Cultural US€s of Plantsa guide to learning about ethnobotany

Teacher's handbook

CONTENTS:

About Cultural Uses ofPlants and the National ScienceEducation Standards . 2

Answers to Questions for Thought 7

Reproducible Unit Tests (to be photocopied at 150%) 18

Answers to Unit Tests 27

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About Cultural Uses of Plants and the

National Science Education Standards

In 1994 the "Goals 2000: Educate America Act" was enacted to establishnational education goals to be achieved by the year 2000. Listed hereare many of those goals that Cultural Uses ofPlants addresses, alongwith a description of specifically how the book addresses each.

Goals/Redefinition ofTraditional Science Programs• Students will develop the skills and knowledge needed to construct

their own understanding of science, technology, and the world inwhich they live.

Cultural Uses ofPlants does not give students all the answers; rather, it teachesthem to think for themselves when determining whether or not a cultural beliefabout a plant is borne out through the scientific method. Students use scientificprocesses and tools, and technology, to test these beliefs and learn about plants.

• By practicing good habits of research, students will systematicallylearn the process skills needed to participate in meaningful scientificinvestigation of natural phenomena.

Unit 2 of Cultural Uses ofPlants is devoted to methods of conducting researchabout a plant from each student's culture. It encourages use of libraryresources and the Internet to collect information, and includes instructionsfor writing a research paper. Unit 7 explains the steps involved in designingan original control experiment and asks each student to hypothesize about his orher chosen plant and design a unique experiment.

• Approaches to science teaching and learning will no longer be based onbehaviorist thinking but will emphasize learner-centered classrooms,problem-based learning, and the construction of understanding andmeaning by students.

With Cultural Uses ofPlants, each student or small cooperative group ofstudents will conduct a variety of labs and experiments to answer questionsabout their particular plant. Students will study plants that are important tothem. The problem they must solve is to judge the effectiveness of their plantfor a variety of uses.

• The organization of science content will promote a more holistic viewof science, rather than the traditional division of science subject matter.

Ethnobotany is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on pharmacognosy, botany,ecology, economics, anthropology, biochemistry, and archaeology, among otherthings. For example, in testing their plant for its antibacterial or antifungalproperties, students learn some microbiology and health. When they test theplant for the presence of sugar, starch, or protein, nutrition is incorporated. Theylearn some chemistry when doing a chromatography experiment on their plantand some ecology when determining the abundance of their plant. They evenlearn some history in Unit 1, where the history of ethnobotany is discussed.

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• An informed citizenry will grow in its understanding of the relation­ship between human actions and the principles of ecological balancein their environment.

Through concern for an individual plant species, and from the perspective ofpreserving plants for their useful properties, students begin to extend theircognizance of larger ecological challenges that the world will face in theirlifetimes and beyond. Every unit of Cultural Uses ofPlants stresses the need forthe conservation of natural resources and biodiversity, and Unit 8 is entirelydedicated to ethnobotany from an ecological perspective.

• Teachers will rethink their beliefs about the nature of science andscience learning resulting in a new commitment to help all studentsbecome scientifically literate.

It is not easy to make such large reforms, but supportive curriculum materialssuch as Cultural Uses ofPlants can help, by moving away from laboratoryexperiments with predetermined outcomes and by encouraging science thatdraws on experiences and knowledge that are culturally inclusive.

Action Options to Bring about Systemic Reform• Take advantage of every opportunity presented to engage in the process

of "doing" science.

Each unit of Cultural Uses ofPlants begins with some background informationabout the topic at hand and ends with a series of related experiments andactivities. The entire thrust is toward each student experimenting with his or herchosen plant.

• Develop the skills needed to seek information and solve problems.

Cultural Uses ofPlants teaches students how to inquire into the usefulness ofvarious plants and then how to construct original experiments to answer thequestions that interest them. Unit 2 guides students through the processes ofconducting an effective in-depth interview and of researching and writing ascientific paper.

• Keep an open and questioning mind and constantly seek new knowl-edge and understanding.

Cultural Uses ofPlants illustrates varying cultural perspectives and approachesto studying useful plants. One of the debates focuses on whether peopleshould use only those medicines prescribed by Western medicine or shouldinvestigate traditional herbal medicines as a viable alternative for healing.Students are asked to consider how they can distinguish between accurateand misguided information concerning herbal medicines. The differentpositions are stated with neutrality (and with safety guidelines) and none ispresented as the correct one.

• Create partnerships between schools and community facilities andresources that provide students with access to knowledge and experi­ences that extend and complement learning experiences in schools(e.g., museums, zoos, natural life preserves, science centers, aquari­ums, planetariums, botanical gardens).

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Unit 9 of Cultural Uses ofPlants gives students some practical ideas of how tobroaden their experience by working with scientific institutions and organi­zations, either as volunteers or interns, and how to go about planning a careerrelated to plant science. The book also offers the names, addresses, and web pagesof numerous organizations with which students and teachers can collaborate.

• Create more opportunities for students to engage in science learningthat is authentic and patterned after the methods that scientists use.

Cultural Uses ofPlants includes many experiments that represent authenticresearch methods such as developing hypotheses, organizing a search of thescientific literature, pressing plant specimens, testing plant compoundsthrough chromatography, conducting ecological feasibility studies, culturingbacteria in petri dishes, and many others.

• Text material will always be needed to support science instruction.However, teaching based on this new view will require instructionalmaterials that are far different from most of those currendy available.Publishers must encourage the preparation of materials that fosterinquiry, describe authentic problems, and incorporate technology.

Cultural Uses ofPlants is one of the new breed of textbooks that truly supportthe new standards in science education and foster inquiry.

Critical Issue: Ensuring Equity and Excellence in ScienceOverview: Educators and community members are becoming increas­ingly aware that most students, particularly ethnic minorities, lan­guage minorities, and girls, are not being served adequately by manyexisting science programs. Traditional patterns of science educationhave contributed to widespread scientific illiteracy among studentsand adults and a serious under-representation of minorities andwomen in scientific and technical careers.

Goals:• All students will have equitable access to challenging and meaning-

fullearning and achievement in science.

Most of the activities in Cultural Uses ofPlants require inexpensive materials,making it easier to adapt to a large variety of school settings and budgets.Most of the activities do not require garden space and can be conducted in aregular classroom setting for inner-city schools which do not have land orgreen space readily available. The activities can just as easily be adapted to asuburban or rural setting.

• Teachers will promote and model a belief in the importance ofdiversity, excellence, and high-quality science instruction in theirwork with students, colleagues, and the community.

Cultural Uses ofPlants respects the beliefs systems of all cultures and encour­ages students to learn more about their own and others' cultures, applyingscientific processes to cultural beliefs in an effort to understand them.

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Action Options:• Address teacher- and student-related factors that influence minority

student participation and performance in science (e.g., expectations,previous experiences, assessment practices, language, stereotypes).

The curriculum in Cultural Uses ofPlants was developed and tested in an inner­city school with a student population that is 80 % non-white. By fostering respectfor students' cultures and encouraging students to study their cultural beliefs, thecurriculum empowers students to feel good about their respective backgroundsand to find the commonalities and differences between theirs and others'.

• Foster cultural and linguistic diversity throughout science activities,thereby providing a multicultural perspective.

Multicultural appreciation is one of the major goals, and celebration ofdiversity, both cultural and biological, is integrated to all aspects of CulturalUses ofPlants. For example, in Unit 5 on nutrition, a discussion of the foodsand eating habits of different cultures is presented along with the traditionalcoverage of nutrients and food groups.

• Address gender inequities in science.

Cultural Uses ofPlants addresses interests that are often found to be importantto girls and young women such as nutrition, health, and cultural beliefs; inthis way, the curriculum provides more varied entry points into the world ofscientific inquiry that will appeal to girls without a condescending attitude.

• Involve parents and community members - particularly membersfrom a variety of cultural backgrounds and experiences - as rolemodels, tutors, career speakers, consultants, advocates, andpartners in equitable science reform.

Unit 2 of Cultural Uses ofPlants gives detailed information about conductinginterviews with elder family and community members, and Unit 9 encouragesstudents to become involved with organizations where they can find commu­nity members who share their interest in plants and the environment.

Critical Issue: Aligning and ArticulatingStandards across the Curriculum• The emerging National Science Education Standards will require

educators to align their curricula with the standards for scienceand the standards for other disciplines. The resulting curriculawill present science holistically linking concepts and processesacross disciplines and articulating them throughout the student'syears of formal schooling.

As previously explained, Cultural Uses ofPlants meets most of the nationalcurriculum standards for science education.

