent of damage, and a

desired and realistic time horizon for the reconstruction efforts.

• “Build back better” principles. Although post-crisis communities usually envision an urban

future similar to what they had before, the process of developing a vision is a good opportunity

for the planning team to introduce bold ideas to build back a better urban environment. This

requires fresh thinking that may compete with the demands of the community. Box 1 provides

examples of cases in which “build back better” principles were applied to post-crisis

reconstruction.

• Long-term vision for the historic area. This section of the vision plan does not detail every policy

or procedure needed for reconstruction. It is, rather, conceptual and provides a general

framework for the reconstruction. The long-term vision should be developed by involving all

sectors and levels of community and serve as a consensus builder for the community. All actors

should agree on a shared future for the urban area, balancing speed of recovery against the

betterment of the urban area and taking advantage of the rebuilding process to build a more

resilient, competitive, and livable city.

• Goal setting. Goals that act as guiding principles of the reconstruction process are general at

conception and finetuned later to produce specific policies and documents. These goals are

developed and agreed to by all stakeholders and accompanied by a time frame for

implementation. In designing them, the team should lead the community to the understanding

that reconstruction is a process. While the community understandably wants reconstruction to

happen quickly, the planning team should focus on the best course of action and set goals that

will result in a better urban environment. One way to accomplish this is to set the most achievable

goals first and turn attention later to those that require more deliberation, funding, or consensus

building. A second solution would be to increase the capacity of the planning and implementation

18 Rana Amirtahmasebi, Mariana Orloff, Sameh Wahba, and Andrew Altman, Regenerating Urban Land: A Practitioners Guide to Leveraging Private Investment


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agencies, while a third is to create several overlapping pathways for recovery planning and its

relevant decision-making process.19

Box 1. Examples of Building Back Better The following are cases in which “build back better” principles were applied to post-crisis reconstruction:

• In the aftermath of floods in 1993, the city of Arnold, Missouri, used the post-crisis process to push for an already developed plan for a greenway along the Mississippi and Meramec rivers to be implemented through a grant program for turning flood-prone residential areas into green space, while improving wildlife habitats and creating new recreational opportunities.a

• Hit by a tornado in 2007, the community in the city of Greenburg, Kansas, and its leaders used the reconstruction process to develop renewable energy and rebuild to Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) standards.b

• In Timbuktu, Mali, conflict in 2012 destroyed fourteen mausoleums that were on the World Heritage List. UNESCO created a plan strongly focused on sustainability and on strengthening institutional and professional capacities for conservation in the long-term reconstruction. After rehabilitation of the damaged mosques was completed, capacity-building workshops established conditions for preservation, conservation, maintenance, and proper management of the cultural heritage. A reconstruction strategy that focused on a historic area reinforced the state of conservation and intervention capacities related to building methods.c

a Schwab et al., “Planning for Post-Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction.” PAS Report no. 483/484. 1998. Chicago:

American Planning Association.

b James C. Schwab, ed., “Planning for Post-Disaster Recovery: Next Generation,” Pas Report 576, American Planning Association, 2014, https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1425503479190-22edb246b925ba41104b7d38eddc207f/APA_PAS_576.pdf. c UNESCO and World Heritage Centre, “New Life for Historic Cities.”

Module 2: Policy and Strategy Module 2 includes an assessment of existing policies and planning topics related to post-crisis

reconstruction. Strategies and processes that translate the damage and needs assessment into a clear

vision and plans and planning regulations are recommended below. The aim is to engage the stakeholders

through participatory approaches and design an inclusive project cycle in which the whole community is

involved and heard. The cycle starts with identifying and engaging stakeholders and developing a vision

for reconstruction and moves on to creating guidelines for developing planning regulations and processes.

19 Laurie A. Johnson and Robert B. Olshansky, After Great Disasters: How Six Countries Managed Community Recovery, Policy Focus Report, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 2016, www.lincolninst.edu/sites/default/files/pubfiles/after-great-disasters-full_0.pdf.


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Module 2.1: Designing the Planning Process The planning process post-crisis usually takes place in three segments. The first is usually led by the

national government together with international entities, such as UN agencies or the World Bank. This

phase usually spans several weeks. The second phase is the transition from an emergency to a full-scale

reconstruction program, which ideally starts early, while emergency and relief actions are still in progress.

The execution of this important phase can determine the fate of reconstruction throughout the project.

The third phase is the full-fledged reconstruction program, which includes various components and

sequences.20

Post-crisis reconstruction may be planned at the local or national level. Depending on the country’s

governance system, a combined, or “hybrid,” effort at these two levels may also be applicable. It is

important to understand how state- versus local-level control affects the coordination, speed, financing,

and character of reconstruction. The level of government that ultimately decides and implements the plan

depends on several factors. Some countries, like the United States, have a strong local control model, in

which the federal government generally defers land use decisions to states or provinces, which defer in

turn to local governments at the city and county levels. Other countries, like China, have strong centralized

state control and may retain much planning authority at the national level. Both styles of decision making

have benefits and drawbacks.

Centralized Planning Recovery Model

In centralized planning, nationally led rebuilding processes may happen faster, with simpler funding

models, than at more local levels. The government may decide to relocate whole towns or industries in

accordance with risk models or to ensure an equitable distribution of recovery efforts across areas of

disparate wealth. It may be able to impose best-practice land use and zoning policies, which may be

advantageous to swift recovery from large-scale damage. Western European governments, for instance,

have adopted more interventionist policies in response to widespread acute shortages in housing, food,

and building materials. The policies have included publicly subsidizing large-scale housing construction.

Centralized planning is, however, more likely to be subject to criticism at the local level for being

indifferent or insensitive to local desires or for not considering diverse perspectives or being open to

considering competing goals.

Case Study: China Earthquake Relief. Following the 2008 Wenchuan Earthquake, the Chinese government

established within its cabinet a General Headquarters for Earthquake Relief, which received its authority

from the highest ranks of the government. This arrangement was successful in managing a speedy physical

reconstruction, but lack of local decision making and community involvement in the recovery process

resulted in an uneven and inequitable economic recovery.21

Decentralized Planning Recovery Model

In areas where the planning process is decentralized and local control is strong, the quality of land use

plans may vary greatly from one jurisdiction to the next, depending on how wealthy communities are and

20 Wolfgang Fengler, Ahya Ihsan, and Kai Kaiser, “Managing Post-Disaster Reconstruction Finance: International Experience in Public Financial Management,” Policy Research Working Paper, WPS4475, January 2008, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/6417/wps4475.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y. 21 Laurie A. Johnson and Robert B. Olshansky, After Great Disasters: How Six Countries Managed Community Recovery, Policy Focus Report, Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, 2016, www.lincolninst.edu/sites/default/files/pubfiles/after-great-disasters-full_0.pdf.


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their perceptions of the value of planning. Local governments tend also to be more responsive to their

communities, allowing greater citizen input and control over their homes, for better or for worse. Local

land use planning can be beneficial for learning about and working with the assets of the region, as

participants may have a better sense of what makes their areas unique. A locally led process may also

present challenges, however, as many public and private agencies and stakeholders, ranging across

multiple levels of government, may be involved in the recovery and its coordination.

Case Study: Response to September 11, 2001, Attacks. In contrast to the example of the General

Headquarters for Earthquake Relief established in the Chinese cabinet in response to the 2008 Wenchuan

Earthquake, the decentralized recovery management model involves various organizations within

different levels of government. Decentralized efforts to manage the recovery process and local

policymaking are usually supported and coordinated by the national government. This type of recovery

management has worked well in India, Indonesia, and the United States, among others.

After the terrorist attacks of 2001, the State and City of New York established the Lower Manhattan

Development Corporation in New York City, whose goal was to plan and coordinate the reconstruction

and revitalization of Lower Manhattan. Structured as a joint state-city corporation governed by an eight-

member board of directors, the organization partnered with the public and private sectors to manage

long-term planning for the sites that were destroyed in the attacks. During the recovery process, it also

consulted with several advisory bodies representing a range of affected populations (victims, business

owners, and downtown residents) on issues of concern to their respective constituencies.22

A Hybrid Planning Recovery Model

The hybrid model for planning recovery balances local input and national assistance and includes the

following characteristics:

● National assistance acts as an overseer to implementation. They can provide simpler and faster funding, add additional personnel and bring greater technical resources to the plans.

● Neighborhood specific, however better planning will also include local expertise and input, and a strong recognition of the individual assets and needs of the affected community. Their inputs are consistently placed on the agenda for implementation

● Locally influential organizations and institutions are recognized and integrated in the planning process. They can provide safe environments and also be mobilizing actors: nonprofits, religious groups, and other influential community leaders

● Integrates the expertise of outside consultants: land use experts, reconstruction engineers, and culture preservationists

● A consistent flow of information and meetings and transparency in a recovery plan will allow citizens and business interests to keep aware of the changes proposed and provide responses that can help direct the pace and direction of planning.

Under the hybrid recovery model, multiple levels of government coordinate and act on recovery plans, while the national government keeps tight control over the coordination and allocation of resources. One example of recovery under a hybrid model was the reconstruction process after the 1995 Hyogo Earthquake in Japan, which destroyed the City of Kobe and the urban corridor of southern Hyogo Prefecture along Osaka Bay. To manage the process, the national government established “restoration

22 The website of Lower Manhattan Development Corporation. http://www.renewnyc.com


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headquarters” under the prime minister’s office, which included various cabinet ministers. Each ministry had a role in funding and policy execution, and the headquarters maintained an oversight role. At the same time, implementation of the policies was decentralized to local governments. Furthermore, a national advisory council was established that included city planners, scholars, members of the business community, the mayor, and the governor, while on the local level, the city established an earthquake recovery headquarters under the mayor’s supervision, with a twenty-seven-member recovery planning committee of officials and academics from different disciplines who were to develop recovery planning guidelines. This structure evolved later in the planning process, when the city established an earthquake restoration planning council composed of one hundred selected stakeholders and academics, who translated the vision and recovery guidelines into a draft recovery plan.23

Module 2.2: Regulatory Mechanism The team should consider developing a mechanism for regulating land uses. Land use as a process is

generally meant to refer to laws or procedures controlling who can build or use spaces and where. For

the purposes of this report, the term “land use planning” will be used to mean a regulatory approach to

determining how urban spaces will be allocated and used, most commonly referring to decisions made by

a government body anticipating and guiding development or changing uses within its jurisdiction. A land

use planning process is a prioritization framework within which policymakers, citizens, and the

government can delineate between acceptable and unacceptable risks and urgent needs that must be

solved versus those that can wait, as well as rank the competing priorities of urban space. The process is

a responsive one that is open to input and strives for transparency. Some tools for regulating land uses

are described below.

