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Table of Contents
Preface .................................................................................................... 5
Chapter I: Introduction to Conflict Management .................................. 7
Historical path of Social Science ......................................................... 7
Capitalism...................................................................................... 18
Socialism ....................................................................................... 20
Romanticism ................................................................................. 23
The Age of Enlightenment ............................................................ 25
Secularism ..................................................................................... 27
The root of social science.............................................................. 31
Positivism ...................................................................................... 32
Critic to Positivism ........................................................................ 36
Perspective and Theory of Conflict ................................................... 38
Socio Behavioral point of views .................................................... 38
Integrated socio environment point of views ............................... 45
Managing conflict ............................................................................. 52
Steps to Managing Conflict ............................................................... 58
International Conflict Management ................................................. 60
Conflict at Higher education ............................................................. 66
Conflict at Manufacturing Organizations .......................................... 67
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Chapter 2: Anatomy of conflict resolution and management .............. 70
Perspective on conflict ...................................................................... 70
Managing intractable conflict ........................................................... 72
Characteristics of Intractable Conflicts ............................................. 73
Conflict Resolution ............................................................................ 74
Counseling ......................................................................................... 78
Methods of Needs-Based Conflict Resolution .................................. 78
Integrated Conflict Resolution Point of Views .................................. 79
Anatomy of Industrial Conflict .......................................................... 84
Definition of Dispute ......................................................................... 84
Five Approaches to Conflict Resolution ............................................ 86
Conflict transformation..................................................................... 87
Chapter 3: Dimension of Conflict management ................................... 90
Five Dimensions of Conflict (Resolution) .......................................... 91
Identity .............................................................................................. 98
Power .............................................................................................. 100
Five bases of power ........................................................................ 102
Counter power ................................................................................ 104
Structure ......................................................................................... 105
Chapter 4: Settlement and Resolution procedure .............................. 111
Negotiation & Mediation ................................................................ 111
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Negotiation tactics .......................................................................... 113
Types of Negotiators ....................................................................... 114
Emotion in negotiation ................................................................... 116
Affect effect .................................................................................... 116
Team negotiations .......................................................................... 120
Negotiation tactics .......................................................................... 120
Mediation ........................................................................................ 124
Principles ......................................................................................... 126
Mediation Process .......................................................................... 126
Alternatives ..................................................................................... 128
Facilitation ...................................................................................... 131
Refferences ......................................................................................... 136
Curriculum Vitae ................................................................................. 145
5
PREFACE
Conflict Management may be regarded as an approach to the
management of conflict that provides a strategic framework to support
short to long-term business goals and outcomes. Even there were
various discourses on the social science propositions the approach of
managing conflict is concerned with the concept of conflict and
strategies to managing conflict in deep. Social science basically
develop on the response of positivism which the effect of secularism
movement at 18 to 20th century. However, at the middle of scholars
begun to criticize their concept of social science included political
science, economics, sociology, psychology and so on. They tried to find
out the science development concepts which are believed to be more
making a sense of humanism. Accordingly scholars try to find the
source of science ideas from many holly books such as Quran, Gospel,
and Torah. These present social science movement has now seems to
be more religiosity and locally wisdoms. However scholars proposed
several ideas i.e., generalize and integrate the source of science to
develop social science. It is aimed to protect a human life heading to a
dynamic movement of environment. Therefore this book included
several perspectives of social science such as secular point of views,
religiosity, and comprised a local cultural wisdom.
This book provides readers to gain an understanding of and
proficiency in major theories of conflict and its resolution in the context
of globalization. They will be able learn how to critically assess the role
of material factors, irrationality, identity, and subjective justice. Readers
will also learn to differentiate between structural and relational sources
of conflict and effectively discuss the dynamics of conflict settings and
6
underlying theories of change regarding potential interventions. They
will understand the relationship of theory to practice and vice-versa.
Readers able to develop the knowledge in conflict analysis,
negotiation, communication, cross-cultural interactions, and may
strengthen their ability to work effectively with groups in diverse
contexts. They will also learn key basic skills in mediation, dialogue,
facilitation, and other core processes in the field. They will acquire an
understanding of the conflict resolution field, its history, institutions
(including donors, policy institutions, and implementers), and current
ethical and practical debates.
Readers will learn how to conduct a conflict analysis in
community settings and to apply theory to practice. They will cultivate
an understanding of third party roles, the complexity of intervening in
conflict settings, and core ethics, such as do no harm and cultural
sensitivity. They will explore how to integrate conflict resolution skills
and principles across diverse sectors. They will also gain the ability to
discuss the challenges and opportunities in integrative peace building.
