CULTURE I

CULTURE I

CULTURE ICulture: Is a system of interrelated elements of a community, which develops throughout time.

Each community has its own culture no matter its size. The geographical influences condition the culture of a group.Civilisation: is an advanced stage of human development marked by a high level of art, religion, science, and social and political organisation. Not all the cultures reach the state of civilisation. For example, those aboriginal cultures whose stage of civilisation was interrupted by conquerors could not develop culturally. A culture is civilised when it reaches an advanced level or stage of development. Gordon Childe believes that a culture can be called a civilisation when different criteria are present:

Presence of cities (large, dense settlements started with the Romans)

Differentiated people (diverse social classes and their functions)

Presence of a ruling class exeunt from manual work

Taxes yielding capital for the ruler or political authority.

Presence of monumental public buildings.

Development of writing (not always)

Beginnings of science.

Foreign trade.

Achievement of agriculture.

Development of naturalistic art.

XXth Century: a culture may be called civilisation when it is able to analyse, study and criticise its own customs, when culture itself becomes the object of study. (Spengler)

BEGINNINGS OF THE ENGLISH CIVILIZATION

Trevelyan states that geography governs history; and therefore, culture. This phrase these days is not valid since today the control of man over nature is stronger because of technologic advances. Bacon, the father of the inductive method, believed that the aim of science is to give man the control over nature.Geographic characteristics of England: There is a historical and cultural significance of:

The fact that England is an island: Trevelyan said that the sea is the key to the history of the British people. The fact that England is surrounded by the sea has played an important role on the development of this country.

Britains geographic position with respect to Europe and the rest of the world: Map-makers, whether in Ancient Alexandria or in Medieval Monasteries, placed the island in the North West edge of all the territories. But, after the Discovery of America and the ocean routes to Africa and the East, Britain laid in the centre of the new maritime movement. This change in her geographic outlook made England, in the era of the Stuarts, the chief site of the new transoceanic commerce, finance and industry.

DISCOVERY OF AMERICA (1492)

BEFOREAFTER

Passive: In the old days, the main route of trade was between the Mediterranean and the Levant (Asia). The route was along the Mediterranean sea, the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Thus, the Mediterranean was the main centre of commerce. England was far from/ cut off from this centre, so she did not participate in negotiations up to the XVth century due to two factors: the discovery of America and of routes to Africa and the east. Active:(traders) The reason for the discovery was that England was looking for a route to the Mediterranean. Constantinople (now Istanbul) was the main route to Asia. In 1453 the trade-route was closed by the Turks. In 1498 Vasco Da Gamma (Portuguese) opened a new route to new lands. He first sailed through the south of Africa (Cape of Good Hope). England, then, was better placed than Spain and Portugal since she was between the New World and the Old World. Later, England made use of the sea to build up overseas trade/ international commerce.

Receptive: The country received successive trades from Western Europe.Acquisitive: In times of Queen Elizabeth, England acquired the command of the sea. This country started to acquire new territories in the second half of the XVIth century. She emerged as the leading sea-faring country of the world.

The power of England was maintained till the First World War, when she lost most of its colonies. Englands power was seen in: Her command of the sea.

The English Empire.

The Industrial Revolution. industrial wealth an power (after the I.R. Germany began to compete with EnglandOCCUPATIONSETTLEMENT

Who?Soldiers, military troops.Wholesale migration: national establishment of a great number of families.

How? No displacement of the previous inhabitants.

Racial mingling is not stopped.

There is a strong use of violence and force. The previous culture is expelled so as to introduce a new culture.

Force may be used, but not necessarily.

How long?Temporal: it is long or short, but eventually comes to an end.Permanent. It leads to the beginning of a new culture.

What for?To annex new lands so as to enlarge their domains/ territories.To settle in a new place to set up roots.