• The NSES proposes a new view of science learning based on agrowing body of research on how students learn. These standardssupport a constructivist approach which views knowledge andunderstanding as growing from inquiry and investigation. Specific

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knowledge and understanding are acquired in the process ofdealing with authentic problems.

Students investigate problems and questions thoroughly in Cultural Uses ofPlants, thus equipping them with the tools to think critically about andinvestigate the questions they face elsewhere in their schooling and privatelives. In this case, the authentic problem students must examine and attemptto solve is how to use plants to help, enrich, and sustain humanity.

Goals:• The science curriculum engages all learners in meaningful scientific

tasks involving higher-order thinking skills.

Cultural Uses ofPlants requires students to ask questions, conduct research,make hypotheses, design experiments, collect, and evaluate data and makeconclusions based on the useful properties of plants. These activities fosterhigher-order problem-solving skills and encourages creative scientific thinking.

The following goals for this section are met by Cultural Uses ofPlants inways delineated under earlier goals:

• The science curriculum provides a hands-on approach to learning.

• The science curriculum teaches the scientific concepts and processesoutlined in the national standards.

• The science curriculum incorporates the content and process ofscience.

• The science curriculum provides meaningful, engaged learning forall students.

• The science curriculum engages students in challenging, authentic,interdisciplinary tasks.

• The science curriculum links scientific concepts and processes withprior learning in science and other disciplines.

• The science curriculum eliminates discipline boundaries whennatural, logical, and appropriate.

• The science curriculum provides opportunities for students toobserve, explore, and test hypotheses.

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Unit I Questions for Thought: ANSWERS1. Since plants are primary producers and convert solar energy into food,

and since they are at the base of all food chains, they are the most criticalcomponent to human life (and all life forms). They provide the bulk of our food,fiber, and medicine, and they preserve the ecological stability of the planet.

2. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants produce the oxygen weneed and the food that nourishes us. During photosynthesis, the chloroplastin the plant cell absorbs sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water and convertsthese into oxygen and glucose.

3. Plants protect the environment in many ways: They provide food andhabitat for wildlife, recycle water through transpiration, trap carbon dioxide(an excess of which can lead to global warming), prevent soil erosion,moderate the earth's temperatures, and clean the air.

4. This essay should include some or all of the following concepts, incomplete sentences and paragraphs. The preservation of natural areas helpsmaintain biodiversity, which is crucial for the following reasons:• There are as many as 50,000 undiscovered plants, the uses of which are yet

to be discovered, and destroying an incompletely explored natural areamay hinder the discovery of a useful new plant.

• Many underutilized species may provide new sources of food, fiber, andmedicine; preserving natural areas gives us an opportunity to assess theusefulness of plants that are abundant in these areas.

• Destroying a natural area may eliminate some amount of genetic diversity.As the Irish potato famine made clear, a uniform gene pool is moresusceptible to pests and disease than a diverse one is.

• As the United States becomes less rural and more suburban, it becomeincreasingly important to preserve large tracts of green space, not only sothat people have a place to go to experience nature, but also so that we canall take advantage of the services that nature provides for free, such as airpurification, water supply, food production, climate control, and so forth.

• Preserving natural areas helps maintain biodiversity. Natural areas containa diversity of plants and a diversity of animals, insects, and microorganisms.

5. When crops are grown in monoculture they are extremely vulnerable tochanges in climate or outbreaks of diseases and pests. If these adverse condi­tions occur, people have fewer alternatives to fall back on when their cropsfail. In such cases, famine or illness can occur.

6. Hunter/gatherers probably spent most of their time tracking animals tokill for food and searching for wild plants that bear edible nuts, berries,flowers, and roots. They had to be swift and agile in order to hunt effectively,and they had to learn which plants are edible and which ones are dangerous.They didn't stay in one place for long, because they had to move on once theyexhausted the plant and animal resources in one area. They lived in smallgroups but did not settle in larger villages.

7. Frankincense and myrrh: used to embalm the dead in Egypt. QueenHatshepsat of Egypt organized an expedition to Syria in 1485 B.C. to find them.Cacao: introduced to Mexico from Amazon rain forest before Columbus; broughtto Spain by Cortez in 1500s and kept as a secret among Spanish royalty for 100years before becaming widely enjoyed. Rubber seeds: taken from Amazon rain

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forest and brought to plantations in Southeast Asia, where a steady supply ofnative labor in these colonial plantations made the European owners wealthy.Coffee: originated in Africa, later cultivated in South America on colonialplantations whose European owners profited handsomely. Cinchona: usedmedicinally by indigenous people of Peru, who taught European missionariesabout it; enabled Europeans to survive in the tropical regions they colonized.

8. Until the end of the nineteenth century, most medicines were derived fromplants, so it was necessary for doctors to be able to identify, collect, and/or growplants in order to make medicines to treat patients. Written herbals were wheremuch of this knowledge about plants and their medicinal properties was stored.

9. There are many possible answers, including the following:• Agriculture was a necessary prerequisite to civilization because it allowed

people to settle down in one place rather than moving on when theyexhausted the supply of wild edible plants.

• The discovery of cinchona made it possible for Europeans to explore andcolonize the tropics without succumbing to malaria.

• Once Frederick Hopkins discovered that food contains certain chemicalcompounds that are essential for proper human nutrition, it becamepossible for later researchers to discover individual vitamins (as thesecompounds later came to be called).

• Rachel Carson's book Silent Spring led to a greater awareness and under­standing of the dangers that synthetic pesticides pose for the environment;within ten years of its publication, the u.s. Environmental ProtectionAgency banned certain toxic pesticides.

10. There are many possible answers, including the following:• Agriculture had the biggest impact because it allowed civilizations to form,

which in turn led to the development of cities and the arts and sciences.• The invention of paper allowed knowledge to be accumulated and stored

for later access.• Spice trade routes led to the rapid movement of people around the world.• The effects of the American Dust Bowl in the 1930s were exacerbated by

the Great Depression, and together the two events led to the creation ofsocial welfare programs that remain part of the federal government andoften play an important role as issues in u.s. political elections.

11. Folk knowledge accumulated over many generations about plants can betested through bioassays, chemical analyses, and research. When scientistsdraw on folk knowledge, they often find new avenues to explore that mightnot be apparent through simple observation of plants.

12. Carver received formal training in botany and chemistry. Thiseducation guided his experiments with plants, and he also learned aboutuseful plants from other African-Americans in the rural South. Schultes, alsoformally trained in botany, traveled to tropical rain forests to collect plantsand learn about them from different cultures. Although not formally trained,Cuero became an expert on useful plants through folk knowledge that had beenpassed down through generations of her own culture. She used plants to helpher family, friends, and tribe members survive in difficult circumstances.

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Unit 2 Questions for Thought: ANSWERS1. Elders can teach scientists about useful properties of plants. Their practical

information and experience can be a basis for further research, in whichscientific processes can be utilized to confirm or contradict folk knowledge.

2. Such places include: family gatherings, community gardens, school,"ethnic" grocery stores (where you might find the owners of a Chinese vegetablestand or an Indian spice shop), alternative health centers (where you mightfind herbalists and homeopaths), and anywhere else you would normallymeet someone who knows a lot about gardening, farming, health, or cooking.

3. A thorough review of the literature about the plant can help to verify theaccuracy of information you get from an interview. You can compare the usesof the plant described by the informant against what scientists have writtenabout it and what reliable Internet resources say about it.

4. If you did show proper respect to your informant, he or she might hesitateto give you infonnation and might feel insulted or taken advantage of. On theother hand, if you treat your informant with respect and kindness, he or shewill probably be pleased to share knowledge with you.

5. Answers to this question will vary by student. Appropriate people tointerview could include older relatives, cooks, gardeners, farmers, healers,scientists, and/or teachers.

6. You should choose a plant that will have plenty of good informationavailable about it. It should have useful properties. It should be legal, safe to use,and easily obtainable in the area where you live. (Note: Appendix B containsplants students can use if they are having trouble finding one on their own.)

7. Limit online searches to reputable research institutions such as museums,universities, botanical gardens, and trusted environmental organizations. Youcan consult scientists or teachers who might be willing to correspond with youvia email or on Internet bulletin boards. Avoid advertisers who sell herbalproducts, since their information may be exaggerated or otherwise biased.

8. Writing things in your own words shows that you understand the conceptsyou are writing about. You can pull together information from different sourcesto come up with your own synthesis of ideas and express them in your ownvoice and from your unique perspective. And in practical terms, you will saveyourself the trouble of being accused of plagiarism.