Over several points of Views, Readers will hone their reading, writing,
research, and oral communication skills. They will begin to think
holistically about conflicts and know how to gather data from primary
and secondary sources. They will be introduced to the basic aspects of
conflict related research such as conflict assessments, community
mapping, exploring the roles and needs of multiple parties, and
examining potential intervention roles.
This book is believed to contribute on several perspectives of
managing conflict. However, it is needed to be further discussion
intensively to provide a robust perspective, concept, theory even
managerial implication as well. Various suggestions are needed to
improve this book in order to maximize it contribution on a human life.
7
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION TO CONFLICT
MANAGEMENT
Historical path of Social Science
Positivism knowledge philosophy (1848/1865) arises from the
secularism point of view (1851) that promote from industrial revolution
(1750 to 1850). Technological changes that promote industrial
revolution change the whole of civil society and proposed intellectual
paradigm such as Capitalism, Socialism and Romanticism. The
revolution also challenged the theological basis of royal authority and
endorse doctrine challenged the right of kings. The king was to govern
on behalf of the people and not under the orders of God as well as the
term of Secularism. This cultural movement of intellectuals sought to
mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance
knowledge, named an Age of Enlightenment. Enlightenment was a
desire for human affairs to be guided by rationality rather than by faith.
The age of enlightenment proposed positivism knowledge philosophy
as well as rationality guidance. Social science is commonly used as an
umbrella term to refer to a plurality of fields outside of the natural
sciences. These include anthropology, archaeology, criminology,
economics, education, linguistics, political science and international
relations, sociology, geography, history, law, and psychology. Social
sciences came forth from the moral philosophy of the time and were
influenced by the Age of Enlightenment. Social science was influenced
by positivism focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense
8
experience and avoiding the negative metaphysical speculation was
avoided.
However nowadays scientists promotes religion as a sources of
knowledge and sciences postulates. A large degree of academic
discussions such as international conferences and journals published
are endorsed by religion motivation. For example, Islamist scientist
proposed body of knowledge based on Quran and Jews tried to explore
relationship between Torah with science. Accordingly scientists seem
un-satisfied on positivism as a basic of knowledge and science
development and return to religious in developing science and
technology (Indartono, 2012).
Figure: Development Path of science
The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new
manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime
between 1820 and 1840. This transition included going from hand
production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron
production processes, improved efficiency of water power, the
increasing use of steam power, and the development of machine tools.
It also included the change from wood and other bio-fuels to coal.
Textiles were the dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms
of employment, value of output and capital invested. Textiles were also
the first to use modern production methods.
9
The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history;
almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In
particular, average income and population began to exhibit
unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists, such as Robert E.
Lucas, Jr., argue that the real impact of the Industrial Revolution was
that "for the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of
ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth ... Nothing
remotely like this economic behavior is mentioned by the classical
economists, even as a theoretical possibility."
Others, however, argue that while growth of the economy's
overall productive powers was unprecedented during the Industrial
Revolution, living standards for the majority of the population did not
grow meaningfully until the late 19th and 20th centuries, and that in
many ways workers' living standards declined under early capitalism:
for instance, studies have shown that real wages in Britain only
increased 15% between the 1780s and 1850s, and that life expectancy
in Britain did not begin to dramatically increase until the 1870s.
Source: http://history-world.org/
The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and spread to
Western Europe and the United States within a few decades. The
precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is debated among
historians. Eric Hobsbawm held that it 'broke out' in Britain in the 1780s
10
and was not fully felt until the 1830s or 1840s, while T. S. Ashton held
that it occurred roughly between 1760 and 1830. Some 20th century
historians such as John Clapham and Nicholas Crafts have argued that
the economic and social changes occurred gradually and the term
revolution is a misnomer. This is still a subject of debate among
historians. GDP per capita was broadly stable before the Industrial
Revolution and the emergence of the modern capitalist economy. The
Industrial Revolution began an era of per-capita economic growth in
capitalist economies. Economic historians are in agreement that the
onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the
history of humanity since the domestication of animals, plants and fire.
The First Industrial Revolution evolved into the Second Industrial
Revolution in the transition years between 1840 and 1870, when
technological and economic progress continued with the increasing
adoption of transport steam (steam-powered railways, boats and ships),
the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the increasing use of
machinery in steam powered factories.
Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-
Guillaume_Otto.
The earliest recorded use of the
term "Industrial Revolution" seems
to have been in a letter of 6 July
1799 written by French envoy Louis-
Guillaume Otto, announcing that
France had entered the race to
industrialize. In his 1976 book
Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture
and Society, Raymond Williams
states in the entry for "Industry":
"The idea of a new social order
based on major industrial change
was clear in Southey and Owen,
between 1811 and 1818, and was
implicit as early as Blake in the early
1790s and Wordsworth at the turn
of the [19th] century."
The term Industrial Revolution applied to technological change
was becoming more common by the late 1830s, as in Jérôme-Adolphe
Blanqui description in 1837 of la révolution industrielle. Friedrich Engels
in The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 spoke of "an
industrial revolution, a revolution which at the same time changed the
11
whole of civil society". However, although Engels wrote in the 1840s,
his book was not translated into English until the late 1800s, and his
expression did not enter everyday language until then. Credit for
popularising the term may be given to Arnold Toynbee, whose 1881
lectures gave a detailed account of the term.
The movement of Industrial Revolution effects Social daily life
such as on standard of living, food and nutrition, housing, Population
increase Labour conditions, Factories and urbanization, Child labour,
Luddites, Organisation of labour, and others. The effects on living
conditions the industrial revolution have been very controversial, and
were hotly debated by economic and social historians from the 1950s to
the 1980s. A series of 1950s essays by Henry Phelps Brown and Sheila
V. Hopkins later set the academic consensus that the bulk of the
population, that was at the bottom of the social ladder, suffered severe
reductions in their living standards. During 1813–1913, there was a
significant increase in worker wages. Chronic hunger and malnutrition
were the norm for the majority of the population of the world including
Britain and France, until the late 19th century. Until about 1750, in large
part due to malnutrition, life expectancy in France was about 35 years,
and only slightly higher in Britain. The US population of the time was
adequately fed, much taller on average and had life expectancy of 45–
50 years. In Britain and the Netherlands food supply had been
increasing and prices falling before the Industrial Revolution due to
better agricultural practices; however, population grew too, as noted by
Thomas Malthus. Before the Industrial Revolution, advances in
agriculture or technology soon led to an increase in population, which
again strained food and other resources, limiting increases in per capita
income. This condition is called the Malthusian trap, and it was finally
overcome by industrialization. Transportation improvements, such as
canals and improved roads, also lowered food costs. Railroads were
introduced near the end of the Industrial Revolution.
Living conditions during the Industrial Revolution varied from
splendour for factory owners to squalor for workers. In The Condition of
the Working Class in England in 1844 Friedrich Engels described
backstreet sections of Manchester and other mill towns, where people
lived in crude shanties and shacks, some not completely enclosed,
some with dirt floors. These shantytowns had narrow walkways
12
between irregularly shaped lots and dwellings. There were no sanitary
facilities. Population density was extremely high. Eight to ten unrelated
mill workers often shared a room, often with no furniture, and slept on a
pile of straw or sawdust. Toilet facilities were shared if they existed.
Disease spread through a contaminated water supply. Also, people
were at risk of developing pathologies due to persistent dampness.
The famines that troubled rural areas did not happen in
industrial areas. But urban people—especially small children—died due
to diseases spreading through the cramped living conditions.
Tuberculosis (spread in congested dwellings), lung diseases from the
mines, cholera from polluted water and typhoid were also common. Not
everyone lived in such poor conditions. The Industrial Revolution also
created a middle class of professionals such as lawyers and doctors
who lived in much better conditions. Conditions improved over the
course of the 19th century due to new public health acts regulating
things such as sewage, hygiene and home construction. In the
introduction of his 1892 edition, Engels notes that most of the conditions
he wrote about in 1844 had been greatly improved. Consumers
benefited from falling prices for clothing and household articles such as
cast iron cooking utensils, and in the following decades, stoves for
cooking and space heating.
According to Robert Hughes in The Fatal Shore, the population
of England and Wales, which had remained steady at 6 million from
1700 to 1740, rose dramatically after 1740. The population of England
had more than doubled from 8.3 million in 1801 to 16.8 million in 1850
and, by 1901, had nearly doubled again to 30.5 million. Improved
conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to
40 million in the 1800s. Europe's population increased from about 100
million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900. The Industrial Revolution was the
first period in history during which there was a simultaneous increase in
population and in per capita income.