Characteristics of the island itself:

The physical formation of the country is the key to the history of its early settlers (Trevelyan). In other words, the sea is the key to the story of the British people. The islands geography was important because the invaders penetrated the island trough the South East since this area is low, flat and there are many navigable rivers and ridges, which the invaders followed. In other words, the invaders followed the easier accesses. Exceptionally, The Danes (Vikings) were the only people that penetrated England through the north.

I. Factors that made England a desirable land: Richness of the soil for agriculture in the South-eastern area.

Existence of minerals.

Presence of navigable rivers for trading purposes. The rivers are conveniently small and abundant so communication is possible.

Mild climate. The island has temperate climate, there is just enough sun and rainfall to allow settled cultivation. It is warmer than in the northern areas, and there are shorter periods of frost.

II. All invader tribes followed the same pattern:

1. Entered from the South East (except the Danes who penetrated the island from the North)(the rest of the land was covered by forests).2. Slaughtered the previous inhabitants.

3. Subdued the survivors.

4. Expelled the remaining survivors to the North (Wales) and to the West (Scotland), where there are mountainous areas (Highlands).

UNITED KINGDOM (UK)

Northern Ireland Great Britain

England

Wales

Scotland

The United Kingdom is a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary democracy. The country's head of state is the reigning king or queen. The head of government is the prime minister, who is the leader of the foremost political party in the House of Commons.

ENGLAND: Capital: London

Official language: English

Currency: Sterling Pound

Main Authority: Queen Elizabeth IIEARLY INHABITANTS

The first inhabitants of England were the Homo Sapiens, who followed the retreat of ice before the Glacial Period. England was attached to the continent. That is why the flora and the fauna of England and the continent are similar. Later, ice began to move towards the North of the continent.IBERIAN SETTLEMENT (1)CELTIC SETTLEMENT (2)

Origin

How they invadedThe first invaders of England were the Iberians. They came from the North of Africa to Spain and Portugal an then to England (Mediterranean origin) during the Stone Age and penetrated the land through the south east. The island was easy to invade because of the flat, low coasts, and the presence of navigable rivers. The reason for the temptation to invade was the fertility of the soil, agriculture could be developed there, and the climate was wet, rainy with not so low temperatures. They introduced/entered the bronze ageThe Iberians were invaded by the Celts during the Iron Age. The Celts belonged to different tribal waves (Northern Germany, the Netherlands) of the same tribe. It was easy for the Celts to impose themselves because they were better-armed, they had weapons made of iron and because they were warriors, and the Iberians were not. Another reason was that the Iberians were still in the Bronze Age. The Celts killed the Iberians and pushed the survivors to the North (Scotland) and the West (Wales) and imposed themselves and their language because they were a superior civilisation.

Physical features

Short, dark-haired people, dark-skinned and long headed people. They belonged to many races, not only one. People of the Germanic type: fair-haired, tall, white-skinned, strong, vigorous, blood-thirsty people. They were hostile because they were constantly fighting against each other.

Purpose of the invasionThe purpose was settlemen/migration. They were looking for natural resources, fertile soil, bronze, gold, tin, timber, Settlement, bring their families with them

Areas they settledSouth East of the island. Because it was nearer to the continent. There were low lands and free from forests.South East low lands

Main activitiesHunter(also fishing) at the beginning then devoted themselves to shepherding. They were nomads at first but then settled for agriculture/farming They devoted themselves to shipbuilding. Highly skilled in melting metals (copper and tin).They reached civilisation because they were able to enter a new age: bronze age.Devoted to the arts and crafts. Agriculture was rudimentary; hunting, bee-keeping and fishing were more important. They were seamen, pirates but mainly fighters/warriors, they were fighting all the time. Skilful use of iron.

Social organisationTRIBALISM. They were organised in tribes, clans. They were kindred, since family bonds/links played an important part in their lives. Members of the tribe shared customs and language, and followed the rules of a tribal chief. TRIBALISM, like the Iberians, bond together by ties of kinship, fraternity and love. They developed the compensation system. If a member of a family was killed, the tribe could take revenge or ask for compensation in terms of sheep or oxen. It was a way to keep peace and order. There were 3 main tribes: Brythons, Belgies, Gauls.