9. Here is one of many possible ways to rewrite this excerpt: "The WorldHealth Organization is working on assessing traditional healing methodsaround the world. Since most of the people of the world are already using folkmedicine, science should determine which methods really work and encour­age people to continue using those that do. This would make health caremore affordable to poor people and more accessible to rural people."

10. By comparing and synthesizing information from different sources, youcan find out if the various sources confirm or contradict each other and if thetraditional and modern uses of a plant are comparable. If there is consensusabout how a plant is used, that may be a good indication that it really worksfor the given purpose. If there is a diversity of opinion, you may be left with

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questions that you want to find your own answers for. By being well-informedabout a plant, you can make a realistic assessment about how useful the plantreally is and what issues about the plant remain unresolved.

11. See page 22 of Cultural Uses ofPlants for the citation formats.

Unit 3 Questions for Thought: ANSWERS

1. Seed bank (and a gene bank): Preserves a large and diverse range ofspecies and genetic variation, for study or later use. Botanical garden: Preservesand propagates living plants in greenhouses or in outdoor plantings, for study(or enjoyment!) throughout their life stages; a botanical garden may also havean herbarium, where scientists can study plants that were collected andpressed as specimens. Arboretum: Similar to botanical garden except that itfocuses mainly on trees, allowing them to be studied as they grow and mature.

2. Large chunks of natural habitats allow a given plant species to thrivealongside the animals, insects, microorganisms, and other plants that normallyoccur with it. Some species have trouble propagating, establishing, or growingwithout certain other organisms. In a natural habitat, it is an entire ecosystem,not just a single species, that is protected.

3. Center for Plant Conservation (CPC): a network of botanical gardensworking together to save endangered plant species of the United States.

4. Living specimens: adapt to changing environmental conditions andundergo the natural process of evolution. Seeds in a seed bank: can survivebut won'tt evolve. In the long run, living specimens will protect species better.However, when time, resources, and/or political will is lacking, keeping aspecies in a seed bank will at least prevent its total loss.

5. Herbarium: a collection of preserved plant specimens. It is created so thespecimens can be studied and examined carefully by scientists. These speci­mens are the basis of plant taxonomy, the classification and naming of plants.

6. Plant essences can be preserved as extracts, dried plant material, ortinctures. These are used in scientific experiments and as food and medicine.

7. Field guide: a book to help people identify an unknown plant usingpictures and descriptions. Field guides are often restricted to a certain type ofplant or animal or a certain region. Dichotomous key: a step-by-step guide tohelp identify a plant through a series of observations of characteristics such asthe measurements of the different parts of a flower or the arrangement ofleaves on a stem; each characteristic has two possible descriptions (shorterthan 3 cm or longer than 3 em; blue or red), and going through each pair andchoosing the one that best describes your plant is like following a trail of clues.Oftentimes, dichotomous keys are incorporated into field guides.

8. A drawing focuses solely on the plant without a distracting background.The line and shape of the object are clearer, and important parts of a plant'sanatomy can be emphasized. In addition, the act of drawing a plant makesthe artist observe it more carefully and perhaps understand it better.

9. Asexual reproduction: making a new plant from a piece of the parentplant. Can be achieved by division, cuttings, or layering (among other tech-

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niques). The "clone" is geneticaly identical to its parent. Sexual reproduction:growing a plant from a seed. Seeds usually result from pollination betweenflowers. Offspring are genetically different from original parent plant(s).

10. a. Most vegetables and flowers.b. Potato, cassava, sweet potato.c. Begonia, coleus, English ivy, geranium, jade plant, watercress.d. Aloe, aster, banana, daffodil, daylily, garlic, and iris.e. Dogwood, forsythia, raspberry, rubber plant, spider plant, strawberry.

Unit 4 Questions for Thought: ANSWERS1. The healthy meal will vary depending on the culture. Here is an example:

a. A Chinese meal.b. The carbohydrate is rice and candied ginger for desert.c. The fat is soy oil.d. The protein is tofu made from soybeans.e. The drink is tea.f. The fiber is from vegetables including water chestnuts, Chinese cabbage,

kelp, and baby corn.g. The vitamins and minerals include calcium and magnesium in the

tofu, vitamin C in the Chinese cabbage, iodine in the sea vegetables,and B vitamins in the rice.

2. a. Meal 1 d. Meal 2 g. Any of these mealsb. Meal 1 e. Meal 2 h. Meal 2 - it has the leastc. Meal 2 f. Meals 1 and 3 fat, sodium, and sugar

3. Each of these can have many answers. Examples include the following:a. Strawberries, maple syrup, yams e. Oranges, green peppers, kiwib. Rice, corn, potato f. Soybeans, broccoli, bok choyc. Lentils, peanuts, soybean g. Beans, raisins, kaled. Olives, avocados, sunflowers

4. a. Sugar gives the body immediate energy. The simplest kind of carbohy­drate, it breaks down rapidly to provide a quick source of energy.

b. Starch also provides energy, but in a longer-lasting, slow-release form.c. Fiber helps cleanse the digestive tract. It is not digested, but it sweeps

food particles from intestinal walls as it moves through the intestines.

s. Proteins are the building blocks of the body. Muscle, skin, bone, nails,and tissue all contain protein. We need protein to grow and repair the body.

6. A complete protein is one that supplies all the essential amino acids thatthe body needs in the proper amounts. A vegetarian would need to combineplant foods that provide all the amino acids - typically grains combined withlegumes (corn & beans, rice & peas, whole wheat bread & peanut butter, etc.).

7. Fats help our bodies retain vitamins A, D, E, and K, which wouldotherwise not be retained by the body long enough or in sufficient quantitiesto be ofbenefit. Nonnal intake of fats also helps keep the skin supple and soft.

8. Water is a lubricant, a beauty aid to the skin, a cushion for the joints,and a means of transporting nutrients. We should drink a lot of water because

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our bodies, which are made up mostly of water, need it for our cells andorgans to function properly, for our body fluids to remain in balance, and forbody temperature to be effectively regulated.

9. "Junk food" is high in carbohydrates and fat, but low in protein, vitamins,and minerals. They are filling but don't give us the protein and nutrients ourbodies need. Because they contribute to common disorders such as obesity,diabetes, and heart disease, it is best to limit our intake of junk food.

10. a. The food pyramid recommends 6-11 servings of the bread group (whichis always from plants), 5-9 servings of vegetables and fruit (all are plants), 2-3servings of dairy foods (not plants), 2-3 servings of protein (could be plant oranimal), and only a little fat, oil, and sweets (perhaps 1-2 servings, whichoften come from plants). So out of total of 16-28 servings per day, we shouldget 13-25 servings from plants - more than three-quarters of our daily diet.

b. Between 2 and 7 servings, or about one-quarter of our daily food,should come from animals and animal products. It is possible, however, tolive on a completely vegetarian diet if you learn a lot about nutrition andknow how to get all of your required nutrients.

Unit 5 Questions for Thought: ANSWERS1. Until the last half of the twentieth century, plants were the primary source

of medicines. Today, 80 % of people in developing countries rely on traditionalmethods of healing, and plants are their primary source of medicine. About 25 %of pharmaceutical drugs contain plants as the main active ingredient.

2. Clean water and sewage systems, improved sanitation, immunizationprograms, and antibiotics have helped to increase Americans' life expectancy.

3. Bacteria are tiny, simple, unicellular organisms; do not have organellesor genetic material bound in a nucleus; do have a cell wall, DNA, and ribosomes;come in many shapes including spherical, rod-shaped, and spiral.

4. Variable answers could include ear or staphylococcus ("staph") infections,pneumonia, cholera, whooping cough, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, diarrhea,food poisoning, typhus, gonorrhea, syphilis, or Lyme disease.

S. You could grow that bacteria in culture (in a petri dish) and add the plantextract. If the bacteria do not grow near where you put the plant extract, itmay be because chemicals in the plant are inhibiting bacterial growth. Youcould stain the bacteria to see if it is Gram-negative or -positive.

6. Viruses can't reproduce outside of their host, so they are harder toisolate and study. They are smaller than bacteria, and thus harder to observe.One reason why viral diseases are so difficult to cure is that viruses continu­ally mutate to produce new strains that resist medication. Although there arefew effective medications to fight viral infections, large-scale immunizationcampaigns have controlled the spread of polio, rubella, and certain other viraldiseases, and smallpox was completely eradicated in the late 1970s.