In terms of social structure, the Industrial Revolution witnessed
the triumph of a middle class of industrialists and businessmen over a
landed class of nobility and gentry. Ordinary working people found
increased opportunities for employment in the new mills and factories,
but these were often under strict working conditions with long hours of
labour dominated by a pace set by machines. As late as the year 1900,
13
most industrial workers in the United States still worked a 10-hour day
(12 hours in the steel industry), yet earned from 20% to 40% less than
the minimum deemed necessary for a decent life. However, harsh
working conditions were prevalent long before the Industrial Revolution
took place. Pre-industrial society was very static and often cruel—child
labour, dirty living conditions, and long working hours were just as
prevalent before the Industrial Revolution.
Industrialisation led to the creation of the Factories and
urbanisation Arguably the first highly mechanised was John Lombe's
water-powered silk mill at Derby, operational by 1721. Lombe learned
silk thread manufacturing by taking a job in Italy and acting as an
industrial spy; however, since the silk industry there was a closely
guarded secret, the state of the industry there is unknown. Because
Lombe's factory was not successful and there was no follow through,
the rise of the modern factory dates to somewhat later when cotton
spinning was mechanised. The factory system contributed to the growth
of urban areas, as large numbers of workers migrated into the cities in
search of work in the factories. Nowhere was this better illustrated than
the mills and associated industries of Manchester, nicknamed
"Cottonopolis", and the world's first industrial city. For much of the 19th
century, production was done in small mills, which were typically water-
powered and built to serve local needs. Later, each factory would have
its own steam engine and a chimney to give an efficient draft through its
boiler. The transition to industrialisation was not without difficulty. For
example, a group of English workers known as Luddites formed to
protest against industrialization and sometimes sabotaged factories.
In other industries the transition to factory production was not
so divisive. Some industrialists themselves tried to improve factory and
living conditions for their workers. One of the earliest such reformers
was Robert Owen, known for his pioneering efforts in improving
conditions for workers at the New Lanark mills, and often regarded as
one of the key thinkers of the early socialist movement. By 1746, an
integrated brass mill was working at Warmley near Bristol. Raw material
went in at one end, was smelted into brass and was turned into pans,
pins, wire, and other goods. Housing was provided for workers on site.
Josiah Wedgwood and Matthew Boulton (whose Soho Manufactory was
14
completed in 1766) were other prominent early industrialists, who
employed the factory system.
The Industrial Revolution led to a population increase but the
chances of surviving childhood did not improve throughout the Industrial
Revolution, although infant mortality rates were reduced markedly.
There was still limited opportunity for education and children were
expected to work. Employers could pay a child less than an adult even
though their productivity was comparable; there was no need for
strength to operate an industrial machine, and since the industrial
system was completely new, there were no experienced adult
labourers. This made child labour the labour of choice for manufacturing
in the early phases of the Industrial Revolution between the 18th and
19th centuries. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the
workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children.
Source: http://webs.bcp.org/sites/vcleary/
Child labour existed before the Industrial Revolution but with the
increase in population and education it became more visible. Many
children were forced to work in relatively bad conditions for much lower
pay than their elders, 10%-20% of an adult male's wage. Children as
young as four were employed. Beatings and long hours were common,
with some child coal miners and hurriers working from 4am until 5pm.
Conditions were dangerous, with some children killed when they dozed
off and fell into the path of the carts, while others died from gas
explosions. Many children developed lung cancer and other diseases
and died before the age of 25. Workhouses would sell orphans and
abandoned children as "pauper apprentices", working without wages for
board and lodging.Those who ran away would be whipped and returned
15
to their masters, with some masters shackling them to prevent escape.
Children employed as mule scavengers by cotton mills would crawl
under machinery to pick up cotton, working 14 hours a day, six days a
week. Some lost hands or limbs, others were crushed under the
machines, and some were decapitated. Young girls worked at match
factories, where phosphorus fumes would cause many to develop
phossy jaw. Children employed at glassworks were regularly burned
and blinded, and those working at potteries were vulnerable to
poisonous clay dust. Reports were written detailing some of the abuses,
particularly in the coal mines and textile factories, and these helped to
popularise the children's plight. The public outcry, especially among the
upper and middle classes, helped stir change in the young workers'
welfare.
Politicians and the government tried to limit child labour by law
but factory owners resisted; some felt that they were aiding the poor by
giving their children money to buy food to avoid starvation, and others
simply welcomed the cheap labour. In 1833 and 1844, the first general
laws against child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in Britain:
Children younger than nine were not allowed to work, children were not
permitted to work at night, and the work day of youth under the age of
18 was limited to twelve hours. Factory inspectors supervised the
execution of the law, however, their scarcity made enforcement difficult.