Political organisationNoneNone

Territorial organisationNoneNone

Economic organisationThey were country dwellers, so devoted themselves to farming. Some trade may have been carried out through BARTER in ships they built. The wealthy ones owned larger numbers of sheep and oxen.Agriculture and trade were rudimentary.

Skilful at metal work (iron).

ReligionIberians were pagans, heathen people.DRUIDISM, a nature-based religion that consists in the worship of nature. Witchcraft and fear.

SignificanceThe welsh and the Irish inherited some racial features but they were not significant for the development of the BritishCeltic features in Welsh, Irish and Scottish people, because they were pushed westwards and northwards by the anglo saxon.

LegacyThey built the STONEHENGE(the first sign of civilization in the English culture): Although the Iberians are the ancestors of the Welsh, Scottish and Irish -not of the English-, this kind of state cathedral/religious monument is important for the English, for it is associated with the origins of the country.Britain was named after the Celtic tribe Britons.

Influenced English art, esp. painting.

Language: Irish, Scottish Galic, Manx Galic.

Iberians and Celts were not significant in the cultural growth of the English Empire.ROMAN OCCUPATION/CONQUEST AD 43 to AD 410 (3)

PeriodThere were two attempts to conquer the island, this was not settlement! 1st: in 43 AD, during Julius Cesars period, unsuccessful! 2nd: During the 3rd and 4th centuries, it started in the 1st cent during Claudius period. Successful one.

Origin

How they invadedRome, romans! Julius Cesar made two attempts to annex the island but he failed. Yet, in the first century Ani Domini, the Romans under the command of Emperor Claudius occupied the South Eastern part of the island and Wales. Yet, they could not occupy Scotland (north). Romans subdued the Celts but they didnt push or expel them. Thus, the southern east area was highly latinised/ romanised. Romans were respectful of Celtic customs and traditions as long as they did not interfere with their political government and empire expansion. The former immigrants enjoyed a peaceful moment, since a military force protected them from other barbarians (pax romana). In many cases the Romans ruled through Celtic chiefs. Besides, the Celts could profit from being in contact with a more advanced civilisation that was in permanent contact with the continent. Britons were concentrated in a peaceful and civilian area. In Wales, the occupation remained military.

Purpose of the occupationTo govern by right of superior civilization. Occupation, not settlement, theres a military connotation. Expansion of the Roman Empire, annexation of new territories (empires are in constant expansion). Theres no roman migration here, its for the sake of military purposes. The previous inhabitants, the Celts, are not displaced.

Areas occupiedSouth East lands, military occupation in Wales.

Main activitiesExploit the area commercially, construction of roads and walls (for protection from the savages in the North). They built cities, fortresses.

Political/social organizationThe same organization than in the Mediterranean Rome. Hierarchical organization. The Celt chiefs were Latinized, so the Romans could control them, and the chiefs were happy because they kept power and control.

ReligionThey were heathen people. But, they adopted gods and goddesses from the Celtic and other cultures they invaded.

Intention of the occupationTheir aim was mainly military. The Romans were interested in the island because they wanted to enlarge their Empire.

Besides, there was an economic interest since they needed natural resources, which Britain could provide them with.

SignificanceThe completely failed to Latinize Britons. La Pax Romana was a period of peace and civilization in the island. The baths, the city lights. They have no importance in the development of the British culture.

Legacies*The city sites: the cities were destroyed by the anglo Saxons, but the sites close to a river flow or at crossroads remained and were used later on to build the cities again.

*Welsh Christianity: the Celts were pushed away by the Saxons so Christianity developed in Wales.