7. Microorganisms reproduce and mutate quickly, and often they canmutate in such a way that they become resistant to existing medications.New antimicrobials are almost constantly needed to keep new strains of thediseases under control. Also, we keep discovering new diseases (such as AIDS

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and Lyme disease), so we need to keep developing an arsenal of medicationsto combat them as they arise.

8. Malaria is caused by a protozoan called plasmodium and is spread bymosquitoes. Seventeenth-century European missionaries learned from indig­enous people in Peru that quinine from the cinchona tree could cure malaria;Chinese wormwood is used to treat forms that don't respond to quinine.

9. Unlike plants, fungi do not make their own food through photosynthesis;they get their food by feeding on organic matter. Also, whereas plant cell wallsare made of cellulose, fungi have cell walls made of chitin. They also have adifferent, more simple life cycle than that of plants.

10. Helpful fungi include those that help dead matter decompose, thoseused as medicine (such as penicillin) and those that are eaten as food (suchas baking yeast, mushrooms, and the mold in certain cheeses.) Harmful fungiinclude those that cause plant molds and mildew diseases and human disorderssuch as athlete's foot, yeast infections, thrush, and ringworm.

11. Infectious disease: caused by a pathogenic microorganism such as avirus, bacterium, protozoan, or fungus; can be transmitted by physicalcontact with infectious person or from contaminated water, air, or soil; canbe carried by a vector such as a mosquito or tick. Noninfectious disease:not caused by microbes; caused by behavioral, genetic, or environmentalfactors such as poor diet, air pollution, or genetic defect.

12. a. In a petri dish culture, you can see how the plant material will affectmicroorganisms such as yeast, bacteria, or protozoans.

b. Chromatography allows you to separate the chemical compounds in aplant extract so you can study each component independent of others.

c. Electrophoresis allows you to separate the plant molecules or theDNA in the plant material.

d. Spectroscopy helps determine the chemical composition of each plantcompound so you can study components individually.

Unit 6 Questions for Thought: ANSWERS

1. Plants such as kenaf, hemp, jute, and cotton are fast-growing sources offiber that can be used to make paper. These plants produce more pulp peracre and require less energy to process than trees. Agricultural wastes suchas bagasse (from processed sugar cane) can be turned into paper. Switchingto the processing of these plants can decrease dependence on trees as ourmajor source of paper, thus leaving more forests intact.

2. A plant must have short, strong, brittle, or slippery fibers that will bindtogether during processing in order to be a good paper source.

3. Some synthetic pesticides contaminate soil, food, and water, and somecan remain in the environment as long-lived toxins. Broad-range pesticideskill beneficial insects along with harmful ones. Insects tend to build resis­tance to pesticides over many generations, creating a need for increasinglypotent (and toxic) ones.

4. If indigenous people ~se a plant as a pesticide or poison, or if a plant doesnot appear to be infested with insect pests, it may make its own internal insecticide.

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5. Companion planting is a technique used by some gardeners who believethat certain plants naturally contain chemicals that deter specific pests, so theycultivate these plants near vulnerable plants to protect them.

6. Since mulching involves simply applying straw, shredded bark, or othermaterial as a top dressing on soil, it is the easiest (but not a particularlyeffective) way to enrich the soil.

7. Compost and green manure are both more effective than mulching, andstudents may give different opinions as to which is more effective. Some studentsmight point out that green manure is somewhat unnecessary when a plot is goingto be used for a crop that fixes nitrogen for itself (e.g., legumes). Other studentsmight say green manure is better for soil with severely depleted nutrients.

8. Use the chart on page 99 to answer this question. Plants high in nitrogen:cottonseed, soybean meal; in phosphorous: rotted grass/weeds, soybean meal,wood ashes; in potassium: wood ashes, seaweed. Any of these blended in thecorrect proportions would make a good fertilizer or compost for the garden.

9. The pH refers to the acidity or alkalinity of a substance. Most plantsprefer a slightly acidic to neutral soil pH (5 to 7) for best growth. When soilhas a pH that is too high or too low, some minerals become toxic while othersbecome unavailable, which can inhibit plant growth.

10. Don't feed wild animals because they may carry diseases such as rabies. Itis considered safe to feed birds with a bird feeder. Make sure the feed providesthe nutrients that the intended animal requires. Make sure that the plant youtest as feed will not be toxic to the animal. Don't treat animals cruelly.

11. a. Houseplant: attractive, can thrive with less light. Examples: ferns,spider plant, ficus, jade plant.

b. Landscaping: attractive, adapted for growing in the area where youlive. Examples depend on your geographic region.

c. Cut flowers: attractive, have a long shelf life, have strong stems, donot wilt quickly. Examples: gladiolus, daisy, sunflower, tulip, rosecarnation, baby's breath.

12. Cool (but not freezing) temperatures will extend the life of flowers andvegetables. Sugar and a weak acid in the water can prolong the life of a cutflower. Keeping them away from drafts and ethylene also helps them last longer.

13. Certain metallic salts and natural materials such as ashes, vinegar, andrusty water can act as mordants, binding color to fiber so it won't fade as easily.

14. You could compare the effect of that fragrance on people's moods to thatof a control fragrance. You could measure the effect of the scent with a surveyor by observing each participant's mood before and after smelling the fragrance.

Unit 7 Questions for Thought: ANSWERS1. Pharmaceutical drugs: The FDA (U.S. Food and Drug Administration)

has very stringent regulations for approving these: They require many years oflab testing and strictly monitored clinical trials on human beings. Their effective­ness must be proven for each illness or disorder they claim to treat, and theymay be marketed only for the purposes for which the FDA approves them.Dietary supplements: Not as strictly regulated by FDA: Less testing is required.They must be proven safe, but the active ingredients don't have to be assessed as

IS

thoroughly. Less time and research are required before they can be approved.Manufacturers are not allowed to claim that their product cures illness or disease.

2. Before experimenting with a plant, review safety precautions with yourteacher. Make sure you comply with all local, state, and federal regulations.Do not use recombinant DNA, pathogenic microorganisms, drugs, dangerouschemicals, or illegal plant materials. Do not cause harm to vertebrate animals,eat wild or uncommon plants, or use tobacco or alcohol on vertebrates. Reviewsafety regulations on p.126 carefully before beginning an experiment.

3. Answers will vary. Students should give good arguments for agreeing ordisagreeing with any of the safety regulations. They need to be reminded thatit is important to follow them even if they happen to disagree.

4. The notebook will enable you to recall everything that happened duringthe experiment. Thoughts, ideas, and unexpected results can give you new leads.Drawings also can record what happens. Keeping good notes can provide criticalinsights and will ensure that your account of your experiment is thorough.

5. Background research will help you uncover what others have alreadylearned about your plant. It will help you develop new ideas for experimenta­tion and make a realistic hypothesis.

6. If the hypothesis is disproved, you will have learned that your plant is notuseful for that particular thing. In the process of conducting an experiment, youmay find that your plant has an unexpected useful property. Even with a disprovedhypothesis or inconclusive results, your experiment gave you a chance to developyour ideas and test them, and gave you experience in conducting a study.

7. Without a control you would have nothing to compare your test groupwith. The control is a baseline to measure the experimental results against.

8. Mia used an objective mechanical device, the blood pressure monitor, tomeasure data, whereas Luna measured the tenderness of the meat by knifestrokes that relied on her impression of how much pressure she was applying toit. Mia's monitor was more accurate and less subjective because it is a mechanicaldevice that measures in the same way every time, regardless of who is doing themeasurement. Luna didn't have a perfect way to measure the exact amount ofpressure being applied with the knife. If she were too eager to prove herhypothesis, she could have applied a little more pressure even withoutconsciously intending to do so, making the results reflect her hypothesis.

9. Here are the statistical outcomes for Luna's data:Control group Treatment group

Mean 12.6 strokes 9.4 strokesMode 12 and 14 10Median 12 10Range 3 5

10. Here is a frequency distribution table:Untreated meat

Strokes FrequencyII I12 214 2

Meat treated with papayaStrokes Frequency

7 18 I

10 212 I

16

11. Mean, median, mode, range, or frequency could be measured in the formof a pie, bar, line, or scatter-plot graph. The graph should have a name andwhat is being measured on each axis should be clearly labeled.

12. We can convert opinions into numbers to measure them. For example, wecould assign the number 4 to "feeling great" and a to "feeling very sick" andnumbers 1, 2, and 3 to degrees of wellness in between. By averaging the numbersand applying statistical analysis, we can accurately assess participants' responses.

13. When you interpret data, you make conclusions based on your numericalfindings. You figure out the meaning of the data, its implications for yourresearch, and what the numbers mean in the context where they were applied.