Strategic Plans

Strategic (or framework) plans articulate a clear vision for the reconstruction process following a crisis.

Broad and comprehensive and based on intensive analyses, they address the interrelationships among

the economic, physical, social, and institutional dimensions of any reconstruction program and are

intended to paint a “big-picture” idea for the city and define goals and ideals.

In contrast to traditional “comprehensive plans,” strategic plans are conceptual and do not address in

depth or detail the elements required to govern the long-range growth of the city.24 Urban strategic

planning provides high-level policy guidance for spatial planning processes and for spatial plans to be

prepared at various levels. The process guides development in the direction of the strategic priorities

identified by all stakeholders through a consultative process.

Strategic planning is a management tool wielded in response to resource and capacity constraints to

manage the process of urbanization. In addition to determining the direction of development of a city or

urban area, it helps the city respond to fast-moving events and structural risks and to manage change and

improve the quality of life.

Far from being a static process, the strategic framework plan must change and adapt to reflect the needs

of the city. Inevitably, the process of preparing such plans is iterative and may move forward and backward

several times before a final set of decisions is made. Urban strategic planning helps cities and governing

23 Johnson and Olshansky, After Great Disasters. 24 Amirtahmasebi et al., Regenerating Urban Land.


26

bodies determine what type of growth should take place in which areas, how the existing economic life

can be preserved and expanded, and how quality of life can be protected and enhanced through physical

and programmatic improvements in the built environment and urban services.

Table 4 presents a sample framework, detailing the segments of the urban strategic planning process.

Note that such plans can be developed in many different ways and may include different elements.

Table 1. Modules and Stages of the Urban Strategic Planning Process

Segment 1: Urban situation analysis • Stakeholder analysis • Urban situation profiling • Urban situation appraisal • Investment capacity assessment • Consolidated urban diagnosis

Segment 2: Sustainable urban development planning • Urban consultations • Drafting the strategic urban development plan (SUDP) • Approval and adoption of the SUDP

Segment 3: Sustainable action planning • Drafting action plans • Local resource mobilization • Public-private partnerships

Segment 4: Implementation and management of projects • Project design • Management and coordination • Monitoring and accounting • Reporting

Source: UN-HABITAT, “An Introduction to Urban Strategic Planning,” 2007.

Specialized Plans

Specialized plans are strategic plans that may be developed to guide policy in an area of specific interest, such as a historic business core, a greenfield area experimenting with sustainable land use policy, or a site that requires retrofitting. Specialized plans may also be developed to outline a process or to respond to specific issues, such as disaster scenarios, and may include plans for agency responses and external assistance.

Master Plans

A master plan is a long-term strategy that builds a connection among buildings, social settings, economic

activities, geography, character, and culture to guide future growth in a historic neighborhood. It sets

forth local goals, objectives, and policies for reconstruction, community growth, or redevelopment over

decades. Conventional spatial master plans prescribe intended outcomes by sector, including land use

and development, transportation, water and drainage, open and green spaces, and other infrastructural

improvements. While spatial planning is an important part of it, the master plan also includes financial,

economic, and social policies and implementation details for how the goals will be achieved among actors.

An effective master plan is prescriptive to some degree but allows for flexibility in particular areas through

an iterative approach. It provides for broad guidelines but recognizes there are different ways to get to a

certain point.

The master plan differs from a zoning ordinance in that the former is a guide for land use in the future,

while the latter regulates it in the present. Typically, the master plan is not a binding, legal document, but

a zoning ordinance is a law that must be followed by all. The master plan contains land use plans for

specific areas, such as the historic urban core, and is a tool used to determine what kind of development

should occur and where.


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A master plan made in response to a singular crisis should, arguably, be a shorter version of the full-

fledged urban plan. At the conclusion of its implementation, an evaluation or report should be produced

on the plan’s effectiveness in achieving the recovery goals, should provide an opportunity for reflection

on future processes, and should make linkages with concurrent planning efforts.

A master plan consists of a number of elements. The spatial master plan is conveyed in words and

diagrams, plans, illustrations, and maps, and its authors enlist architects, designers, and engineers for

consultation, analysis, and design. It describes the physical and aesthetic qualities of buildings and spaces

and the interface between the internal and external sides of urban environments. It may also identify sites

for development that include valuable real estate or areas that are candidates for urban regeneration.

Urban regeneration is an important aspect of revitalization, as planners look at ways to utilize cultural

heritage assets for the purpose of cultural tourism or other economic activities. It may encompass mixed

urban functions, such as converting old industrial warehouses into artists’ residences. It also

acknowledges and celebrates the natural ecology and environmental aspects of the area within which a

site is situated, and it may zone out areas that are environmentally significant or protect local flora and

fauna.

Effective master plans enable participation from a multitude and diversity of actors, both top-down and

bottom-up, and they link national interests to regional and local sector planning. For the purposes of

heritage planning, master planning is usually site specific (on a neighborhood scale) and therefore involves

more regional and local actors, but, in many instances, it also integrates national and international voices

(for example, that of UNESCO). It gives clarity on the roles and implementing actors and builds consensus

among different agencies. A master plan may emerge as a form of municipal plan, enabling government

at lower levels to revise it and have a stake in revitalization.

Master plans can also designate commercial zones, activities, and incentives. In Denmark, for instance,

the Planning Act has special rules for planning investment in shops by retail trade for regenerating existing

town center commercial areas. Within a region, the Planning Act limits the size of shops for each type of

area (3,500 m2 for general shops and 2,000 m2 for specialty shops) to provide incentive for the running of

local businesses that often embody the town’s local character and participation of the local community in

the economy. The plan also identifies relevant funders as partners to ensure longer-term financial

sustainability.

When considering a recovery plan for a historic urban core, acknowledgment of the area’s neighborhood

character and the elements that give it its character is crucial. Urban designers frequently cite

neighborhood character and “sense of place” as giving an area its distinctive cultural elements. These are

not necessarily quantifiable or generalizable elements, but they are essential qualities that help foster a

sense of place and memory for a community. Among elements that influence the character of a space are

the following:

• Culturally specific commerce, often employing marginalized groups or low-income minorities

(street food, beauty salons, markets)

• Culturally significant landmarks and open spaces (public squares utilized by the community for

commerce, play, socializing)

• The way the built form relates to the topography or natural features

• The architectural style, materiality, and detailing of buildings (friezes, adobe brick)


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• The use and quality of open streets

• The relationship of streets and spaces with respect to the public and private realms

• Landscapes (climate, flora and fauna, water flow, mountains)

• Domestic and wildlife native to a space (street dogs, birds, camels, goats)

• The intergenerational practices or habits of a community (festivals, music, foods)

Table 5 presents a sample table of contents illustrating the framework of a neighborhood master plan.

Table 2. Sample Table of Contents for a Neighborhood Structure Plan

1. Introduction

1.1. Planning Framework and Plan Area

1.2. Authorization

1.3. Stakeholder Consultation Summary

1.4. Amendment Process

4. Land Use

4.1. Context and Approach

4.2. Commercial Use and Employment

4.3. Residential Use

4.4. Mixed Use

4.5. Institutional Use

2. Neighborhood Development Concept

2.1. General Plan Context

2.2. Neighborhood Vision and Development Concept

5. Ecology, Parks, and Amenities


5.2. Natural Areas

5.3. Parks

5.4. Open Space

5.5. Urban Agriculture

3. Public Realm


3.2. Historic and Cultural Resources

3.3. All-Weather Design

3.4. Landscaping

3.5. Focal Points/Town Center

6. Infrastructure and Servicing


6.2. Sanitary and Stormwater Drainage

6.3. Water Distribution

6.4. Shallow Utilities

6.5. Infrastructure and Land Use Integration

6.6. Energy Efficiency

6.7. Staging


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7. Transportation


7.2. Active Transportation

7.3. Road Network

7.4. Transportation and Land Use Integration

Source: TOR, Neighborhood Structure Plans, 2014.

Zoning Ordinances

Where land use plans are broad and focused on the future or incremental, zoning and municipal codes

are immediate, with specific regulatory controls in effect on every piece of land inside the planning area.

Zoning is the legislative process for dividing land into zones for different uses. Zoning codes are subject

to a land use plan and defer to the overall goals. If the land use plan designates an area as high risk, for

instance, the zoning code will include specifics about how each property within it may be used and set

standards for the physical design.

Zoning laws regulate the use of land parcel by parcel and dictate the density and height of structures that

may be built, as well as imposing other physical limitations, such as setbacks, frontages, open space,

and/or parking requirements. Common elements in a zoning code may include the built form, including

setbacks required around buildings, the number of floors, and safety measures or aesthetic

considerations, among others. Where the master plan takes a bird’s eye view of a municipal boundary or

metropolitan area, the zoning code, in conjunction with other municipal codes, will dictate urban design

standards by property and by use.

Some categories of zoning code include Euclidean zoning, performance or impact zoning, incentive zoning,

and form-based zoning. For most areas that already use zoning, the codes may be “hybrids,” using a

mixture of several forms. These different approaches to zoning shape development differently and allow

greater or less flexibility in building, depending on whether the code is designed to regulate permitted

types of uses more stringently or regulate the zoning envelope allowed for each parcel.


30

Building Codes, LEED, and Other Preventive Planning Policies

The International Code Council defines building codes as “collections of laws, regulations, ordinances (or

other statutory requirements) adopted by a government legislative authority involved with the physical

structure and healthful conditions of buildings and building sites.”25 More simply put, codes are

regulations that dictate the what and how of built spaces to achieve desired results. Building codes dictate

the form and specifics of buildings—materials used, ingress and egress, safety standards, minimum

requirements for the built form—and may include standards regarding inspection and the building

process (that is, after certain stages of building, government or licensed inspectors will certify and

examine the work). In the case of certain portions of a building, such as elevators, building codes may

require an ongoing process of maintenance and inspection to be allowed to remain in operation.

Building codes are among the simplest means to protect citizens and cities against disasters. Any given

jurisdiction, however, must consider carefully what its building code will be, and codes can vary wildly in

depth and efficacy, depending on who implements them. The so-called “model codes” refer to codes

accepted as current standards, which meet or exceed known practices ensuring safe and healthful

construction. Model codes represent the cutting-edge minimum standards, a safety “floor” below which

experts do not recommend building, and are adopted, modified, and transformed into law by states, local

governments, and cities or towns around the world. In some parts of the world, local codes may well

exceed these minimums; for instance, the Swiss-developed “Minergie” and the American-based “LEED”

(Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) systems are competing for worldwide market share in

building energy-efficient and environmentally sustainable buildings. Both are voluntary certifications that

go above and beyond what most jurisdictions require, and both are economically beneficial to the

specialized firms and suppliers that can build under their certification.