*City Roads: London emerged as a commercial centre.

a) Significance of the Roman occupation:* FOR THE CELTS:The Roman occupation was significant since it brought changes to the Celtic way of living: Network of roads: They were the only roads built before the Industrial Revolution. Roads played an important role in commerce and also helped to make the occupation permanent.

Strategic position of the roads: All the roads had strategic positions, since they converged in the city of London, near navigable rivers. Trading connections: Commerce begun to develop because of the network of roads.

Pax Romana: The Celts felt protected form possible invasions. The beginning of city life: They built a city where two roads met or where a road met the sea or a navigable river. It was easy for the future invaders to penetrate the island through the roads built by the Romans. This was another sign of civilisation.

Roman customs: Public baths, villas with running water and heating, built in the country.

Language: The troops communicated in Latin, whereas the Celts kept the Celtic

* FOR THE ENGLISH EMPIRE:From the Romans who once ruled England, we, Britons, have inherited practically nothing. (Howerfield) Although Rome OCCUPIED England from AD 43 to AD 440, it was not important for the growth of the English Empire since there was not mingling of ethnicities. b) Important legacies left by the Romans:

ROMAN ROADS: were used until the Industrial Revolution for different reasons:

a) MILITARY REASONS: to make the occupation as permanent and successful as possible. There were fortresses to defend the roads and villas.

b) COMMUNICATION PURPOSES: to have easy access to different parts of the island.

c) TRADING PURPOSES: All the roads converged in Londinean, a port strategically placed. London was re-built where Londinean had been during Roman times.d) FUTURE INVASIONS: the penetration of other civilisations were accelerated and facilitated through Roman roads.

CITY-SITES: Cities were built where two rivers met, or where a river met the sea or another river. AS destroyed Roman cities, but they used the same sites to build their own. Thanks to the Thames and the roads London became the main centre of commerce.

WELSH CHRISTIANITY (315 AD): At times of Emperor Constantine Christianity from the Celtic stream or church was adopted as the official religion (IVth c). However, not everybody was converted into Christianity and some remained pagan. Some other Celts had already adopted Christianity before the year 313 AD due to their proximity to the continent. This happened in the south eastern part of England because of trading activities. Some Celts were killed by the Anglo-Saxons, others were submitted and still others were pushed to the North, where they took their religion. The Celts who were latinized and Christianized by the Romans and later pushed to the West kept Celt Christianity, took it with them and developed it in Wales (thats why its called Welsh Christianity). Later, it was taken to Ireland.WALES and IRELANDIVthSt. Patrick

Dark AgesVthPresence of Barbarians: Anglo-Saxons

SCOTLANDVIthSt. Columba

NORTHUMBRIA and ENGLANDVIIthbuilding of monasteriesSt. Adam

c) Reasons why the Romans failed to Latinise England: The Romans were in England five centuries, from 43 AD to 410 (Ist to Vth century). However, this country is not Latin or Roman, it is an AS country.

Geographic reason: England was distant from the Mediterranean, which was the main centre of trade; she was far from the Roman Empire.

Nature of the new invaders: The barbarians who attacked continental Europe were a bit more civilised than those who invaded England, because they had been in contact with the Roman Empire before. So, instead of imposing their way of life, they adapted themselves to European civilized ways of life. On the other hand, barbarian invaders in England came from the northern part of the continent; therefore, they didnt have the chance to be in contact with civilised ethnicities. Anglo-Saxons were uncivilized and destroyed every trace of civilization because they didnt understand it. The Roman Empire was destroyed. Military aim of the Roman Empire: The Romans were a small group of soldiers distributed in small groups. They could not impose their racial features as they did not bring their families to live there.

Retirement of troops: The Romans were not expelled, but they retire their troops in 410 because they were called by Honorious to defend Rome from Barbarians. The Celts, who became accustomed to being defended by the Romans, forgot about fighting. Thus, it was easy for the AS to subdue the Celts.