14. A presentation should include an attractive poster summarizing yourwork; pictures, charts, and graphs to illustrate your data; your research paper andexperimental notebook; and possibly a demonstration or samples of the experi­ment. Be prepared to speak about, explain, and answer questions about all thestages of your research and what you learned from it. Reviewing what you learnedand practicing your speech in advance help you prepare for your presentation.

Unit 8 Questions for Thought: ANSWERS1. Loss of biological and genetic diversity is the most irreversible of all

environmental problems. Once gone, a species can never be recovered, andthe loss of diversity can lead to the collapse of an ecosystem: An ecosystemconsists of a set of organisms that interact in a balanced way, so that the lossof one organism can cause other organisms in that ecosystem to becomeextinct or overabundant, among other things.

2. a. Land development reduces the size of habitats and fragments them,thus squeezing out species.

b. Exotic species often do not have a natural predator in a new habitat, sothey can compete easily with native species and become invasive.

c. When a plant is in great demand, people tend to collect it excessivelyrather than leaving enough individuals to renew its population. Such aplant can be "hunted" to the point of endangerment or extinction.

d. Since people require so many resources (and those in industrializednations demand far more than others), human population growth strainsthe earth's natural systems. The demand for food, lumber, water, andother resources also grows, and land-use patterns change to accommodatemore houses, roads, and stores - thus displacing many plant species.

3. Invasive: Some plants can adapt easily to variable conditions and becomeaggressive in invading a habitat. An exotic may thrive in a new habitat that lackssome of its natural pests or predators. Endangered: Species with a narrow geo­graphic range or very specific climate requirements are less adaptable to changingconditions, and thus are more prone to becoming endangered when displaced.

4. We could find ways to utilize exotic invasives for food, medicine, or otheruseful properties. Since they are abundant, they should be harvested so nearbyendangered plants have a chance to recover. We could also try to find naturalpredators that will help control exotics without harming native species.

5. Indigenous people have lived in their unique ecosystems for hundredsor thousands of years. Many indigenous cultures have evolved a sustainable

17

way of life that uses resources wisely and maximizes the use of plants andanimals that are available to them while preserving the habitat where they live.

6-9: Answers will vary. Here is one example of a possible answer:

6. The service I chose is oxygen, which plants produce during respiration.Without oxygen, human and animal life could not be sustained on this planet.

7. Paying for oxygen might cost each person about $10,000 per year. That isabout what it costs to provide oxygen for one astronaut in outer space for a year.

8. Deforestation and damage to ocean algae threaten the amount of oxygenin our atmosphere. The amount of oxygen is gradually declining while carbondioxide levels are rising in the Earth's atmosphere. This rise in carbon dioxidemay be increasing the risk of global warming.

9. We should replace the trees we use and protect the ocean food chain,because plants absorb carbon dioxide and give off oxygen during respiration.

10. See pages 146-147 for the recommendations in the Declaration of Belem.

Unit 9 Questions for Thought: ANSWERS1. The following letters correspond to the skills required for each career path:

Horticulturalist: B MOP S Phytoremediation spec.: B COS T UNaturalist: COP S W Ecological restoration spec.: B COS T UBiological illustrator: A CIS U Forestry worker: M 0 SEnvironmental lawyer: Bel P S U W Museum curator: ABC IPS U WEconomist: Bel T U W Horticultural therapist: C lOPPlant taxonomist: C lOS U W Alternative marketer: B I P T U WBiochemist: CIS T U Plant geneticist: CIS T UEthnoecology: COP S

2. Answers will vary widely among students.

3. The career selected should closely matches the skills and abilities listed bythe student in #2. It should also be one of the careers described in the chaptereven if that is not what the student ultimately wants to do. The purpose is tosee which one offers the best match for that student's personality.

4. Variable answers. Students should provide good reasons for preferences.

5. Cultural rituals will vary widely among students, but in each case thestudent should be able to describe the ritual and the meaning of it.

6. Determine a theme for the garden; consult gardening books; draw up aplan; start a garden notebook; select plants that are adapted to the garden'sclimate and its soil and light conditions; label the plants; arrange far care andmaintenance of plants during the growing season; find the necessary tools;start a compost pile to create a ready supply of soil enrichment; know thegrowth requirements for each plant.

7. Answers will vary. Volunteer activities related to ethnabotany might includeworking for a botanical garden, conservation organization, museum, zoo, park,nursery, or political action committee or campaign. Any organization wherestudents can volunteer and, in the process, learn and develop skills related totheir occupational goals will help them begil1 to build a satisfying career.

UNIT I TESTName: _ (1a88: _ Date:~_/_

Part I: Matching (5 points each). Match the event (1 through 8) with the scientist orexplorer who was responsible for it (a through h).

__ 1. Developed the theory of evolution.__ 2. Devised a method of assigning two Latin names to all known plants and

animals to standardize names all over the world.__ 3. Developed an oath that physicians take promising to serve and heal people.__ 4. The first person to view a cell under a microscope and describe it.__ 5. Organized an expedition to Syria to find spices for embalming the dead.__ 6. Identified the underlying principles of genetics while experimenting on

pea plants.__ 7. Developed soil regeneration methods and hundreds of uses for the soil­

enriching peanut.__ 8. Pioneer of the participant-observer method of research which refers to

learning about culture through participation in the daily life of people.

a. Robert Hookeb. Charles Darwinc. Gregor Mendeld. Carl Linneaus

e. Richard Evans Schultesf. George Washington Carverg. Hippocratesh. Queen Hatshepsat

Part II: Short answer (8 points each).9. a. What are the raw materials for photosynthesis (what is needed for photosyn­

thesis to occur)?b. What are the products of photosynthesis (what does it produce)? _

10. a. Give an example of a medicinal plant that was first used by common peopleand later became a pharmaceutical drug.

b. What is this plant used for?11. Name a plant commonly used in each of the following products:

a. toothpaste e. furnitureb. hand cream f. cough syrupc. perfume g. medicined. clothing h. beverage

12. How does the story of the Irish potato famine demonstrate the need for greaterbiodiversity in the diet? _

13. Why were medicine and plant science studied together as one discipline up untilabout 100 years ago?

Part III: Essay question (20 points). Write your answer on the back of this test.14. Imagine that you are an ethnobotanist who is addressing a group of potential

funders in order to request more money for your research. Explain the followingthree things to the committee:

a. what ethnobotany isb. what an ethnobotanist doesc. why it is important that they give money so you can continue your work

UNIT 2 TESTName: _ Class: ___ Date:_I_I_

Part I: Short answer (8 points each).

1. What do scientists do to verify traditional knowledge?

2. Why do ethnobotanists want to interview healers, elders, and gardeners about plants?

3. Describe how you should treat your informant when conducting an interview abouta plant from his or her culture.

4. Which types of web sites have the most trustworthy information about plants?

5. a. Why is it important that you write a term paper in your own words?

b. How can you prove that a term paper really is your own work and avoid beingaccused of plagiarism?

6. a. What are the main items that you should include in your report (such as cover page,table of contents, etc.)? _

b. What are the main elements of the body of the paper in your ethnobotanicalresearch report? _

Part II:True or false (5 points each). If the statement is true, write "True". If thestatement is false, cross out the parts that are wrong and rewrite the correct statementinto the space.

7. You should copy statements word for word from the book onto the indexcards and in the final paper.

8. The format for a citation of a book is to write the author's last name, firstname, year of publication, title of the book, city of publisher, publisher.

9. Even if not proved by science, knowledge is still always valid.___ 10. It is generally better to interview an older person, who is more likely to

know a lot about plants, than a young person.___ 11. Internet sources are much more reliable than books most of the time.___ 12. The body of the paper comes after the table of contents and introduction

and before the summary and bibliography.___ 13. When citing an informant, list the name, date, type of interview, and city

or location of the interview.___ 14. You should add your own ideas based on what you have learned into the

summary of the paper.

Part III: Multiple choice (6 points each).

_1 S. Who would not be the most appropriate person to interview about a plant fromyour culture? Your:

a. little brother b. teacher c. mother d. grandfather e. local gardener

__16. When interviewing someone about their culture it is best to be:a. critical b. rushed c. slow d. very talkative e. respectful

UNIT 3TESTName: _ Class: ___ [)ate: / / ____

Part I: Matching (5 points each). Match each description (1 through 8) to the place orthing it best describes (a through h).

__ 1. A special kind of herbarium specimen which has been collected for the firsttime and deposited into a herbarium to represent that species.