About ten years later, the employment of children and women in mining
was forbidden. These laws decreased the number of child labourers,
however child labour remained in Europe and the United States up to
the 20th century.
Luddites smashing a power loom in 1812. The rapid
industrialisation of the English economy cost many craft workers their
jobs. The movement started first with lace and hosiery workers near
Nottingham and spread to other areas of the textile industry owing to
early industrialisation. Many weavers also found themselves suddenly
unemployed since they could no longer compete with machines which
only required relatively limited (and unskilled) labour to produce more
cloth than a single weaver. Many such unemployed workers, weavers
and others, turned their animosity towards the machines that had taken
their jobs and began destroying factories and machinery. These
attackers became known as Luddites, supposedly followers of Ned
16
Ludd, a folklore figure. The first attacks of the Luddite movement began
in 1811. The Luddites rapidly gained popularity, and the British
government took drastic measures, using the militia or army to protect
industry. Those rioters who were caught were tried and hanged, or
transported for life. Unrest continued in other sectors as they
industrialised, such as with agricultural labourers in the 1830s when
large parts of southern Britain were affected by the Captain Swing
disturbances. Threshing machines were a particular target, and hayrick
burning was a popular activity. However, the riots led to the first
formation of trade unions, and further pressure for reform.
The Industrial Revolution concentrated labour into mills,
factories and mines, thus facilitating the organisation of combinations or
trade unions to help advance the interests of working people. The
power of a union could demand better terms by withdrawing all labour
and causing a consequent cessation of production. Employers had to
decide between giving in to the union demands at a cost to themselves
or suffering the cost of the lost production. Skilled workers were hard to
replace, and these were the first groups to successfully advance their
conditions through this kind of bargaining.
The main method the unions used to effect change was strike
action. Many strikes were painful events for both sides, the unions and
the management. In Britain, the Combination Act 1799 forbade workers
to form any kind of trade union until its repeal in 1824. Even after this,
unions were still severely restricted. In 1832, the Reform Act extended
the vote in Britain but did not grant universal suffrage. That year six
men from Tolpuddle in Dorset founded the Friendly Society of
Agricultural Labourers to protest against the gradual lowering of wages
in the 1830s. They refused to work for less than 10 shillings a week,
although by this time wages had been reduced to 7 shillings a week and
were due to be further reduced to 6. In 1834 James Frampton, a local
landowner, wrote to the Prime Minister, Lord Melbourne, to complain
about the union, invoking an obscure law from 1797 prohibiting people
from swearing oaths to each other, which the members of the Friendly
Society had done. James Brine, James Hammett, George Loveless,
George's brother James Loveless, George's brother in-law Thomas
Standfield, and Thomas's son John Standfield were arrested, found
guilty, and transported to Australia. They became known as the
Tolpuddle Martyrs. In the 1830s and 1840s the Chartist movement was
17
the first large-scale organised working class political movement which
campaigned for political equality and social justice. Its Charter of
reforms received over three million signatures but was rejected by
Parliament without consideration.
Working people also formed friendly societies and co-operative
societies as mutual support groups against times of economic hardship.
Enlightened industrialists, such as Robert Owen also supported these
organisations to improve the conditions of the working class. Unions
slowly overcame the legal restrictions on the right to strike. In 1842, a
general strike involving cotton workers and colliers was organised
through the Chartist movement which stopped production across Great
Britain. Eventually, effective political organisation for working people
was achieved through the trades unions who, after the extensions of the
franchise in 1867 and 1885, began to support socialist political parties
that later merged to became the British Labour Party. It is also have
other effect. The application of steam power to the industrial processes
of printing supported a massive expansion of newspaper and popular
book publishing, which reinforced rising literacy and demands for mass
political participation.
During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children
increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London
who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5% in 1730–1749 to
31.8% in 1810–1829. The growth of modern industry since the late 18th
century led to massive urbanisation and the rise of new great cities, first
in Europe and then in other regions, as new opportunities brought huge
numbers of migrants from rural communities into urban areas. In 1800,
only 3% of the world's population lived in cities, compared to nearly
50% today (the beginning of the 21st century). Manchester had a
population of 10,000 in 1717, but by 1911 it had burgeoned to 2.3
million.