Fall of the Roman Empire: Caida de Constantinopla1. Economic reasons. 2. Moral corruption.

The Roman occupation was not ethnically important in the growth of the English culture.THE BEGINNING OF THE ENGLISH CULTURE BEGAN WITH THE ANGLO-SAXON SETTLEMENT. The Nordic conquest of England had larger permanent results than past invasions because it displaced the Celts from the richest agricultural districts in order to settle a wholesome migration. The distinctive character of the modern English is Nordic-tempered.ANGLO SAXON SETTLEMENT (4)

Origin

How they invadedThe Anglo-Saxons came from Northern Germany, Frisia, Juteland and Denmark. They were of Nordic origin. Angles and Saxons came from Denmark and Germany and the Jutes (they were kindred families) came from Juteland, Frisia and Lower Rhine.

ANGLO SAXON invasions could be divided into three periods:

1. IIIth / IVth............... Romans on the Island. ASs attacks and raids, but failed. The anglo Saxons were taken to the island by the Romans to defend the area from barbarians. 2. Vth........................ Actual settlement of the AS wholesale migration.3. VIth. ...................... Westward expansion, new waves of A-S tribes kept on coming to the island. It was necessary to move towards the North and Cornwell.Vth and VIth are called the DARK AGES because of the presence of savages and uncivilised people: the Anglo-Saxons. These two centuries were of splendour in Ireland because civilization developed esp. in the field of art.They came from Northern Germany (if they had been from the South if Germany, England would be a Latin Country, but they were no in contact with Roman Culture), and used the Roman roads to settle along the South Eastern coast (in England only, not Wales as the Romans did). The AS came originally from the shores of the Baltic, and although they belonged to different tribes, they were kindred. They despised civilization so they destroyed the Latin culture, pushed some of the Celts to Wales and Scotland, and imposed their traditions and language to the remaining Celts. The Angles settled in the East; the Saxons in the South; and the Jutes in the Kent and the Isle of Wight. The conquest was achieved in two expeditions:

1. Warriors arrived through the navigable rivers and burnt, chased, and slaughtered the early inhabitants.

2. Families and farmers arrived to the roughly cleared lands and the Roman roads.

Physical featuresPeople from the North of Germany, Germanic: tall, fair-haired, white-skinned, strong, brave. Blood-thirsty warriors, uncivilised, savages.

Aim of the settlementThey settled in England because they were looking for a place to develop their agricultural culture. They were country-dwellers. (Its wrong to call them nomads because wherever they settled they practiced agriculture.)

LanguageThey spoke different Germanic dialects, which constituted the beginnings of Old English. They used to write the runic alphabet only to make inscriptions on swords. They developed oral poetry in which they spoke about their heroes adventures, e.g. Beowulf

ReligionThey worshipped the different Nordic gods whose names embody the origin of the names of the days.

Main activities/ EconomyWarlike people, pirates; seal-hunters, seafarers. Country-dwellers, farmers: OPEN FIELD SYSTEM (there were no fenses, activities were performed in a communal way). Trade didnt play an important role. However, they developed barter for daily products. Most of these communities were self-sufficing since they settled in the south and south-east, where the best grain lands, open pastures existed and the development of channel ports, and shipping was fostered.

Social organisationSOCIAL FEUDALISM. ASs tribalism present in the continent was replaced for social feudalism on the island.

Political organisationNON-TERRITORIAL FEUDALISM.

WITAN

THE OPEN FIELD SYSTEM

It took its name from the fact that at certain periods the arable fields were unfenced. Only during seed-time and harvest was the land protected by temporary enclosures. There were two types of cultivation:

Extensive:

Annually fresh ground was cultivated and after the raising of the crops it was abandoned for other soil.Intensive:

The same land was cultivated every year.

VIRTUES:

In this system the arable land was divided into two or three fields which were divided into strips of lands. After the division, two parts were cultivated and the third part was left fallow to recover the fertility of the soil.