__ 2. A piece of equipment used to transfer images into the computer.__ 3. A book used to help people identify plants or other types of species.__ 4. The essence of a plant preserved in alcohol.____ 5. A pressed, dried plant that has been identified and mounted on a sheet of paper.__ 6. A list of descriptions where the reader must select one of two choices, which

leads him or her to another set of two choices until he or she is able toidentify the plant at hand.

__ 7. A place where thousands or millions of seeds of different species and varietiesand cultivars within a species are stored and preserved for future study.

__ 8. A place that houses a living collection of trees.

a. scannerb. tincturec. herbarium specimend. gene bank

e. arboretumf. type specimeng. dichotomous keyh. field guide

Part II: Which is it? (2 points each). For each of the descriptions 9 through 13, writean "S" if it is an example of growing a plant from a seed and a "V" if it is an exampleof growing a new plant through vegetative propagation.

9. Asexual reproduction; the new plants are genetically identical to the parent.___ 10. Sexual reproduction; the new plants get half of their genes from each parent.___ 11. When you grow a new plant from a stem, leaf, or root cutting.___ 12. When you divide or layer a plant.___ 13. When you make a new plant from a few cells in a test tube.

Part III: Short answer (10 points each).

14. What are two ways that you could transfer an image onto the computer?

15. If you learned about an interesting plant, and you knew only its Creole name,what could you do to figure out its scientific name and its English name?

16. Why are scientific drawings still sometimes preferable to photographs?

17. What are some guidelines for drawing a plant?

18. If you want to grow your plant, what could you do to make sure that it would growwell?

UNIT 4TESTName: _ Class: _ Date: __/_/_

Each question in every part is worth 5 points.

Part I: Matching. Match each description (1 through 10) to the nutrient it describes(a through i). (Note: One answer will be used twice).

1. Between 55% and 75% of the human body is made up of this molecule.2. Many animal products have this type of fat, which can lead to hardening of

the arteries.3. Most plants have this type of fat which does not contribute to heart disease.4. This is a product of photosynthesis and a monosaccharide, a carbohydrate

that provides us with energy.S. This type of carbohydrate cannot be digested but passes right through the

body. It helps clean the digestive tract without adding calories to the diet.6. This type of carbohydrate is a polysaccharide and also provides us with energy.7. This nutrient helps the body to grow and build strong muscles.8. Inorganic nutrients needed by the body in small amounts.9. Organic substances needed by the body in small amounts.

___ 10. This is made up of amino acids.

a. sugarb. starchc. fiber

d. unsaturated fate. saturated fatf. protein

g. vitaminh. minerali. water

Part II: Multiple choice.__ 11. Which of these foods probably has the most protein?

a. corn b. wheat c. beans d. raisins e. apples__ 12. Which of these foods probably has the most starch?

a. eggs b. bananas c. strawberries d. lettuce e. chicken__ 13. What is the difference between a sugar and a starch molecule?

a. a starch molecule is larger b. a sugar molecule is largerc. only starch gives the body energy d. sugar is a carbohydratee. only sugar is made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen

__ 14. Which of these food combinations does not contain a complete protein?a. cheese sandwich b. pepperoni pizza c. caesar saladd. rice and beans e. peanut butter and jelly sandwich

Part III: Short answer.15. Next to each type of nutrient, give an example of a food that has that nutrient. Allthe foods put together should make up a healthy meal:

a. sugar: b. starch: _c. fiber: d. fat: _e. protein: f. water (beverage): _

16. What does "junk food" do to the body?

17. a. Name an important vitamin that the body needs. How is it used by the body?

b. Name an important mineral that the body needs. How is it used in the body?

18. What useful information do nutritional labels on food products contain?

19. Which types of food help in losing weight and which foods cause weight gain?

20. If you have conducted nutrient tests on your plant, write down the name of yourplant and which nutrients it has.

UNIT 5 TESTName: _ C1ass: _ Date:_I_I_

Part I:Which is it? (4 points each). For each of the descriptions 1 through 10, write a"B" if it describes a bacterium, an "F" if it describes a fungus, a "P" if it describes aprotozoan, and a "V" if it describes a virus.

1. Organism spread by mosquitoes that causes malaria.2. Organism that causes chicken pox.3. Organism that causes athlete's foot.4. Organism that causes milk to turn to yogurt.5. Organism that causes sexually transmitted herpes and AIDS.

6. Organism that makes bread rise.7. Organism that causes the sexually transmitted gonorrhea and syphilis.8. Penicillin (a powerful antibiotic) comes from this type of organism.9. This type of organism cannot live outside of its host.

__ 10. This organism infected the potato crop during the Irish potato famine.

Part II: Multiple choice (4 points each).

__ 11. Which scientific technique helps us to look at the DNA of a plant species?a. chromatography c. spectrophotometryb. electrophoresis d. petri dish cultures

__ 12. Which plant is sometimes used to ease mild depression?a. foxglove b. ginger c. ginkgo d. St. John's wort e. tea tree

__ 13. What is the typical food source for growing organisms in a petri dish?a. chromatography gel b. agar c. yeast d. fertilizer e. bacteria

__ 14. Which development did not help increase life expectancy in the past 100 years?a. antibiotics b. improved agricultural practicesc. improved sanitation d. population growth e. cleaner water

__ 15. Which of the following is caused by an infectious disease agent?a. pollution b. genetic predisposition c. food poisoningd. poor diet e. excessive consumption of alcohol and/or drugs

Part III: Short answer (10 points each).

16. a. Name a plant that can kill or inhibit bacteria: _b. Name a plant that can kill or inhibit viruses: _c. Name a plant that can kill or inhibit protozoans:d. Name a plant that can kill or inhibit fungi: _

17. Do you think your government should encourage or discourage the use of herbalmedications? Give reasons for your answer.

18. Why is it more difficult to study viruses than to study other microorganisms?

19. Describe how petri dish studies can help us find new antibiotic medicines.

UNIT 6 TESTName: _ Class: _ Date:_I_I_

e. beet

e. lettuce

e. turtle

d. parsley

b. a type of fertilizerd. a ground cover

d. companion planting

d. guinea pigc. fish

Part I: Multiple choice (5 points each).

1. Which plant can be used to make a yellow dye?a. comfrey leaves b. red cabbage c. spinach

2. What is a mordant used for?a. to absorb toxic wastes b. to increase shelf life of flowers c. perfumed. to hold the color in fabric e. to glue fiber together when making paper

3. Which of the following is the name for a pile of decaying plant materialsused to enrich the soil?a. cover crop b. mulch c. compost

4. Which plant does not typically repel insect pests?a. basil b. eucalyptus c. neem d. hot pepper

5. Which pH range is best for the growth of most plants?a.1-2 b.3-5 c.5-7 d.7-9 e.8-10

6. Which is the most important factor in selecting a flower for floral arrangements?a. shelflife b. country of origin c. fragrance d. color e. texture

7. What does companion planting refer to?a. growing plants to avoid lonelinessc. growing certain plants together to repel insects

8. Which would not help enrich the soil?a. compost b. mulch c. rotted leaves & grass d. water e. a cover crop

9. Which of the following things does ethylene help plants do?a. grow faster b. ripen and decay c. heal from bruisesd. last longer e. produce more fruits

__ 10. Besides humans, which animal cannot make its own vitamin C and needs toget it from its food?a. rabbit b. cat

Part II: Short answer (10 points each).

11. Why is making paper from recycled fiber and/or from non-woody plants better forthe environment?

12. Name a plant that would be good for making each of the following:a. paper: _b. insecticide: _c. compost: _d. fertilizer: _e. flower arrangements:f. wooden furniture:g. perfume:h. attractive landscapes:i. attractive house plants:

13. Why is it that so many plants have chemicals that can be used to repel pests?

14. Give 5 examples of ways that soybeans are used.

15. What are 5 ways that ornamental plants improve our lives?

UNIT 7TESTName: _ C1ass: _ Date:_I_I_

Part I: Matching (4 points each). Match each description (1 through 15) with the wordit best describes (a through 0).

1. An educated guess as to the experimental result.2. Also called the manipulated variable, it is the part of the experiment changed

in each trial.3. An experiment to compare to the actual one.4. A hypothesis confirmed by a lot of data.s. A summary of the experimental findings.6. The average of a set of data7. TIle organism or object you observe for changes during an experiment.8. The change or effect that you are measuring in your subject as a result of

the experiment.9. The middle number in a set of data.