Industrial revolution promoted various Intellectual paradigms
and criticism included, Capitalism, socialism, and romanticism. The
advent of the Age of Enlightenment provided an intellectual framework
which welcomed the practical application of the growing body of
scientific knowledge—a factor evidenced in the systematic development
of the steam engine, guided by scientific analysis, and the development
of the political and sociological analyses, culminating in Scottish
18
economist Adam Smith's The Wealth of Nations. One of the main
arguments for capitalism, presented for example in the book The
Improving State of the World, is that industrialisation increases wealth
for all, as evidenced by raised life expectancy, reduced working hours,
and no work for children and the elderly.
Capitalism
Capitalism is an economic system in which trade,
industry, and the means of production are largely or entirely
privately owned and operated for profit. Central characteristics of
capitalism include capital accumulation, competitive markets and
wage labour. In a capitalist economy, the parties to a transaction
typically determine the prices at which assets, goods, and
services are exchanged. The degree of competition, role of
intervention and regulation, and scope of public ownership varies
across different models of capitalism. Economists, political economists,
and historians have taken different perspectives in their analysis of
capitalism and recognized various forms of it in practice.
Source:
http://irishmarxism.net/category/capitalism/.
These include laissez-
faire capitalism, welfare
capitalism, crony
capitalism and state
capitalism; each
highlighting varying
degrees of dependency
on markets, public
ownership, and inclusion
of social policies. The
extent to which different
markets are free, as well
as the rules defining
private property, is a
matter of politics and
policy.
19
Many states have what are termed capitalist mixed economies,
referring to a mix between planned and market-driven elements.
Capitalism has existed under many forms of government, in many
different times, places, and cultures. Following the demise of feudalism,
capitalism became the dominant economic system in the Western
world.
Capitalism was carried across the world by broader processes
of globalization such as imperialism and, by the end of the nineteenth
century, became the dominant global economic system, in turn
intensifying processes of economic and other globalization. Later, in the
20th century, capitalism overcame a challenge by centrally-planned
economies and is now the encompassing system worldwide, with the
mixed economy being its dominant form in the industrialized Western
world. Barry Gills and Paul James write: The process remains uneven,
but notwithstanding the continuing importance of national and regional
economies today, global capitalism is undoubtedly the dominant
framework of economics in the world. There are many debates about
what this means, but across the political spectrum ‘capitalism’ has
become the taken-for-granted way of naming the economic pattern that
weaves together the current dominant modes of production and
exchange.
Different economic perspectives emphasize specific elements
of capitalism in their preferred definition. Laissez-faire and liberal
economists emphasize the degree to which government does not have
control over markets and the importance of property rights. Neoclassical
and Keynesian macro-economists emphasize the need for government
regulation to prevent monopolies and to soften the effects of the boom
and bust cycle. Marxian economists emphasize the role of capital
accumulation, exploitation and wage labor. Most political economists
emphasize private property as well, in addition to power relations, wage
labor, class, and the uniqueness of capitalism as a historical formation.
Proponents of capitalism argue that it creates more prosperity
than any other economic system, and that its benefits are mainly to the
ordinary person. Critics of capitalism variously associate it with
economic instability, an inability to provide for the well-being of all
people, and an unsustainable danger to the natural environment.
Socialists maintain that, although capitalism is superior to all previously
20
existing economic systems (such as feudalism or slavery), the
contradiction between class interests will only be resolved by advancing
into a completely social system of production and distribution in which
all persons have an equal relationship to the means of production. The
term capitalism, in its modern sense, is often attributed to Karl Marx. In
his magnum opus Capital, Marx analysed the "capitalist mode of
production" using a method of understanding today known as Marxism.
However, Marx himself rarely used the term “capitalism”, while it was
used twice in the more political interpretations of his work, primarily
authored by his collaborator Friedrich Engels. In the 20th century
defenders of the capitalist system often replaced the term capitalism
with phrases such as free enterprise and private enterprise and
replaced capitalist with rentier and investor in reaction to the negative
connotations associated with capitalism.
Socialism
Source:
http://www.therecruiterslounge.com/.
Socialism emerged as a
critique of capitalism. Marxism
began essentially as a reaction
to the Industrial Revolution.
According to Karl Marx,
industrialisation polarised
society into the bourgeoisie
(those who own the means of
production, the factories and
the land) and the much larger
proletariat (the working class
who actually perform the labour
necessary to extract something
valuable from the means of
production). Socialism emerged
as a critique of capitalism.
Marxism began essentially as a
reaction to the Industrial
Revolution.