The counterpoint to these high-achieving localities are those that fall well below the safety floor and are

often in nations constrained by poverty and corruption or facing the task of dealing with aged and historic

building stock, constructed at a time when codes were simpler or nonexistent. Although an international

consensus for best practice in building exists, the implementation of model code is and always will be

uneven, as buildings are always in the process of aging out of the model standards, while new technology

and new incidents are forever pushing at an emerging front of new safety and design.

Public exposure to groundbreaking products in the new construction market can lead to increased

awareness by homeowners and other building owners of how buildings can be improved. It can also lead

to more voluntary upgrading of the existing building stock.

The post-disaster city that invests in robust building codes also benefits, as it is able to attract tenants to

retrofitted or rebuilt areas, get better insurance rates on new buildings, create new industries in the

production of newer building materials and technologies, and avoid stagnation. With building codes, at

least, there is no benefit in a “race to the bottom” but, rather, immense gain in leading the pack.

In developing and enforcing building codes in a historic city area, a proper alignment of codes with historic

structures should be devised. Because traditional building typologies may not comply with new building

codes, another process for preservation and retrofitting can replace the necessary compliance. A team of

consultants who are proficient in local building typologies, construction methods, and building materials

25 The International Code Council https://www.iccsafe.org

https://www.iccsafe.org/


31

must be engaged to help with this task. Box 2 illustrates how stricter building codes can prevent

catastrophes when natural disasters happen.

Box 2. Comparing Disaster Preparation and Response between the 2010 Haiti and New Zealand Earthquakes A popular pastime of international news agencies in 2010 was comparing the earthquakes that took place in New Zealand and Haiti that year. On September 4, the Canterbury earthquake hit the South Island of New Zealand with a magnitude of 7.1. The initial shock resulted in no fatalities, while 185 deaths were caused by the aftershocks more directly located near the city of Christchurch. Meanwhile, an earthquake of 7.0 magnitude that had hit outside Port-Au-Prince on January 12 and was followed by a series of comparable aftershocks resulted in an estimated death toll ranging from 100,000 to upward of 300,000. The destruction of buildings was estimated at 250,000 residences and 30,000 commercial structures. Time and again, populations survive crises at higher rates when their governments anticipate and prepare for what is to come. Although external factors, such as time of day and type of ground motion, worked in favor of New Zealand’s population, the safety of construction and local government preparation and response played a huge part in the immense difference from the Haiti impact. New Zealand faced regular quakes and had modeled its building codes to protect against high-magnitude disasters, inferring best practices from similar jurisdictions, such as California. The buildings that were damaged in New Zealand had been built before the building codes with robust earthquake standards were in effect. In addition to setting standards, the government was rigorous in following through with code inspections on required materials for the buildings. Haiti, in contrast, had two problems. The first was failure in practice: the building codes in Haiti were uniformly out of date, so they did not include standards that would ensure buildings were constructed to withstand earthquakes. The second was the inability to finance adequately the resources necessary to meet such standards, leading to cost-cutting measures and lax follow through. Codes were not adhered to by builders or enforced evenly by local governments. The nation to nation difference in cumulative death tolls between countries that follow earthquake-resistant engineering building codes and those that do not is significant. But the use of these codes is contingent on whether the countries have the wealth and willpower to mandate them.

Module 2.3: Civic Engagement Engaging communities in post-crisis reconstruction is particularly challenging because of the impact of

trauma on the community, which can disrupt community ties and cohesion. Furthermore, the community

may be displaced to different emergency or refugee camps or may lose trust in the partner leading the

reconstruction or in the international community.

In efforts to engage the community, the team must aim for meaningful participation, not mere outreach.

Depending on the geographical distribution of the affected population and the level of existing social

capital, the team should explore a variety of participatory methods. Contemporary methods require the


32

use of technology to facilitate outreach to and engagement with people who have been displaced. It is

important to identify key agents in a community—those with significant social trust and influence who

can mobilize a group. During the aftermath of the Korean War, for example, churches played a significant

role in rebuilding by providing necessary social welfare services, such as elementary and middle school

education, assistance to widows, and worship events that helped develop a sense of belonging across

communities.

After identifying the stakeholders, the team should determine the type and level of engagement that is

the most appropriate, given the nature of the community dynamics, capacity, and social capital after the

crisis. A participation spectrum established by the International Association for Public Participation (IAP2)

serves as an international standard (see table 6). Along this spectrum, public participation ranges from

simply “informing” the community to “consulting,” “involving,” “collaborating with,” and “empowering”

it.

In some post-crisis communities that are hard hit by disaster or conflict, the purpose of the stakeholder

engagement strategy is simply to inform the public about the recovery and reconstruction process and

decisions.

In less dire situations, the community can, at the very minimum, act as a consulting partner, providing

valuable input and support to the decision-making process and, later, the reconstruction process. Civic

engagement should leverage local knowledge through key community partner organizations or leaders.

To gain an understanding of the local dynamics and capacities (local institutions and client groups,

governance structures and power dynamics, social structures and relationships, and geography), the team

should hire skilled consultancy firms to conduct context analyses. By enabling it to identify suitable entry

points and opportunities to take advantage of the distinctive characteristics of the city or town, such

analyses will allow the team to build resilience and avoid creating conflict or exacerbating existing

inequalities.26

The process of involving the public in the planning process must be clear and realistic for projects that can

be implemented using available resources, augmented by local expertise. Stakeholder involvement can

be crucial to the success of reconstruction, particularly when developing the vision and setting goals for

the preparation of master plans and the implementation of large-scale projects. Communication and

cooperation with stakeholders can be key to the success of any project, as a negative perception of

stakeholders may result in its implementation being blocked, and the mismanagement of this important

relationship may cause controversy and conflicts.

Collaboration is possible with communities that are structured enough to work with the reconstruction

team throughout the process. The community’s aspirations and concerns are addressed one by one, and

the public input influences the reconstruction process and decisions. In situations where a diverse and

large group of stakeholders is present and ready to engage, the reconstruction team works with the

community to develop alternative solutions and scenarios and evaluate them.

Finally, the ideal situation on IAP2’s spectrum is that in which the community is empowered enough to

make decisions about reconstruction. For a community to engage at this level of decision making after a

26 Andrew Meaux and Wale Osofisan, “A Review of Context Analysis Tools for Urban Humanitarian Response,” working paper, International Institute for Environment and Development, November 2016, https://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/10797IIED.pdf.


33

crisis, an already existing network of community leaders and organizations must be in place to act as a

liaison with the public entity.

Table 6. IAP2’s Spectrum of Public Engagement, 2014

Inform Consult Involve Collaborate Empower

Pu

blic

Par

tici

pat

ion

Go

al

To provide balanced and objective information to help the public understand the problem, alternatives, opportunities, and/or solutions

To obtain public feedback on analysis, alternatives, and/or decisions

To work directly with the public throughout the process to ensure that concerns and aspirations are consistently understood and considered

To partner with the public on each aspect of decision making, including the development of alternatives and the identification of preferred solutions

To place final decision making in the hands of the public

Pro

mis

e t

o t

he

Pu

blic

We will keep you informed.

We will keep you informed and listen to and acknowledge concerns and aspirations.

We will work with you to ensure your concerns and aspirations are directly reflected in the alternatives developed and provide feedback on how public input has influenced the decision.

We will look to you for advice and innovation in formulating solutions and incorporate your advice and recommendations into the decisions to the maximum extent possible.

We will implement what you decide.

Module 3: Financing

Module 3.1: Identifying Financial Resources

The team must develop a post-crisis capital investment plan, which specifies necessary funds for repairs

and infrastructure development. In general, local governments need short-term operating budgets and

capital investment plans for sound financial management. The post-crisis period is, in fact, a good time

for developing a capital investment plan if the city does not have one. The disruption in services caused

by the conflict or disaster and the need to repair or build new infrastructure enable the team to engage

rapidly with the community and technical teams and identify the needs for long-sought infrastructure

improvements in the city and the region. The timing is also good because the city usually has access to

more funds than usual for rebuilding and reconstruction and can plan for several complementary projects


34

at the same time. Furthermore, since capital investment planning requires a financial maturity that many

local governments in the private sector may not have, the post-crisis period can be a good time to allow

the local government develop such expertise in-house or to use the expertise offered by the central

government, donors, or multilateral development banks.

Capital investment plans are a good complement to the reconstruction master plans. They allow planners

to attach a “price tag” to their aspirations for the city. If local planners allow for low-density development

and sprawl, the price of providing infrastructure will act as an alarming stop sign. Complementing a master

plan with a capital investment plan informs the long-term infrastructure decisions and their impact on the

sustainability of land use plans.

The following are some strategies for developing investment plans:

• Ensure flexibility in planning and timeline. The capital investment plan for post-crisis

reconstruction has to be more flexible than traditional ones in terms of time line and planning

because of the urgency of the situation and the multiplicity of actors commonly involved after a

large conflict or disaster, who may come from the public, private, and nonprofit sectors. The

speed of the reconstruction process necessitates measuring progress on a month to month basis

instead of annually, as in normal construction projects. In addition, conditions in post-crisis

situations change so rapidly that waiting for budget decisions from the central government could

create unacceptable delays.27

• Find the right technical capacity. Capital investment planning is highly technical and requires

collaboration with a skilled team of engineers, policymakers, lawyers, and financial management

specialists. In the aftermath of a disaster, the city government may not have the right set of skills

in-house to take on the capital investment planning process on its own.

• Determine the duration and time line of the recovery program. In normal circumstances,

capital investment plans are developed for periods of three to seven years. In post-crisis

instances, these periods could be longer or shorter based on the types of projects selected.28

• Develop a list of potential projects. Depending on the institutional structure for the recovery process and the parties involved, the team may receive many project proposals. These may have been considered before the crisis, with some on the city’s “to do” list for several years. Crisis usually opens an opportunity for the city to act on plans developed in the years before. If the pool of applicants is large, the team must consider all of them and develop a scoring system to assign priority to projects. The team could, for example, assign a higher score to a project with greater social or economic benefits or to one that is mandated by the central or regional government. Similarly, projects with higher life expectancy or cost savings or revenue-generating attributes are more desirable.