__ 10. The most frequent number in a set of data.__ 11. The difference between the highest and lowest in a set of data.

12. How often each set of data occurs.__ 13. A graph to measure changes over time.__ 14. A graph to measure percentages.__ 15. A graph to compare different individuals.

a. theoryb. controlc. hypothesisd. treatmente. abstract

f. mediang. meanh. rangei. frequencyj. mode

k. bar graph1. line graphm. pie graphn. responseo. subject or experimental subject

Part II: Short answer (8 points each).16. Which of these is not a hypothesis? Explain why.

a. Does papaya tenderize meat? b. Tamarind soothes sore throats.c. Lemon kills bacteria. d. Ginger eases nausea.e. Beets make a yellow dye.

17. If you disprove your hypothesis, does that mean your experiment failed and is no good?

18. How do different types of data analysis help us to better understand the results ofan experiment?

19. Why is it important to repeat an experiment many times and/or have many trialsand sets of data?

20. Why is it important to keep a science notebook or journal while conducting anexperiment?

UNIT 8 TESTName: _ Class: _ Date:_I_I_

Part I: Matching (6 points each). Match each description (1 through 6) \vith the item itbest describes (a through f).__ 1. A species that plays an important role in an ecosystem and upon \vhich many

other species depend__ 2. A species that has died out__ 3. A species that has nearly died out__ 4. A species that is likely to become endangered__ 5. A decrease in the variations within a species__ 6. A species that takes over the habitat of another species and is overabundant

a. endangered speciesb. invasive speciesc. extinct species

d. keystone speciese. genetic diversity lossf. threatened species

Part II: Multiple choice (6 points each).7. Which of these plants is considered an invasive species in the United States?

a. wild yam b. purple loosestrife c. goldenseal d. purple coneflower8. About one in ..:L plant species in the world are facing extinction if we do not

attempt to protect them.a.2 b.3 c.5 d.8 e.l0 f. 13

9. Which of these is not a service provided by nature?a. climate regulation b. pollination c. erosion controld. transportation e. provides us with many natural resources

__ 10. The Declaration of Belem recommends all of the following except:a. conservation of natural resources b. respect for traditional healersc. support of indigenous peoples d. exchange of botanical informatione. encouraging invasive species

Part III: Short answer (10 points each).11. What are the three major reasons for the disappearance of so many plant species?

12. Imagine that you are an ethnobotanist speaking to a panel of economists, businesspeople, and government officials. You must convince them that the forests in yourcommunity should be protected for economic as well as ecological reasons. Whatwould you tell them to persuade them that it is in their best interest to protect atleast some of the natural areas?

13. If your class made a study plot, answer the following questions?a. Which plant was the most abundant?b. Which plant was the most useful?c. Which plant was the largest?d. What would the economic value be in protecting the plot as opposed to

developing or building on it?

14. Why are ethnobotanists concerned with preserving cultural diversity in additionto plant diversity?

UNIT 9TESTName: _ Class: _ Date:~_/_

Part I:Who does what? (10 points each). Select 5 of the following careers and brieflydescribe what someone with this job does and which skills are needed for this job.

Horticulturalist NaturalistMuseum curator Agricultural extension agentBiological illustrator Environmental journalistEnvironmental lawyer Economic botanistPlant geneticist Plant biochemistEthnobotanist AnthropologistLinguist Restoration ecologistPhytoremediation specialist Plant taxonomist

1.

2.

3.

4.

s.

Occupation Brief description Skills needed

Part II: Short answer (10 points each).For questions 6 through 8, name three things that you could volunteer to do, either byyourself or with a group of friends, which would educate others about the importanceof plants and/or would help preserve biodiversity.6.

7.

8.

9. Describe two cultural rituals that use plants. At what occasions are these ritualsused?

Plant-based rituala.b.

Occasion or event

10. What are 5 things you should remember when starting a garden?a.b.c.d.e.

Unit I Test: ANSWERSPart I (5 points each)l.b 2.d 3.g 4.a 5. h 6. c 7. f 8. e

27

Part II (8 points each)9. a. Carbon dioxide, water, and sunlight.

b. Oxygen and glucose (a food source) are produced in the chloroplast ofthe plant cell.

10. Possible answers for aQuinine from the cinchona treeMamala treeDigitalis, or foxglove

11. Possible answers:a. peppermint, spearmint, cinnamonb. coconut oil, cocoa butter, aloe verac. rose, lavender, jasmined. cotton, hemp, linen from flax

Corresponding answers for bTreatment for malariaPotential against viral infectionsTreatment for heart ailments

e. cherry, oak, pine, cedar, ebonyf. cherry, eucalyptus, mint, slippery elmg. willow, digitalis, cinchona, mamalah. coffee, cocoa, black tea, orange juice

12. If the Irish had been eating additional kinds of food and multiple varieties ofpotato (some of which had more resistance to potato blight), the failure of one cropwould not have caused famine. Biodiversity in the food supply is an insurancepolicy against disaster: If one crop variety fails, there are others to fall back on.

13. Because most medicines were made from plants, doctors 100 years agohad to be able to identify, collect, and prepare plants to treat their patients.

Part III (20 poi nts)The answer should include some of the following points:

8. Ethnobotany is the study of the relationship between plants and people.b. An ethnobotanist learns about medicinal or edible plants from indigenous

people and conducts scientific experiments to examine these uses. Some ethno­botanists study plant origins and how prehistoric people used plants. And mostare concerned with preserving both cultural knowledge and plant conservation.

c. Further funding is needed if we are to find new sources of medicine tocure disease, new food sources to feed a growing population, and new andmore renewable sources of paper. We must protect our environment and findways to use our resources without destroying them. And we need to preservethe knowledge of indigenous cultures, for they can help us find answers tosome of these questions.

Unit 2Test: ANSWERSPart I (8 points each)1. Scientists review the scientific literature (books, periodicals, Internet) tosee what els~ is known about the plant, and conduct laboratory experiments.

2. Ethnobotanists can learn about the uses of plants from these people whoseknowledge springs from generations of wisdom and experience being passeddown to them. Ethnobotanists want to preserve the best of this knowledgefor the benefit of future generations.

3. Always treat infonnants respectfully, kindly, and politely (even if you disagree).

28

4. Web sites of respected universities, botanical gardens, and conservationorganizations have the most trustworthy plant information on the Internet.(Web sites that sell or advertise useful plants or herbs are best avoided, sincetheir information may be exaggerated or otherwise biased.)

5. a. Writing about your research in your own words helps you learn a lotmore about the topic than copying others' work. You can pull various ideastogether from different sources to help support your own ideas. It will helpavoid even the appearance of plagiarism.

b. Keep notes and references on index cards as you research. Create a complete,accurate bibliography for your paper. Put your own ideas into your own words.

6. a. Main parts of a research report: cover page, table of contents, introduction,body, summary, bibliography. Graphics, charts, and graphs are also helpful.

b. Main elements in the body of an ethnobotany report: the plant's common,scientific, and family names; a description of the plant; the plant's distributionrange, place of origin, and ecology; how to cultivate it and how it reproduces;traditional and modern uses, methods of use, and safe use; scientific findingsabout the plant; ~ther interesting information such as folklore and recipes.

Part II (5 points each)7.F 8.T 9.F

Part III (6 points each)15. a 16. e

10. T 11. F 12. T 13. T 14. T

Unit 3 Test: ANSWERSPart I (5 points each)1.f 2.a 3. h 4.b S.c 6.g 7.d 8. e

Part II (2 points each)9. V 10. S 11. V 12. V 13. V

Part III (10 points each)14. Answers should include two of these three: a scanner; a digital camera;converting photographs into digital images on a photo CD.

15. You could use a dichotomous key to identify the plant by its scientific name;then, to get its common name in English, you could search field guides or theInternet, or ask a bilingual person. A book with clear drawings or photographs,an herbarium specimen, or Internet images of plants will help confirm youridentification. Finally, you could ask an expert (e.g., a professional botanist)for help. If a botanist is unable to identify the plant from the specimens in anherbarium collection, the plant might be a species that is new to science.

16. In scientific drawings the outlines of the plant are clear, distracting back­ground colors and shapes can be eliminated, and important parts can beemphasized.

17. Some guidelines for drawing a plant: Gather good materials (paper, writingtools, ruler, a board, and a hand lens or microscope), find a well-lit place, setup the plant you wish to draw, measure and draw it to scale and add shadingand/or color.

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18. Learn about its nutrient and growth requirements and its optimumclimatic conditions, then try to grow it according to these requirements.