Every member of the community was entitled to acquire strips of lands according to their social position.

The system produced more crops for the same amount of ploughing. A-S harvested mainly wheat (trigo) and barley (cebada).

FLAWS:

Time was wasted in moving from one strip to another.

Trespassing raised quarrels between farmers.

Nobody could manage their land as they wished.

The Open Field System came to an end in the XVIIIth century with the Agrarian Revolution. Enclosures begun in the XVIth C exceptionally, but in the XVIIIth century they became a must because of the introduction of chemicals and machinery to improve agriculture. Most of the strips belonged to the Lord.

Each member of the community was entitled a number of hides according to their social position.

HIDE:

Strip of land

COMMUNIAL WORK: Economically, A-S had a cooperative structure. They worked together and shared the implements of production (tools). Although they worked as a community they had some feeling of individualism, yet it was not as strong as FEUDALISM. AS in EnglandAS on the continent

SOCIAL FIELDFEUDALISM

When AS moved to England, there were many migrating groups that consisted of a tribal chief and men of his tribe or of other tribes. The tribal chief became to be known as the lord, and the tribesmen turned to be followers, retainers, and/or companions.

Three AS social classes:

thanes: /(einz/ WIRGILD: 1200 shillings They were freemen who enjoyed privileges. They constituted the aristocracy composed by tribal chiefs and men who owned land and oxen. They were the warriors that should fight and die for the king. They also had duties at court and obligations to the church.

churls: /tj(rls/ WIRGILD: 200 shillings They were freemen who formed the lower middle class. Their social position begun to deteriorate because of Danish invasions. By that future time churls would feel unprotected and surrender their lands to Lords in exchange of protection in times of the Vikings. slaves: NO WIRGILD (1/2 pigs) Non-free. It was the lowest class made up by ex-Celts and degraded A-S who had committed crimes.

There was social mobility because it was possible for a churl to become a thane after having accumulated five hides of land. TRIBALISM

A clan or tribe was a group of people with the same family name. They had common ancestors and share the same customs, traditions and practices. They were KINDRED, i.e. with strong family ties. This was important to keep peace and order.

POLITICAL FIELD

Man-to-man relationship based on 2 principlesFEUDALISM

Tribal chiefs turned to be Lords on the island. Feudalism implied a personal or man-to-man relationship based on two principles:

1. Loyalty to ones lord: Lords and followers had duties and responsibilities. The follower fought for his Lord, whereas the Lord granted them protection and gifts (weapons, horses, etc.)

2. Duty to ones kin: Each member of the kin was responsible for each members behaviour. The AS developed a compensation system by which a murderer had to pay a price to the Lord depending on the wergild of the killed person. When the two principles collided the loyalty to ones lord became stronger.AUTOCRACY

The tribal chief ruled the clan. It was an Autocratic kingship in which the Monarch had unlimited power as he was believed a descendent of gods.

Monarch

Tribal chief Tribal chief Tribal chief

MANUMISSION OF SLAVES: Practice of setting slaves half-free. This procedure was encouraged by AS women. Slaves could buy their freedom if they could gather the money. A-S WOMEN: Enjoyed a better position than that of early times. They had the right to decide what to do with their properties. Besides, they were in charge of manumitting slaves. STEPS TO POLITICAL UNITY1 STEP: HEPTARCHY: Little by little some tribal chiefs became stronger, they were addressed kings, and kingdoms emerged. During the VIIth, VIIIth, and IXth C seven kingdoms emerged in England: Kent, Wessex, Essex, Jussex, Mercia, Northumbria, and East Anglia. Fighting was constantly present among these kingdoms, and some became more powerful than others. In the IXth C, King Egbert from Wessex was acknowledged as the Bretwalda, i.e. overlord. Thus, he became the first monarch king. He had control over the other kings of the HEPTARCHY. All the kingdoms were unified but still remained differentiated.2 STEP: THE COMING OF CHRISTIANITY: England was converted into Christianity by two streams:The Celtic stream or Welsh Christianity (St. Patrick)The Roman stream or Roman Christianity