27 Fengler, “Managing Post Disaster Reconstruction Finance.” 28 “Kaganova, “Guidebook on Capital Investment Planning for Local Governments.”


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Module 3.2: Management of Land Resources The ownership of land within the historic core is shared between the public and private sectors. In some

cases, other forms of ownership exist, such as communal ownership or endowments. Communal land is

usually owned by a community or tribe as a collective asset. Endowment land is dedicated by the owner

to charitable purposes, a practice common in the Islamic world. In any case, the post-crisis phase is a good

time to develop an inventory of land assets and then determine what policies need to be developed to

take best advantage of these assets.

The following are some strategies for managing land resources:

• Develop a system for land administration. Developing proper systems of land administration is

important to supporting efficient land markets and land use control systems. Especially in the

aftermath of a large disaster, various social benefits are associated with a decent land tenure

system, such as social inclusion, access to credit, management of land disputes, and poverty

alleviation, among many others.29 One first step for the project team is to develop a land cadastre

and have a proper valuation of land resources. Note that this task is highly technical, and many

cities may not have the right technical expertise to carry it out.

• Regularize tenure. In many historic cores, residents may be owners or informal residents and

renters. If the historic core and the areas around it have informal residents, regularization of

tenure could be an important tool for social development. Land tenure regularization, or “land

titling,” has many social, economic, and political impacts, including increases in income and

productivity, credit access, housing investment, and child education.

• Take on land reforms. To prevent or tame conflicts, a program of land reforms should be

implemented to ensure equitable access to land resources. These reforms could be “market

assisted” or “government led,” and they would need continued government stability and political

consensus to be sustained. The reforms could be formulated on a policy, legal, or institutional

level and should be implemented incrementally. Some may include rescinding discriminatory

laws, developing ad hoc legislation to address specific challenges (such as population returns,

informal settlements, concessions, and so on), or they could involve revamping the land

administration policies and developing comprehensive land legislation.30

• Assemble fragmented land. The government can use several tools to assemble fragmented land.

Creating larger land parcels allows the government to build at a higher density, reducing the cost

of infrastructure per unit of housing. To assemble private land parcels, the most effective method

is to build consensus among landowners and structure voluntary deals. If the majority of

landowners agree to pool or sell their land for redevelopment or urban expansion, the

government can use expropriation to oblige the rest to add their land to the pool.

• Leverage public land. Many governments have used land sales or long-term leases to engage the

private sector and fund infrastructure. Note that land resources are nonrenewable, and they

belong to the generations to come. The government can decide to sell the public land through

auctions or administratively determined pricing, or through strategic negotiated transaction. Last,

29 Amirtahmasebi et al., Regenerating Urban Land. 30 United Nations Interagency Framework Team for Preventive Action, Land and Conflict: Toolkit and Guidance for Preventing and Managing Land and Natural Resources Conflict, 2012, https://www.un.org/en/land-natural-resources-conflict/pdfs/GN_Land%20and%20Conflict.pdf.


36

public land assets can be leveraged for building infrastructure by using it as an in-kind payment

to the private sector in return for the delivery of infrastructure. This model requires a robust legal

and organizational infrastructure to structure deals with the private sector.

Module 3.3: Managing Land in Times of Conflict In managing land resources, the conflict and post-conflict situations should receive special consideration.

Disputes over land resources are rarely the sole cause of conflict, but they relate to wider processes of

exclusion, discrimination, and economic and social marginalization. Land not only is a source of economic

stability, it is also linked to the sense of community and identity. Even in the absence of open conflict,

land disputes can turn violent when a general condition of insecurity exists. If the country has a proper

land administration system, the existing institutions can have a significant impact on taming conflicts and

disputes. To manage land resources during and after conflict, these actions are recommended:

• Monitor land resources during conflict. In situations where increased conflict or a natural disaster

causes a whole ethnic group to leave a city, many leave their land documents behind. Since many

developing countries do not operate online land record systems, these paper records may be lost

forever. The city or the rebuilding team should monitor displacement and secondary occupation

by registering land rights as the population flees, using witness testimonies and before and after

satellite imagery and reviewing other evidence. In Timor-Leste, for example, where the 2006 civil

unrest displaced 100,000 people, many internally displaced people (IDPs) did not have a formal

claim to the property they had fled, and many who returned found squatters in their homes.

Working with the government, the UNDP and the United Nations Human Settlements Programme

(UN-Habitat) sent teams of enumerators to all major IDP camps and asked a representative of

every household to indicate the house from which they had been forced to flee, using a 1:1000-

scale aerial photomap. The location was recorded on a map and linked to information about the

property, such as its stated condition at the time of displacement, and other relevant

socioeconomic data. The government used this information to implement a cash-based return

and resettlement program.31

• Restitution and returns. To encourage the return of IDPs, the team should implement a sound

system of restitution. The team must take into account historical injustices (for example, where

an ethnic group was never given land rights), the rights of renters and informal settlers, and

methods of compensation for the loss of land and property.

Module 3.4: Land Value Capture Land value capture tools range from simple to complex.32 To use different value capture mechanisms, the

city government should have a robust analytical framework for estimating the infrastructure costs of

reconstruction projects. Betterment levies, for example, are hard to implement because quantifying the

land value increment resulting from infrastructure investments is difficult. Even in countries that record

31 Ibid. 32 Amirtahmasebi et al., Regenerating Urban Land.


37

land values, the records commonly account for only two-thirds or less of the observed variation in the

prices of land parcels.33

It is usually easier to estimate impact fees for greenfield projects than for rehabilitation ones. If the

reconstruction proposals include infill development, estimating the incremental cost can be more

challenging. The use of land capture tools requires structuring a team with a high level of technical savvy.

Setting up and negotiating cost of development has to be done with care. Furthermore, since applying an

additional levy could be a disincentive for private developers, the use of these tools is only applicable in

sites and cities with high market demand, which may not be the case in post-crisis conditions.

Module 3.5: Land Readjustment The government can use land readjustment schemes to pool or assemble several privately owned land parcels to take on an urban regeneration project. The municipality then prepares a land use plan for the area that includes right of way for public infrastructure and services such as roads and open spaces. After the project is completed, the municipality returns to each landowner a land parcel that is proportional to the original one. Though smaller than the original, the new parcel has a higher value because it is now serviced urban land. Some strategic land parcels are retained by the municipality to be auctioned or sold at market rates for recovering the cost of its investment in infrastructure and service delivery. The last step is to prepare the land and build the infrastructure. Land readjustment is an effective tool for allowing local governments to take on regeneration projects through increased land values, while engaging and involving the original residents and landowners as stakeholders. It is also beneficial for the government because a massive upfront investment is not required to buy the land from the owners. The following are some strategies for carrying out land readjustment:

• Determine the capacity of institutions and legislation. This tool needs strong local institutions and a sound legislative framework to be implemented effectively.

• Obtain the consent of all landowners and tenants. Obtaining the consent of all existing landowners and tenants for the regeneration project may be challenging, but it will ensure success and sustainability.

• Get the land valuation system right. The land readjustment process requires a sound valuation of the land, and it is difficult for the government and landowners to reach agreements on its true value. If there are tenants in the area, respecting their rights and ensuring an equitable process could also be challenging.

33 Unlocking land values to finance urban infrastructure (English). Trends and policy options ; no. 7. Washington, D.C. : World

Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/723411468139800644/Unlocking-land-values-to-finance-urban-

infrastructure


38

Module 3.6: City-Led Financing Tools City-led financing tools may be very effective for stimulating the real estate market in the historic core

after a disaster or conflict. Unlike other financing tools, they create incentives for the private sector and

individual property owners to invest in the historic core and participate in the reconstruction process.

The following are some strategies for using city-led financing tools:

• Study the legal and regulatory framework to set up sound policy tools. Policy instruments do not

require exchanges of funds between the government and the private sector. These non-fiscal

tools can be effectively used in cities that lack the legislative authority or fiscal space to borrow

funds. Instead, the regulatory systems of these cities should be studied to gain an understanding

of how they can be used to provide incentive to the private sector.

• Set up a phasing structure to create an attractive investment climate for private sector

developers. The first phase of reconstruction could focus on creating the right investment

climate, while the second and later phases set up sound land use policy and municipal

regulatory powers to encourage development.

• Enforce building codes and zoning rules. These instruments require strong enforcement of land use regulations. The transfer of development rights scheme, for example, could only work if development is restricted in the receiving areas. Similarly, up-zoning will only work if a strong development control is in place to restrict land use or changes to floor area ratio (FAR). Otherwise, the developers will have no incentive to use this tool.

Module 4: Implementation

Module 4.1: Institutional Arrangement While the discussion under Module 3 provides a high-level understanding of managing recovery and

reconstruction after a crisis, historic cities (or historic urban cores within cities) may need a more deeply

considered institutional model. Historic cities have experimented with different institutional models to

manage the challenges of historic cores effectively. Selecting the appropriate one is key to leveraging the

strengths and incentives of different actors in the rehabilitation and conservation of cultural heritage.

Some cities manage the rebuilding process in-house by reshuffling existing offices and agencies within the

current urban governance framework. In some cases, the emergency management agency at the central

government level manages the process halfway and then hands it off to the local municipality for further

implementation. Some cities use existing development corporations or redevelopment agencies, which

already have both the necessary skill sets and legal authority for reconstruction and are familiar with the

permitting and development processes.34

Below we review the strengths and weaknesses of institutional actors in three categories: the public

sector, the private sector, and the community sector. We lay out a blueprint and supporting case studies

34 Laurie A. Johnson, “Planning for Recovery Management,” The Planning for Post-Disaster Recovery: Next Generation Briefing Papers, no. 07, American Planning Association, 2014. Planning.org, https://planning-org-uploaded-media.s3.amazonaws.com/document/post-disaster-paper-7-recovery-management.pdf.


39

for four institutional management structures: a joint venture between public and private sectors; parallel

management; a special task force within the government; and an autonomous development corporation.

The discussion explains in some detail what each model entails and the pros and cons of each and presents

case studies and general principles for setting up the management structures.

Joint Venture Model

A joint venture operating under commercial code is a governance structure that distributes shares to

public and private participants, including property owners, and to individual investors. The benefit of a

joint venture is that it creates concrete buy-in from stakeholders across all sectors, including the private

sector. This increases the size of the field for financing opportunities and imposes a higher expectation for

operational excellence to generate new activities for visitors and residents. Simultaneously, a joint

venture can include the community sector through the formation of a governing committee.