According to Karl Marx, industrialisation polarised society into
the bourgeoisie (those who own the means of production, the factories
and the land) and the much larger proletariat (the working class who
actually perform the labour necessary to extract something valuable
from the means of production). He saw the industrialisation process as
31
possible, Problem solving is approached rationally, through examination
of the facts. While the secular society does not set any overall aim, it
helps its members realize their aims, and Is a society without any
official images. Nor is there a common ideal type of behavior with
universal application.
Positive Ideals behind the secular society are included deep
respect for individuals and the small groups of which they are a part,
Equality of all people, Each person should be helped to realize their
particular excellence, Breaking down of the barriers of class and
caste. Modern sociology has, since Max Weber, often been
preoccupied with the problem of authority in secularized societies and
with secularization as a sociological or historical process. Twentieth-
century scholars whose work has contributed to the understanding of
these matters include Carl L. Becker, Karl Löwith, Hans Blumenberg, M.
H. Abrams, Peter L. Berger, Paul Bénichou and D. L. Munby, among
others. Some societies become increasingly secular as the result of
social processes, rather than through the actions of a dedicated secular
movement; this process is known as secularization.
The root of social science
Secularism are believe to
endorse Intellectual paradigm.
View of superstition, intolerance
and abuses in church and state
in 18th century in Europe
promoted interchange science
and intellectual. This cultural
movement of intellectuals
sought to mobilize the power
of reason, in order to reform
society and advance
knowledge, named an Age of
Enlightenment.
The phrase "separation of
church and state" is derived
from a letter written by
32
Sources; http://www.amazon.com/ President Thomas Jefferson in
1802 to Baptists from Danbury,
Connecticut
Beginning of the age of Enlightenment has little consensus
such as Descartes on Discourse Method (1637), Isaac Newton's on
Principia Mathematica (1687), and the beginning of the Napoleonic
Wars (1804–15) as the end of the Enlightenment. Enlightenment was a
desire for human affairs to be guided by rationality rather than by faith,
superstition, or revelation; a belief in the power of human reason to
change society and liberate the individual from the restraints of custom
or arbitrary authority; all backed up by a world view increasingly
validated by science rather than by religion or tradition (Dorinda
Outram).
Positivism
Source: http://slideplayer.us/slide/274790/.
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The age of enlightenment proposed positivism knowledge
philosophy. Positivism is philosophy of science based on the view that
in the social as well as natural sciences, data derived from sensory
experience, and logical and mathematical treatments of such data, are
together the exclusive source of all authentic knowledge as well as
rationality guidance. Positivism is the philosophy of science that
information derived from logical and mathematical treatments and
reports of sensory experience is the exclusive source of all authoritative
knowledge, and that there is valid knowledge (truth) only in this derived
knowledge. Verified data received from the senses are known as
empirical evidence. Positivism holds that society, like the physical
world, operates according to general laws. Introspective and intuitive
knowledge is rejected. Although the positivist approach has been a
recurrent theme in the history of western thought, the modern sense of
the approach was developed by the philosopher and founding
sociologist Auguste Comte in the early 19th century. Comte argued
that, much as the physical world operates according to gravity and other
absolute laws, so does society. Positivism is part of a more general
ancient quarrel between philosophy and poetry, notably laid out by
Plato and later reformulated as a quarrel between the sciences and the
humanities, Plato elaborates a critique of poetry from the point of view
of philosophy in his dialogues Phaedrus 245a, Symposium 209a,
Republic 398a, Laws 817 b-d and Ion. Wilhelm Dilthey popularized the
distinction between Geisteswissenschaft (humanities) and
Naturwissenschaften (natural science). The consideration that laws in
physics may not be absolute but relative, and, if so, this might be more
true of social sciences, was stated, in different terms, by G. B. Vico in
1725. Vico, in contrast to the positivist movement, asserted the
superiority of the science of the human mind (the humanities, in other
words), on the grounds that natural sciences tell us nothing about the
inward aspects of things.
Positivism in the social sciences is usually characterized by
quantitative approaches and the proposition of quasi-absolute laws. A
significant exception to this trend is represented by cultural
anthropology, which tends naturally toward qualitative approaches.In
psychology the positivist movement was influential in the development
of behavioralism and operationalism. The 1927 philosophy of science
book The Logic of Modern Physics in particular, which was originally
34
intended for physicists, coined the term operational definition, which
went on to dominate psychological method for the whole century.