Unit 4 Test: ANSWERSPart I (5 points)l.i 2.e6.b 7.f

Part II (5 points)11.c 12.b

3.d8. h

13.a

4.a9. g

14. c

5. c10. f

Part III (5 points)15. a. any fruit or sweet food

b. any grain, pasta, bread, potato, or starchy root cropc. any crunchy vegetable or fruit, high-fiber cereals, oatsd. any vegetable oil, butter, or larde. beans, nuts, meat, fish, eggs, poultry, dairy, soy productf. coffee, tea, milk, juice, soup

16.]unk foods are high in refined carbohydrates (sugar and starch), fat, sodium,and/or preservatives and low in vitamins, protein, and minerals. They fill you upand offer a quick energy boost, but they don't give your body the nutrients itneeds. They can contribute to obesity, diabetes, and heart disease.

17. a. Varied answers. See the chart on pages SO-51 for potential answers.b. Varied answers. See the chart on page 52 for potential answers.

18. Food nutrition labels state the amount of carbohydrates (sugar, starch,fiber), fat, protein, and vitamins and minerals that a food contains. Readingfood labels can help you select healthier foods.

19. Lose weight: foods high in fiber, protein, vitamins, and/or minerals.Gain weight: foods high in fat, carbohydrates, and calories. However, yourindividual metabolism and the quantity of food eaten will also help deter­mine the amount of weight gain or loss.

20. Variable answers. If students have not conducted this unit's nutrient tests,you can either substitute your own question or give each student 5 free points.

Unit 5 Test: ANSWERSPart I (4 points each)1. P 2. V 3.F 4.B 5. V6. F 7. B 8.F 9. V 10.P

Part II (4 points each)11.b 12. d 13.b 14. d 15.c

Part III (10 points each)16. a. garlic, tea tree, neem, goldenseal, onion, turmeric, lemon

b. mamala treec. cinchona tree, Chinese wormwoodd. thyme, garlic, tea tree, lapacho

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17. Variable answers. Some reasons for encouraging the use of herbalmedicines: They are less expensive, have been used for thousands of years,are part of many cultures, and can be grown easily. Some reasons for discour­aging the use of herbal medicines: They may not be scientifically tested for theireffectiveness, may not be as effective as pharmaceuticals, may have undesirableside effects, and may encourage people to avoid seeking medical attention forserious conditions.

18. Unlike other microorganisms, a virus cannot reproduce outside of its host,and therefore it is extremely difficult to isolate a virus and study it in culture.

19. A petri dish is a controlled environment where we can see how bacteriareact to various plant compounds. If the bacteria do not grow near the placewhere the plant or other compound is placed in the petri dish, then thatmaterial may be effective in suppressing bacterial outbreaks.

Unit 6 Test: ANSWERSPart I (5 points each)l.c Z.d6. a 7. c

3.c8.d

4.e9.b

S.clD.d

Part II (10 points each)11. Making paper from recycled fiber uses a lot fewer trees and less energy. Non­woody plants used for fiber usually grow much faster than trees and yield morepaper per acre than trees yield. Agricultural wastes from sugar cane, rice, andbanana trees can also be used to make paper rather than being dumped intolandfill or bodies of water. In all three cases, precious forest resources are leftintact to perfonn their ecological and environmental functions.

12. Some possible answers:a. kenaf, hemp, flax, cotton, papyrusb. chrysanthemum, neem, cayenne pepper, lemon grass, garlic, sagec. grass clippings, leaf, red clover, seaweed, wood ashesd. alfalfa hay, coffee grounds, seaweed, decomposed leaves, grasse. rose, carnation, chrysanthemum, daisy, sunflower, lilyf. oak,hickory,cedar,bamboo,pine,henllockg. rose, lavender, jasmine, sandalwoodh. azalea, sunflower, magnoliai. spider plant, jade, aloe

13. Having coevolved with animals who ate them, some plants developedchemicals to defend themselves against their predators. Some of these can beused to make effective natural pesticides.

14. Soybeans can be used for any of the following purposes: high protein foodfor humans and animals, used to make dairy and meat substitutes, fertilizer,paint, adhesives, paper, engine fuel and stabilizers for dusty roads, edibleforks and spoons to reduce waste on naval vessels.

15. They provide beauty, a link to the natural world, and food and habitat forwildlife; they also improve indoor air quality, reduce dust and pollutants, andpromote biodiversity.

Unit 7 Test: ANSWERSPart I (4 points each)1. c 2. d 3.b9.f lO.j 11. h

4.a12. i

5. e13.1

6.g14. m

7. 0

15.k8.n

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Part II (8 points each)16. The first question (a. Does Papaya tenderize meat?) is not a hypothesis. Itis a question. The hypothesis is an educated guess as to what the answer to aquestion might be. A possible hypothesis for the question "Does papayatenderize meat?" would be "Papaya tenderizes meat." Then you could designan experiment to see if this hypothesis is true or not.

17. If you disprove your hypothesis, you could still have a valid experiment.The purpose of experimentation is to test hypotheses and try to ascertain thetruth. So even if the hypothesis turns out to be wrong, you still have gottencloser to what is true and may have made some new discoveries.

18. The mean tells us the average for the data set. But that alone won't tellyou much about what happened. The frequency and mode will tell you howoften different results happened so you can see where the most data oc­curred. The range will tell you if the data was closely clustered together orspread out, giving you an indication of how reliable the experiment was. Themore spread out the data, the less reliable it tends to be.

19. The experiment should be repeated many times to reduce the chance oferror and make the findings more believable. If the same results occur timeand time again, then you have much more experimental proof for yourhypothesis. If you only do it once, an unexpected error may trigger a wrongresponse. For example, if you were testing to see if rice water was a goodfertilizer, and an insect pest ate the plants watered with rice water, you mightmake a wrong conclusion based on the data. Repeating the experiment willoffset the error in the data.

20. The science journal or notebook helps you keep track of everything thatwas done in an experiment and everything that happened. You keep yourdata and notes in it. Then you won't forget what happened and you havegood proof as to your results.

Unit 8Test: ANSWERSPart I (6 points each)l.d 2.c 3.a 4.£

Part II (6 points each)7.b 8.d

S.e

9.d

6. b

10. e

Part III (10 points each)11. The three major reasons why so many plant species are disappearing:

a. Land use change, such as housing developments and clearing forest for corporateagricultural use.

b. The invasion of exotic species which can grow rampantly and choke out otherspecies.

c. Overexploitation of a plant species due to high demand for that plant.

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12. Answers will vary, but the ethnobotanist's argument should sound something likethis: "Greetings, ladies and gentlemen. I speak to you today about one of the mostpressing problems we face - that of biodiversity loss in our local forest ecosystem.Each species in the forest represents a great treasure. Like a great work of art, it cannever be replaced once it is lost. In addition to being beautiful and giving us recre­ational places to spend time, many of these forests are very useful to our lives, evencritical. They provide us with food, fiber for paper and wood products, medicine, andmany other things that improve our lives. They also provide irreplaceable ecologicalservices. Consider how trees help protect our watershed by holding water in theground and preventing runoff, flooding, and erosion. Consider how the plants of theforest clean the air and produce oxygen. In short, ladies and gentlemen, the quality ofour lives would be horrible without these resources. In fact, our very survival maydepend on them. In closing, I urge you to support the forests and vote to save theremaining forest land in our community and to halt development in these sacred places."

13. Answers will vary a great deal with this question. If students have not yet made astudy plot, substitute your own question or give each student 10 free points.

14. Older generations and indigenous people have a lot of knowledge about how to utilizeplants and care for the environment. Studies have shown that when fragile ecosystemsare disrupted and destroyed, so are the cultures that depended on them. Native peoplecan teach us how to be better stewards of natural resources and how to manage theiruse wisely. Nobody has the right to destroy the land and livelihood of others.

Unit 9 Test: ANSWERSPart I (10 points each)1-5. Answers will vary for this section. See pages 159-162 for accurate definitionsand descriptions of the possible careers.

Part II (10 points each)6-8. The three things might include any of the following: gardening, restoring a naturalarea, political activism, or working in a zoo, park, or museum to educate people.

9. Answers will vary widely. Examples might look something like the following:a. Decorating a tree with ornaments and lights Christmasb. Eating horseradish to be reminded of the Passover

bitterness of slavery in Egyptc. Giving a loved one roses to express love Valentine's Day

10. Answers can include any five of the following:Make a theme for the garden.Put labels on the plants.Select plants well-adapted to the climate where they are to grow.Arrange for care and maintenance of the garden.Determine tools and supplies needed and where to store them.Enrich the soil.Learn the nutrient and growth requirements for each plant.