Shareholders can also be subdivided into ventures with specific funding mandates. Akin to task forces,

venture committees may be set up that focus on different areas for investment. One venture, for instance,

may focus on all decisions on the financing of cultural heritage spending and on taxes from cultural events,

as well as the financing of restoration, preservation, and protection of religious, artistic, and cultural assets

and the restoration of monuments, city fixtures, infrastructure, and public spaces. Another venture can

be created to focus on the spending on commercial real estate that grants tax incentives to private

companies who want to invest in rehabilitating property. As the joint venture structure can risk

overburdening the private sector with expectations that are beyond the scope of its business mandates,

roles should be clearly delineated from the beginning.

Case Study: Solidere, Beirut, Lebanon. The joint venture model has been used in different regions of the

world. One famous example is the case of Solidere in Beirut, Lebanon. The 1975–90 war in Lebanon

wrecked the central district of Beirut, where finance, culture, and leisure activities had been conducted

for thousands of years. In response to the government’s inability to react to the depth of the destruction

or to finance reconstruction, Solidere was formed, as a joint stock company with an innovative legal and

institutional framework. Focused on the reconstruction and development of Beirut’s city center, the

company allows investors—public and private—to own shares appraised and granted by judicial

committees. Solidere’s 36,000 shares are owned mostly by Lebanese citizens, Arab nationals, banks, and

international funds, in two broad categories: previous property owners and new investors.35

Case Study: Quito, Ecuador. Another interesting example of this model was implemented in Quito,

Ecuador. Quito’s Historic Center Enterprise is 90 percent funded by the public sector and 10 percent by

the private sector. It has two stakeholders, the Quito Municipality and the Capiscara Foundation, which

make up a governing council that appoints a board of directors comprising members of a third sector,

among whom are representatives of sewage, electricity, telecommunications, and gas utilities, academic

institutions, community associations, trade unions, government, banks, and the construction industry.

The public sector is in charge of the Fund for Saving Cultural Heritage (Fondal), which is funded under a

congressional decree through a 3 percent sales tax on tickets to public performances and a 6 percent

share of the rent taxes collected by the city. The city can contract with private enterprise for restoration

35 See www.solidere.com/corporate/about.


40

services to carry out construction projects, make investments, and do business with the private sector.36

Case Study: The Revitalization of Glasgow, Scotland. The revitalization of Glasgow from a rust-belt

industrial city into a cultural one is another case that demonstrates the economic impact of public-private

partnerships.37 The management consulting firm McKinsey was brought in to produce a redevelopment

plan, which called for attracting international companies that would encourage creativity among the local

people and institutions to reinvigorate the city center. McKinsey suggested converting old warehouses

and factories into lofts and stylish luxury housing and redeveloped art galleries and museums, as well as

businesses that provide a link between unemployed Glasgow residents and economic growth sectors.38

Through private funding and economic incentives, Glasgow rebranded itself as a cultural center and has

continued to experience associated economic growth.

Parallel Implementation Model

In parallel implementation, each sector remains independent, complementing one another as they join

forces in the process of cultural rehabilitation. This is a loose model that relies on a highly participatory

process. The actors may convene through the establishment of a council, and roles are delineated among

them. The advantage of parallel implementation is that it improves coordination with existing sector

activities and policies. Moreover, after the project is complete, the staff has an effective strategy to exit

from it and return to previous government positions, bringing lessons they can continue integrating into

their normal functions. The disadvantage is that such a pluralistic model may dilute political authority and

can and will overburden governments with multiple agendas.

Case Study: Edinburgh, Scotland. The World Heritage Site in Edinburgh, which is managed through a

management plan and by a steering group, provides a good example of parallel implementation. The

members of the steering group include Historic Environment Scotland, the City of Edinburgh Council, and

Edinburgh World Heritage. In addition, an oversight group is made up of the convener and vice convener

of the planning committee, representatives of the community councils within the site, ICOMOS-UK (the

UK national committee of the International Council on Monuments and Sites), the Chamber of Commerce,

and the management partners. The oversight group considers the outputs of the steering group and

checks whether it and the reports it has provided have met the project objectives. On the central

government level, the Department for Culture, Media, and Sport (DCMS) is in charge of managing World

Heritage Sites in the United Kingdom to ensure they comply with the World Heritage Convention.

Another local institution, the Edinburgh Urban Design Panel, ensures new buildings are of good quality

and that they improve the streetscape and public spaces. Comprising members from a range of

organizations, including Architecture and Design Scotland, Edinburgh World Heritage, Historic

Environment Scotland, The Cockburn Association, Police Scotland, and the Royal Town Planning Institute,

the panel also reviews the policies of the city council that have an impact on urban design. Figure 16 shows

the management structure for the World Heritage City of Edinburgh.

36 Fox, Catherine, et al. Tripartite Partnerships: Recognizing the Third Sector. 2005, mail.google.com/mail/u/0/#search/alianzas/FMfcgxwDqfLFhxfVpkxcrcdQWJpvLhpj?projector=1&messagePartId=0.1. 37 Webster et al. Guide to City Development Strategies. 38 Ibid.


41

Dedicated Task Force Model

A dedicated task force can be created to mobilize and organize actors with a focused goal for restoration.

Application of this model is most appropriate after a large disaster that requires swift action in a setting

where the local government is unstable or has limited resources to facilitate the continuity of projects

between transitions. The advantage of a dedicated task force is that it can be highly independent and

focused, and its presence simplifies consultation with the government. It also provides a mechanism for

resource allocation, procurement, and staffing. Actors may include cultural heritage experts and

conservationists, cultural ministries, local and national government officials, and international agencies.

The disadvantage of a task force is that it risks duplicating existing efforts, and its exit strategy from the

project may be problematic, with the personnel who were brought in to form the task force not integrated

effectively back into government arms. If the task force is recreated after every disaster, it does not build

on experience within the government and foster continued learning.

Case Study: The Provisional Committee for Cultural Asset Preservation, Seoul, Korea. On December 9,

1952, during the Korean War, the Republic of Korea’s Ministry of Culture and Education introduced the

Provisional Committee for the Preservation of National Treasures, Historical and Scenic Sites, and Natural

Heritage, whose mission was to survey and promptly restore cultural and natural assets destroyed in the

war. The committee consisted of thirty professionals with diverse backgrounds, including experts in

archaeology, museology, architecture, history, arts, botany, geology, mineralogy, and literature.

Unfortunately, the chaotic circumstances and lack of infrastructure kept the committee’s scope of activity

and influence to a minimum, and the surviving record of its meeting minutes mentions its work only

briefly. According to the minutes, the committee identified damage to thirty-six cultural and natural sites

and devised emergency restoration measures, as well as providing guidance on allocation of the

emergency restoration cost in 1953 and 1954.39 Although its work was very limited due to the political

and economic instability throughout the period, and its mission was not reflected in Seoul’s postwar

development and rebuilding process, the committee represented the government’s initial attempt to

protect Korea’s most important national monuments.

Autonomous Development Corporation Model

An autonomous development corporation model features an emerging framework, in which a governmental arm working in a specified zone takes on aspects of a business model but has unique laws and operates independently from the local government. A buffer zone declared around a heritage region has exceptions on building zones, zoning laws, tax incentives, urban design guidelines, and commercial activities and limits, among others. Such a corporation can also be productive for governing cultural heritage zones, because most heritage within cities is concentrated in zones in inner cities. This fact enables the corporation to manage, develop, acquire, and sell land within a more self-contained buffer zone. The autonomous development corporation structure also enables a government entity to operate swiftly and directly toward purposeful implementation of cultural rehabilitation without being overburdened by other governmental obligations, while allowing the private sector to offer its expertise and affording a more entrepreneurial mindset. A challenge presented by an autonomous development corporation is that businesses can feel overregulated by various mandates and policies when they are more accustomed to a market-oriented development mentality.

39 The Cultural Heritage Administration and Cultural Properties Committee. http://english.cha.go.kr/cha/idx/SubIndex.do?mn=EN

http://english.cha.go.kr/cha/idx/SubIndex.do?mn=EN


42

Kaganova has outlined several fundamental features of autonomous development corporations,

including the following:

• Explicit social mandates. As a social enterprise, an autonomous development corporation can

maintain explicit social mandates while still acting with the efficiency of a private company,

which is reflected in its operations, pricing, and with whom it chooses to partner. A corporation

can select partners who may not offer the highest price for the land but will provide the

offerings most relevant to maintaining the cultural heritage within a region. Safeguards need to

be built into company rules to prevent it from dominating the market.

• Property ownership and private sector involvement models. Corporations can also manage,

develop, and sell land. The design-build-finance-operate (DBFO) model, utilized by the City of

Johannesburg, South Africa, created long-term land lease arrangements for engaging the private

sector in delivering market-oriented, mixed-use development on municipal land, with private

sector partners selected through requests for proposals (RFPs). The private partner recoups its

investment by leasing the real estate.

• Unique revenue models. Autonomous development corporations can devise exceptional rules

governing how net income (profit) is used. A corporation can, for instance, make special purpose

funds available outside its pay-for-property acquisitions to acquire land under governmental

ownership for cultural conservation purposes. Revenue can come from sales taxes on cultural

tourism or artistic performances.

• Strong management. Factors most likely to define success include a viable funding model that

provides stable, multiyear funding; control over assets; strong leadership associated with long-

term vision; accountability mechanisms; authority to act; long-term planning; and a willingness

to harness private sector capabilities.

• Transparency and ethics. Autonomous development corporations vary in their openness about

business transactions, financial status, and access to land information databases and in their

consultation with the local community. Explicit ethics training is provided for staff, and internal

audits of compliance are conducted.

Case Study: The Santiago Development Corporation, Chile. Between 1950 and 1970, the city of Santiago

experienced rapid growth beyond city boundaries and a decline of its urban center, including abandoned

buildings and deteriorated public spaces.40 Damage from the earthquake of 1985 worsened the decline.

Since the municipality lacked both a strong record of planning and the financial resources to rebuild alone,

it developed a “Plan for the Renovation of Santiago.” To determine the direction the plan should take,

Santiago’s mayor Jaime Ravinet created a participatory process in 1990 with three components: (1)

restoring the residential character of the district; (2) strengthening its commercial, industrial, and service

activities; and (3) improving the quality of life by providing better public spaces, redesigning private and

public transport, increasing residents’ security, and protecting the environment. The new plan was set in

place after 16,000 residents took part in the exercise and voiced their desire to stop the exodus of

population and restore the quality of infrastructure and life in Santiago. The plan aimed to attract new

residents and activate the housing market under a public-private partnership structure, and it assigned

responsibility for this program to a newly formed entity, the Santiago Development Corporation (SDC).