In economics, practising researchers tend to emulate the
methodological assumptions of classical positivism, but only in a de
facto fashion: the majority of economists do not explicitly concern
themselves with matters of epistemology. In jurisprudence, "legal
positivism" essentially refers to the rejection of natural law, thus its
common meaning with philosophical positivism is somewhat attenuated
and in recent generations generally emphasizes the authority of human
political structures as opposed to a "scientific" view of law. In the early
1970s, urbanists of the positivist-quantitative school like David Harvey
started to question the positivist approach itself, saying that the arsenal
of scientific theories and methods developed so far in their camp was
"incapable of saying anything of depth and profundity" on the real
problems of contemporary cities.
The key features of positivism as of the 1950s, as defined in the
"received view", are: A focus on science as a product, a linguistic or
numerical set of statements; A concern with axiomatization, that is, with
demonstrating the logical structure and coherence of these statements;
An insistence on at least some of these statements being testable; that
is, amenable to being verified, confirmed, or shown to be false by the
empirical observation of reality. Statements that would, by their nature,
be regarded as untestable included the teleological; thus positivism
rejects much of classical metaphysics.The belief that science is
markedly cumulative; The belief that science is predominantly
transcultural; The belief that science rests on specific results that are
dissociated from the personality and social position of the investigator;
the belief that science contains theories or research traditions that are
largely commensurable; the belief that science sometimes incorporates
new ideas that are discontinuous from old ones; the belief that science
involves the idea of the unity of science, that there is, underlying the
various scientific disciplines, basically one science about one real world.
The belief that science is nature and nature is science; and
out of this duality, all theories and postulates are created, interpreted,
evolve, and are applied. Positivism is elsewhere defined as the belief
that all true knowledge is scientific, and that all things are ultimately
measurable. Positivism is closely related to reductionism, in that both
35
involve the belief that "entities of one kind... are reducible to entities of
another," such as societies to configurations of individuals, or mental
events to neural phenomena. It also involves the contention that
"processes are reducible to physiological, physical or chemical events,"
and even that "social processes are reducible to relationships between
and actions of individuals," or that "biological organisms are reducible to
physical systems. While most social scientists today are not explicit
about their epistemological commitments, articles in top American
sociology and political science journals generally follow a positivist logic
of argument. It can be thus argued that "natural science and social
science can therefore be regarded with a good deal of confidence as
members of the same genre.
Social science is the field of study concerned with society and
human behaviors. It is commonly used as an umbrella term to refer to a
plurality of fields outside of the natural sciences. These include:
anthropology, archaeology, criminology, economics, education,
linguistics, political science and international relations, sociology,
geography, history, law, and psychology. The social sciences
developed from the sciences (experimental and applied), or the
systematic knowledge-bases or prescriptive practices, relating to the
social improvement. Social sciences came forth from the moral
philosophy of the time and was influenced by the Age of Enlightenment.
Scholar strengthen the ideas of social science was influenced by
positivism focusing on knowledge based on actual positive sense
experience and avoiding the negative, metaphysical speculation was
avoided (Kuper, A., & Kuper, J., 1985). The term "social science“
established by thinkers such as Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber, or
more generally to all disciplines outside of noble science and arts. By
the late 19th century, the academic social sciences were constituted of
five fields: jurisprudence and amendment of the law, education, health,
economy and trade, and art. At the turn of the 21st century, the
expanding domain of economics in the social sciences has been
described as economic imperialism (Lazear, 2000).
36
Critic to Positivism
Source:
http://www.worldsocialscience.org/activities/world-
social-science-report/.
The 2010 World
Social Science
Report from the
International Social
Science Council
(ISSC) Unesco try
to critic social
science concepts
and theories. They
believe that social
science concepts
and theories
influence public
opinion and public
debates more than
ever before. These
are all indications
of social sciences’
success. It is
include critic to
science of
economic, politic,
and sociology.
Economists evaluate that the economic crisis (started in 2008)
and that conflicting advice has been given on dealing with itPolitical
scientists are sometimes accused of not anticipating deep changes in
opinion; and Sociologists of failing to identify major social trends. The
social sciences have been accused of being fragmented,
overspecialized and sometimes too abstruse and disconnected. Social
sciences have become so diffuse and widespread that nobody notices
their role in understanding and shaping our world and daily lives any
more. Hence, their findings and concepts must be constantly re-
evaluated. Social sciences have to be endeavoured to bring rational
wisdom to economic, social, political and personal topics that used to
be dealt with through personal beliefs and religion.