40 Fox et al. Tripartite Partnerships: Recognizing the Third Sector.


43

The Santiago Development Corporation had four main goals: (1) to identify available land for

redevelopment; (2) to redefine the existing national housing study to fit Santiago’s needs; (3) to

demonstrate the existence of large demand for housing in the district; and (4) to collaborate with private

developers according to agreements made through a repopulation program. The SDC also created several

tangential programs: the repopulation program, an employment agency, a program to provide financing

for restoration, training, and health care, and a neighborhood advancement committee. Its several

sources of revenue included municipal revenues, property and revenue taxes, municipal licensing fees,

and waste collection fees. Because of its unique status, the corporation was also able to tap into a mixture

of private and public funding, including a housing subsidy, and more than US$3 billion in private

investments.

The accomplishments of the SDC in boosting the housing market and repopulating the Santiago

metropolitan region were significant. Over the years, the housing market has become more autonomous

and competitive. Around 10,000 units were developed under collaboration agreements between

developers and the SDC from 1990 to 2012. Until 2000, around 40 percent of the housing projects were

the result of public-private partnerships (PPPs) between real estate developers with the SDC and the

Municipality of Santiago. Since then, however, the housing market in the district of Santiago has started

to work autonomously. In addition, the financial outcomes of Santiago’s renovation plan have been

significant. The total municipal revenues increased 55.2 percent in 2001–13.

Having the right institutional model is very important to carrying out a sustainable and consistent

reconstruction process. In choosing it, the project team must carefully analyze the quality and capacity of

each sector in terms of both technical and financial characteristics to design the optimal combination for

the best outcome. Table 7 summarizes and compares these models.

Table 7. Comparison of Different Institutional Models

Autonomous

development corporation

Joint venture with the

private sector

Designated task force Parallel implementation

An autonomous

development corporation

model features an

emerging framework, in

which a zone is specified

A joint venture operating

under commercial code can

be structured with an

ownership model that

distributes shares to public

A task force can be created

to mobilize and organize

different actors within a

heritage site, including

cultural heritage experts and

Private, public, and third

sectors remain

independent but

complement one

another as they join


44

with laws different from

those of the rest of the

country. This allows

regions to set up

exceptions to building

zones, zoning laws, urban

design guidelines, and

economic incentives that

are specific to a cultural

heritage zone.

and private participants,

including previous property

owners, and individual

investors. Decisions on

ownership can be made by

an appraised judicial

committee, and limits on

capital ownership can be set

(for instance, no entity can

own more than 10 percent of

an area).

conservationists, members of

local and national

governments, and

representatives of

international agencies. An

oversight group, elected

within the site, can be set up

to address the planning and

convene with the chamber of

commerce and other

management partners.

forces in the process of

cultural rehabilitation. In

this highly participatory

process, actors may

convene through the

establishment of a

council, and roles are

clearly delineated—for

instance, the public and

private sectors may be

responsible for funds,

the private sector for

developer work, and the

public and third sectors

for political governance

structures.

Conditions enabling each model

Governance typically too

fragmented to move

quickly on funding or

decision making after a

crisis

Low financing from one

entity

Strong local private sector

buy-in and presence

Local government too

unstable to facilitate

continuity of project

between transitions

Large-scale, post-disaster

situation that demands swift

movement

Institutions with clearly

delineated roles that can

operate independently

Pros


45

Clearly delineated zone,

making governance in a

region straightforward and

clear

Joint venture structure,

creating tangible buy-in that

allows for private financing

and excellence in operations

to generate new activities for

visitors and residents, while

also representing local

interests and a commitment

to cultural heritage values

Highly independent, focused

Provides mechanism for

resource allocation,

procurement, and staffing

Handles complex financial

arrangements with

international donors

Simplifies consultation with

government and effectively

addresses tasks

Improves coordination

with existing sector

activities and policies

Top executive drawn

from outside

bureaucratic ranks

Effective exit strategy,

with staff returning to

previous government

positions after

construction is finished

Cons

Prone to corruption

Potential for risks from lack

of local ownership if the

project is not well

advocated within the

community

Risks of overburdening the

private sector with

expectations beyond the

scope of their businesses

Risks of duplicating existing

efforts

May lack local ownership

Expensive; requires

premises, facilities, and staff

Problematic exit strategy;

will probably fight to survive

If recreated for each disaster,

doesn’t build on experience

May lack political

authority and will

Can weaken ministries

and undermine ongoing

non-disaster programs

Possibility of

international agencies

not financing backfilling

of normal ministry

functions

Can overburden

governments with

inadequate capacity to

manage large

reconstruction program

and double agenda

(reconstruction and

normal programs)


46

Module 4.2: Risk Management Even in times of security and peace, urban transformation and rehabilitation programs face major risks. These risks are greater in the reconstruction process following a natural disaster or conflict. Some risks that involve the community and peace building process have been covered in other sections of this guide. This section covers solely those that concern the physical construction and rehabilitation, as well as the risks and mitigations in partnership formation for PPPs (table 8). Steps to risk management include the following:

1. Understanding the context 2. Identifying the risks 3. Analyzing the magnitude of risk 4. Evaluating the situations 5. Treating the situation 6. Monitoring and evaluation41

Risk analysis begins by asking, “How big are the risks, which risks are unacceptable, and how do we prioritize them?” In the case of “events”—for instance, natural disasters, war, fire, or theft—risk can be estimated based on the chances of occurrence and the expected loss of value to a heritage site. In quantifying chances of occurrence, the team should explore regional statistical, local, and scientific technical knowledge. For catastrophes, this information can be gathered through facility, site, and collection surveys. Regional statistical sources include climate tables, natural disaster data, and data shared across heritage organizations. Local and common knowledge can be gathered through facility surveys and from the memories of local residents, building documentation, and staff knowledge. Next, the team should analyze how to prioritize actions or areas based on limited time, resources, and bandwidth. Magnitude of risk can be calculated by adding up the frequency of the event, the projected loss of value in affected property, and the percentage of the value of the collection affected per event. The relative importance of a heritage asset can be calculated as a proportion of the asset or site with the area, but the value of a heritage site can also be appraised through expert consultation. The last step of the risk management cycle is to create layers of enclosure to reduce or eliminate risks. There are six ways to create enclosure around a heritage site or asset; the first is through tactics of avoidance. If a heritage site is near a tsunami, for instance, or can be affected by flooding or avoid risky practices such as lighting candles or having kitchens near museums. Another example of enclosure is through blocking: general deterioration and damage from rainwater can be blocked by surface painting or by creating curtains and filters to block light, including ultraviolet light. A third is the use of detection measures—assigning guards to patrol a heritage site, installing alarm systems, or having a digital thermometer to monitor temperature levels, among others. When an incident has occurred, response should involve such actions as, for example, removing sacred sculptures at risk following an earthquake or stabilizing structures at risk of collapse. Long-term recovery may call for the reconstruction of heritage sites destroyed by vandalism or the retrieval of digitized data and knowledge about a heritage site after its destruction. After listing out options, consideration should

41 Jose Luiz Pedersoli, A Guide to Risk Management of Cultural Heritage, International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), 2016, https://www.iccrom.org/wp-content/uploads/Guide-to-Risk-Managment_English.pdf.


47

be given to the extent to which interventions will bring about incremental versus longer-term risk reduction, in accordance with principles of “build back better.” Other considerations include costs, the effectiveness of an option in reducing more than one risk, its feasibility, and whether there are opportunity costs in pursuing one option over another.

Table 8. Suggestions for Risk Management and Mitigation in Forming PPPs

Risk Mitigation

Time and resource execution inefficiencies. The time

and resources required to form a partnership are an

investment. Inefficient execution and endless meetings

without results could disappoint residents and the

community, cause delays, and threaten the long-term

sustainability of the regeneration project. More

specifically, they pose both construction and financial

risks, including all potential problems related to the

design phase of the reconstruction project, such as

building cost overruns and project delays.

Institutional risks. In areas where political will is weak

amid transitional governments, implementation can

become especially difficult. The public sector may

become overtaxed, without adequate financial

resources or talent to execute a plan properly. In

addition, the public sector may have unrealistic

expectations with regard to what the private sector can

execute or provide beyond the scope of its businesses

or mandates.

Creation of accountability measures. To avoid the

inefficiencies that often arise from the bureaucratic

process of the public sector, one option is to form a

separate entity, independent of the government, to

bypass the bureaucracies. In the case of joint

ventures between the public and private sectors,

special attention must be paid to ensuring the

balance between the two is not offset by the private

sector’s taking on responsibilities that were initially

assumed for the public sector, thereby resulting in

inefficiencies. In the institutional framework of such

entities, it is best to define clearly each sector’s

responsibilities and accountability.

Cooperative agreements. Agreements should detail

rights, roles, and responsibilities explicitly and be

legally enforceable.

Sustainability. It is important to ensure sustainability

and account for any risks when an independent

separate entity, such as a joint venture or a private

company, is commissioned to design, build, and

operate a project for a certain period of time and

then transfer it to the public sector. The government

may not have the capacity to operate the project as

efficiently as its private partner. A capacity-building

component designed as part of the project can

ensure its sustainability when this transfer takes

place.

Financial risks. Political and financial instabilities can

create variability in interest rates and exchange rates,

which in turn affect the cash flow and financial

sustainability of a reconstruction process. Moreover,

the private sector may be putting money into a

Incentives for the private sector. The bottom line for

the private sector is that its involvement should not

increase costs. Therefore, activities to involve the

private sector should be seen by the businesses as a


48

situation that does not provide an immediate or

attractive return or presents increased liability from

property damage risks. The vulnerable state of a post-

disaster zone may make return on investments take

longer or be riskier. In addition, without careful

transparency and monitoring systems, inappropriate or

frivolous spending may occur. A top priority for the

partnership is to estimate the investments needed and

make allocations based on milestones to be able to

mitigate the impacts of a loss of funding.

win-win strategy in the form of profits or positive

reputation.

Tax incentives. Tax reductions provide the most

concrete incentives. Local and national governments

can offer such incentives as exemptions from

property taxes, sales taxes, or rent for income tax

purposes or as long-term tax abatement for the

renovation of buildings (for example, a 90 percent,

five-year abatement for restored properties).

Reputational incentives. Private sector entities may

also derive incentive from how they are perceived

and their relationships with the local community from

a marketing and public relations perspective. To

provide this incentive in tangible form, the

government can recognize the corporation through

the naming of buildings or the awarding of plaques or

by creating marketing paraphernalia or a web and

social media presence.

Reducing property damage risks. The government can

make a commitment to combating crime and illicit

activity that may damage property investments.

Preventive measures, such as cameras or additional

security in target areas, can be implemented to

reduce the risk of destruction of or vandalism to

property.

Loss of control over project cycle, community

participation, and interest. Consensus building in a

pluralistic model can often be challenging. Staying on

task and agenda is essential, as is recognizing limits on

time and resources. Moreover, a participatory model

loses its effectiveness when participation and interest

are not evenly distributed. Low involvement by certain

interest groups, or overrepresentation by others, may

result in disproportionate attention to interests.

Citizen councils. A citizen council confers power on its

members through the recognition of titles, roles, and

legal status. The council may include a judiciary

committee, and it should convene regularly so needs

can be noted and projects monitored.

Recognizing and elevating influential individuals or

groups. Observing individuals who are key influencers

or groups that have significant roles in the

community may help to build rapport exponentially.

Module 4.3: Communications and Engagement Strategy


49

The choice of tools used to engage community participation depends on what type of participation the

team expects. See Module 2.3 for more details.

Tools to inform

If the goal of community engagement is merely to inform the public about the reconstruction process and

associated decisions, the team can use public meetings (in person and/or virtual) to connect with the

community. In designing the format of such meetings, the team must consider the target community, its

level of education and local knowledge, potentially conflicting points of view, and the various languages

and dialects spoken. If the level of trust is low, the team might partner with a trusted third-party group or

organization to create and distribute the information.42

In post-conflict situations where groups of citizens are scattered in different resettlement areas, the use

of mass media, text messaging, and the Internet can ensure access to information for all. Websites and

social media tools can be part of the communication strategy for the project. In cases where access to

the Internet or online media is limited, the team can use more traditional tools to inform the

community; information kiosks and repositories are good ways to reach a wide audience. Where the

number of stakeholders is more manageable, press releases and printed material can be distributed

onsite.

Tools to consult and collaborate

If the goal of the engagement strategy is to consult with the community, the team should use tools that

allow citizens to generate input so they can participate in the decision-making process, share

information, and express their opinions.

• Charrettes. Intensive workshops to develop a vision or build consensus for a planning or

reconstruction project, charrettes are usually organized with the participation of the community

and an interdisciplinary team of planners, engineers, policymakers, and local officials. Designing

and convening a charrette requires a great deal of technical knowledge to generate correct and

realistic choices and scenarios for the project. Traditionally, charrettes have been used to envision

projects focused on community change, such as master plans, transit plans, affordable housing

development, or urban redevelopment projects.43 But they are also useful for developing a vision

and building consensus within a community for reconstruction of an entire neighborhood in a

post-crisis situation.

• Interviews. In addition to charrettes, the team can use interviews, focus group discussions,

community forums, and similar formats to generate public input. Focus groups are small group

discussions under the leadership of a technical expert. They can be helpful in identifying the areas

of concern within a community that has various ethnic or religious subgroups. While interviews

with stakeholders and community members can also be helpful, they are time consuming and, in

practice, they can reach only a limited number of community members.

42 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Public Participation Guide: Tools to Inform the Public,” August 17, 2017, www.epa.gov/international-cooperation/public-participation-guide-tools-inform-public. 43 Amirtahmasebi et al., Regenerating Urban Land.


50

New technologies can be an immense help in generating input from the community. A wide variety of media tools allow for online interaction between community members and the project team. These tools allow a large number of stakeholders to gain access to and provide input in real time at virtual public meetings through electronic polling devices.

Checklist for Operational Teams While these guidelines are extensive, they are not exhaustive. They aim to provide a shopping list of

items to consider when project teams design a reconstruction process post-crisis. The shortlist below

summarizes these guidelines.

1. In assessing damage to the historic and cultural assets, ensure all cultural properties are accounted for. These include properties representing tangible and intangible heritage, in addition to creative and cultural industries, tourism revenues, and historic housing stock and land resources.

2. While assessing damage, collect data on the historic area as well as for the whole city. A baseline is needed to design a “build back better” reconstruction policy.

3. Carefully map all cultural assets and institutions. Apply available and preferably low-cost

technology to construct a database that can be updated regularly.

4. Map the stakeholders, including the private sector, community leaders, tribes, different ethnic groups, and the public sector. Decide who constitutes the affected “community.” Once it has been identified, develop an inclusive community engagement strategy.

5. Develop a vision to guide the planning process.

6. Review the regulatory framework of the country and the city to design an inclusive planning

framework. Assign responsibilities to national- and local-level institutions.

7. Develop regulatory mechanisms for land use planning:

• Create a strategic framework to articulate a clear vision and direction for reconstruction.

• Develop a master plan for the historic core that is cognizant of traditional building typologies, urban patterns, and local construction technology and materials.

• Create or update zoning ordinances and building codes compatible with the historic core and its specific height and bulk measures, construction materials, and building typologies.

8. Set up the right institutional framework and governance structure for the reconstruction

process:

• For cities with sound legal infrastructure and clear land ownership, set up a joint venture to speed up the recovery process.

• In the aftermath of a large disaster requiring swift action, and where the local government is unstable or limited in resources and capacity and the private sector is passive, structure an in-house task force.

• For a city with an eager private sector and active community, use the parallel implementation model to include all stakeholders in one governance structure.


51

• When the local rules and regulations limit the city government’s ability to act swiftly in managing, developing, acquiring, and selling land resources, structure an autonomous corporation.

9. In creating a financing scheme, use these strategies:

• Build a system for land administration and valuation, regularize tenure, assemble fragmented parcels, and leverage public land assets.

• Create value capture methods to absorb the incremental creation of value resulting from the reconstruction.

• Develop the technical capacity of the local institutions in land valuation and calculation of the incremental value gains.

• Use a system for leveraging the regulatory powers of the city government to provide incentive for private investment.

CONCLUSION Designing a project cycle and setting up an implementation process and institutions that can carry on

reconstruction after a crisis is essential for sustainability and success. This technical note has described

all the elements and steps needed for such cases. To carry out the suggested steps, the operations team

must first develop a list of knowledgeable experts and consultants who can assist in the technical design

and development of project components. Furthermore, the project team can develop and use available

country systems so the reconstruction process can also become a process of capacity development.

Using the locally available knowledge and wisdom, the team must ensure all stakeholders are identified

and engaged, so the rehabilitation process can heal and unite the community around its cultural assets.


52

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https://www.fema.gov/media-library-data/1425503479190-22edb246b925ba41104b7d38eddc207f/APA_PAS_576.pdf

https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/1022


55

“UNSD Classifications on Economic Statistics.” United Nations, United Nations, 2008,

unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcst.asp?Cl=27.

Webster, Douglas R, and Larissa R. Muller. Guide to City Development Strategies: Improving

Urban Performance. Washington, D.C: Cities Alliance, 2006. Print.


56

ANNEX 1

FRAMEWORK FOR ASSESSING DAMAGE TO TANGIBLE AND INTANGIBLE

CULTURAL PROPERTIES

The tables in this annex provide more detailed information on assessing damage to cultural assets.

Table A1.1. Sample List of Items to Consider When Assessing Damage to Tangible Cultural Assets

Category Items to record

(include GPS-tagged

photos)

Examples

Immovable assets,

such as monuments,

structures,

landmarks,

buildings, sites,

districts

Basic information

● Location/address ● Pre-crisis function (residential, industrial, commercial,

cultural, etc.) ● Listing status (World Heritage, national register, local

historic preservation office, multiple, etc.) ● Ownership (private, public, communal, etc.)

Building information

● Style ● Height ● Building type ● Building footprint ● Foundation ● Construction materials ● Roof type ● Decorations ● Architectural and cultural features ● Site and landscape features

Cultural and historic value ● History ● Explanation of historic or cultural significance

Damage and degree of

damage (major, minor,

destroyed, inundated, etc.)

● Damage to foundation ● Damage to design integrity ● Damage to location integrity ● Damage to site and landscape ● Damage to decorations ● Damage to content ● Cause of damage (water, conflict, earthquake, fire,

theft, vandalism, etc.)


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Damage to function and

access

● Disruption to household and community-based services

● Disruption to community habits and behavior from closure of religious or community centers and institutions and cessation of cultural practices

● Loss of income from closure of sites, museums, performance centers, and cultural centers

● Loss of income and function from limited access to conservation products and specialized equipment required for the preservation of endangered assetsa

● Loss of function and income from disruption to management and decision-making bodies, shortages of skilled human resources, and loss of documentation and tacit knowledge

Movable cultural

assets

Library collections and

books, artifacts, rare

books, manuscripts, family

records, maps, historic

documents and

photographs, museum

collections, archives

● Damage to the integrity of resources ● Loss of information and data about resources ● Loss of records ● Loss of management practices ● Damage to archival practices ● Loss of tacit knowledge, management practices, and

human resources

a World Bank, GFDRR, and UNESCO. PDNA Volume B, Culture.

Table A1.2. Sample List of Items to Consider When Assessing Damage to Creative and Cultural

Industries (Commercial Sector)

Items to be assessed Consideration

Products/services ● Life cycle of the product ● Material inputs needed for creation. Account for level of disturbance or

halt to supply chain for acquiring material inputs and loss of knowledge and networks around using or acquiring materials.

● Machinery needed for production. Calculate value of machinery, including depreciable life, taking note of production units and any irreplaceable or esoteric machinery used for production, such as looms.

● Skills required to perform service. Note particular hand skills or talents or specific degrees or studies

Market and sales ● Destination of sales. Account for domestic sales and exports. ● Unit economics of a product. Consider revenue, cost, profit margin. ● Revenue. Calculate monthly and annual gross sales and volume and

frequency of purchase. ● Distribution channels. Determine where and how products were

previously selling (e.g., markets or other stores).

Demographics ● Formal or informal sector. Account for formal and informal enterprises. Accounting for the informal commerce sector is especially important because informal enterprises are not included in national surveys or statistics. It is suggested such assessment be performed by conducting special-sample surveys in temporary shelter camps or resettlement areas post-crisis.


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● Marginalization status (lower-income, tribal groups). Determine groups’ annual income, whether previously discriminated against, and whether currently resettled elsewhere.

● Age range and gender. Note any cultural assets inherently linked to female or intergenerational social activities (e.g., rural Yazidi women have a matrilineal tattooing tradition).

Size of enterprises ● Number of micro-, small, medium, or large enterprises ● Annual budget and expenses ● Number of employees

Tangible or intangible

products

• Distinguish between tangible and intangible cultural goods (see table 2

for examples).

Governing or promotion

authority

• Determine if any authority or governing body existed pre-crisis that took

stock of commercial enterprises or promoted or regulated the crafts

industry.

Note: Some information is adapted from PDNA Guidelines Volume B (Commerce).

Table A1.3. Sample List of Items to Consider When Assessing Damage to Creative and Cultural

Industries (Manufacturing Sector)

Items to be

assessed

Consideration

Buildings • In determining damage to buildings that host small-scale manufacturing, it is

important not to double count structures that have been assessed in other sectors.

Attention must be paid to the typology of structures that host manufacturing

businesses, necessary building elements (industrial elevators, loading docks, slop

sinks, air filtrations, and so on), and vertical (within one building) and horizontal

(spread out through adjacent buildings) integration of manufacturing uses within

the historic center.

Production

processes and units

• Loss of machinery and assets needed to produce products

• Disturbances to supply chain and acquisition of material inputs

Employment and

livelihoods

• Number of people previously employed in the manufacturing sector

• Dollar value of the manufactured goods and estimated decline in production

• Indirect beneficiaries (families of employees) who are affected

Capacity, decision

making, and

governance

• Knowledge and skill base of the local population. In many cases, historic centers have a traditional manufacturing sector, led by a limited number of “masters.” In a post-crisis situation, the team must determine whether or not institutional knowledge and technical expertise about the manufacturing exists.

• Governance, monitoring, and information systems. This applies to the public sector’s capacity to provide oversight and governance over the manufacturing process.

• Human, material, and financial resources. The team must determine if institutional knowledge about production cycles and cost structures has


59

diminished and if and how the crisis has resulted in any change to production cycles and cost structures.

Note: Some information is adapted from PDNA Guidelines for Manufacturing.

Table A1.4. Sample List of Items to Consider When Assessing Damage to Cultural Tourism

Items to be

assessed

Consideration

Tourism-

related

consumpti

on

Services

Tourism-related

accommodation

Pre- and post-crisis occupancy rates and bed capacities for all

formal or informal tourist accommodations (hotels, bed and

breakfasts, hostels, etc.) should be accounted for.

Food services The food service sector includes restaurants, catering services,

and food vendors (formal and informal).

Cultural services A major portion of cultural services consists of intangible heritage

services, such as performances, music, dance, classes, and so on.

Travel services

Include fees for all cultural and natural tour services,

transportation services (to and from the airport and within the

city), travel agents, and similar services.

Other tourism-

related employment

In accounting for tourism-related jobs (porters, seasonal vendors,

hotel staff, etc.), it is important to consider that most are

seasonal.

Fees

Tourism-related

taxes or fees

Include visa fees, airport entry fees, accommodation tax, tourist

fees, and so on. These fees may be collected by the central

government and not the city, but they still have to be counted.

VAT or similar tax

on items for tourist

consumption

Value-added tax (VAT) is a consumption-based tax added to a

product, usually at the point of sale or any time in the process

when value is added to the product. It may be imposed by

countries or cities on some or all industries within the tourism

sector.

Entry fees for

cultural and natural

monuments

Entry fees for cultural and natural sites are usually much higher

for foreign visitors than for domestic tourists and the local

population. Depending on the country’s legal framework, the fees

collected are either sent to the central government or banked in

a local fund to be spent on local preservation needs.

Goods

Goods aside from

food and services

purchased by

visitors for and

during their trips

All goods purchased by tourists for their own consumption or

otherwise are part of tourism consumption. The whole supply

chain of goods, from production to transport to sales, must be

considered. The assessment should determine, for example, if the

goods are produced in the historic center and are part of the

economic ecosystem of the historic urban landscape or are

catered directly from the producer to the visitors, or if sales of the


60

goods benefit a chain of transport providers and wholesale

traders between the producers and the retailers. The assessment

also needs to determine if the goods are produced locally or not.a

Tourism-

related

assets

Tourism-related

infrastructure

Infrastructure assets differ from cultural and natural (physical)

assets in that they were built or bought to be used exclusively by

tourists—for example, a road to a cultural monument or

sanitation infrastructure may have been built exclusively for the

use of visitors. In some cases, such assets may include

infrastructure not built specifically for the tourism sector that

enhances tourism—for example, a road without tolls or a health

facility in the historic area that is occasionally used by tourists. It

is important not to double count this type of facility.

Tourism-related

governance

mechanisms

While in many cases the private sector operates the tourism

industry, the public sector acts as a governance and regulatory

body. Since a major crisis negatively affects governance and

oversight functions, the PDNA process must include a section on

its effects specifically on the governance body of the tourism

sector, including the following:b

● Institutional knowledge and technical expertise ● Human, material, and financial resources, including skilled

labor, raw materials for processing, and cost and price structures

● Information management and communications ● Legal authority, monitoring, oversight, and reporting

Tourism

production

flows

Demand-side

decline in tourism

arrivals

The decline in tourist arrivals could affect the sector for one or

many tourism seasons. The team should look for any baseline

data on tourism arrivals and expenditures available from the pre-

crisis period. Analysis should include domestic and international

tourism arrivals and account for the economic damage during the

required rebuilding period. In addition, it should take into account

the possibility that tourism flows may not return to normal

immediately after rebuilding. It may take time to overcome fear

or lack of information among foreign and even domestic tourists.b

The team should also make note of consumer profiles:

● Domestic versus international tourists and relative spending amounts per day

● Demographics, lifestyles, and travel habits ● Barriers to travel entry (e.g., are people of a particular

nationality who previously traveled there frequently now unable to do so because of visa restrictions?)

Branding and

reputational loss

Cultural tourism relies heavily on reviews of a place’s novelty,

history, accessibility, and safety. Marketing, word of mouth,

Internet pages, and social media channels heavily determine the

value of cultural tourism. Assessments of reputational loss should


61

include research into the current state of the following:

● Commercial online pages (Tripadvisor, Lonely Planet, local guides, etc.)

● Other drivers of marketing (influencers, word of mouth, physical ads, referrals, etc.)

● Social media (Instagram, Facebook, other local social network platforms used by primary consumers)

a United Nations, Tourism Satellite Account. b Tourism PDNA.

Table A1.5. Sample List of Items to Consider When Assessing Damage to the Housing Sector

Assessment

areas

Considerations

Characteristics of urban housing

Housing

typologies

● Typologies may include one-story detached or semidetached houses, multiple-story detached or semidetached houses, single-story rowhouses, multiple-story rowhouses, apartment buildings, adaptive reuse units within historic structures, historic clustered housing, or courtyard housing.

Size ● Average size of housing per family ● Average number of rooms per household

Construction

materials and

techniques

● Are the material and techniques used in housing units mostly local or imported? ● Do building codes exist, and are they enforced? ● What is the average cost per unit of housing pre-crisis, as compared to post-crisis

housing built with more sustainable materials and based on “build back better” principles?

● What was the construction sector’s capacity pre- and post-crisis? What were construction practices, standards, regulations, and levels of quality assurance?

Occupancy/tenu

re type

● Assess the proportion of renters to owners. ● If a substantial number of rental units are in the area, examine the rate of absentee

owners and landlords. ● Determine the level of informality and the number of informal settlements and renters in

the area. ● Assess the monthly value of rentals.

Infrastructure

and services

● What type of infrastructure served the housing sector pre-crisis? ● Does additional infrastructure need to be planned?

Housing policy, finance, and institutions

Institutions ● What institutions are involved in housing? Are they in the public, private, or nonprofit sector?

● What is the hierarchy of institutions involved in the housing sector, ranging from central government to state (regional) and/or local governments? What is the breakdown of responsibilities?

● What are the institutional roles and responsibilities in the housing sector? ● What is the operational capacity of the local government and the construction sector to

rebuild the housing units?


62

National and

local housing

policy

● What are the major policy and regulatory instruments in production and management of housing and urban settlements?

● Are there any subsidy programs for housing? ● What information is available on losses and damage to the municipality and its capacity

to be involved in rebuilding post-crisis?

Land and land use issues

Land use

planning

● Study demolished housing to see if improper land use planning was a factor in excessive damage. In many cases, consolidation of assets and people in disaster-prone areas contributes to more damage and deaths.

Land tenure and

records

● Determine different land ownership regimes in the area (public, private, communal, and so on).

● Study government records and develop a land survey to record information on each parcel of land.

● Determine the value of the land to the extent possible.


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ANNEX 2

BUILDING A GEO-DATABASE OF CULTURAL RESOURCES

To build a geo-referenced cultural resource inventory for a historic urban area, the team needs first to

create the spatial data using global positioning system (GPS) and geographic information system (GIS)

technologies. Then the team should link these data to an external database, wherever it is hosted and

however it is managed. The next step is to ensure sensitive property and historic information is

safeguarded and protected, and the last step is to develop thorough and complete metadata.44

GPS technology makes it easier to collect and record spatial data. In the absence of GPS technology, the

team sends the surveyors to the field for data collection. They can record the data by hand and on paper

maps. With GPS technology in hand, surveyors can capture all the information at once and immediately

incorporate it into a GIS database. At a later stage, all data gathered by handheld GPS devices become a

shape file in the GIS database. The descriptive information recorded in the field by the surveyors become

the “attribute tables” for that data. These data can then be spatially displayed along with other layers of

data, such as transport, risk, and demographics, to make analysis easier. GPS allows the team to conduct

a digital survey to build a “data dictionary” to include all historic and cultural information about a

resource.45

The team should include historians, architects, and cultural heritage specialists who will design the survey

and data dictionary to determine what type of data should be collected. Then, a GIS specialist builds a

digital survey based on these data to be used by surveyors in the field data collection. The collected data

would be reverted back to the GIS team to be built into a spatial database of cultural resources. Designing

the data dictionary is an important and sensitive step. If designed poorly, necessary information may not

all be collected in the field by the surveyors, resulting in missed opportunities for data collection. On the

other hand, if a data dictionary is unnecessarily large, it will increase the time spent in the field by the

surveyors, resulting in wasted time and collection of data that may not be necessary for a cultural resource

map and database.

44 See ArcGIS Online, www.arcgis.com. 45 Deidre McCarthy, “Historic Preservation Response Methodology: Based on the Hurricane Katrina Model,” Cultural Resource GIS Facility, Heritage Documentation Programs, https://www.nps.gov/crgis/HPRM-KatrinaPRINT.pdf.

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