In the VIIth C it reached Northumbria. It had a system of organisation based on rural monasteries. Its outlook was ascetic, anti-hierarchical. The Welsh Church was monastic, i.e. it did not want to obey the Pope. It represented the universalistic order of the late empire. The Pope Gregory The Great sent missionaries to England (St. Augustine). Its bishoprics were based on the old city and provincial administration. The Roman Church had a hierarchical organisation starting from the Pope.

Although both were preaching the same dogma, there were differences as regards organization and celebrations, e.g. different dates for Easter. To choose one, the two streams met in the kingdom of Northumbria. King Oswy decided in favour of Roman Christianity at the SINOD of WHITBY in 664 (VIIth c). The reason was that he wanted to keep the links with the continent. The Welsh Church could not develop that because it was separated from the continent.( Significance of the introduction of Roman Christianity in England in A-S times Economically, the links with the Latin Mediterranean civilisation were re-established.

Politically and religiously, churchmen, the only learned ones, became chief advisers of the Crown. Roman ideas, passed from the sphere of the Church to the sphere of the State. Catholic hierarchy became the paradigm for future English political organisation. These novelties constituted the second step towards political unity.3 STEP: DANISH INVASION (Vikings): The country was divided into Daneland and the Saxon area because of the TREATY OF WEDMORE. According to this treaty the Danes retired to the Daneland, which was in the north-east of England, leaving the south under Alfreds domain. After Alfreds death, Edward The Elder re-conquered the Daneland. Again the country was governed by one AS king, but this time he ruled the whole country. So, Edward The Elder was the first monarch of England.4 STEP: NORMAN CONQUEST (French): After the Battle of Hastings (1066) Norman William the Conqueror came to the English Throne and ruled the whole country. Together with the Norman Conquest, the FEUDAL SYSTEM also contributed to the unification of the country. In times of the Normans A-S feudalism was improved into a TERRITORIAL FEUDALISM:

1. Feudalism was the social and political domination of a military and land-owning aristocracy. (Lipson).

2. Agriculture was means of production. It was their main source of wealth, a sign of prestige and social status.

The Normans were gifted for government, administration and law. ( What is the significance of the A-S in the growth of the English culture?

The AS settlement, which took place in the Vth C, meant the beginning of the English culture and civilization. Socially speaking, the A-S became the ancestors of English people, since they kept their Nordic racial traces unmingled. Linguistically, A-S spoke Old English, which constitutes the basis of Middle English and later Modern English. Economically, they introduced the Open Field System to improve agricultural tasks, which was used until the Agrarian Revolution in the XVIIIth C. Politically, they were also significant because administrative institutions are of A-S origin. Their settlement meant the first phase of the Parliament embodied in the Witan. In addition, Edward the Elder became Bretwalda, or first king who embodied Monarchy. In religious matters, the Roman Church was introduced as the official religion of the country. Although it suffered a change in the XVIIth C, when it became Protestant, the English turned to an Anglican Church which is a Christian Church all the same. WITAN

It was the A-S political institution that represented the embryonic phase of what today is called Parliament.

CLASS BODY: It was known as the Kings Council of wise men, which was made up by members of the Church (archbishops, bishops, and some priests) and the Thanes (owners of five strips of land each). Thus, it was a class-body which was not representative of all social sectors.

ADVISORY BODY: The Witan met three times a year and when the monarch needed their advice. Its functions were:

Give advice to the Monarch when asked for.

Appoint (if no successors) & depose (until adoption of Roman stream) kings in case of misgovernment.

Grant lands.

Consent to laws and taxes.

In the process of democratization the Witan from being a class body with advisory functions became representative of all social classes with governing functions.

Class body ------------------------------ Representative bodyAdvisory functions -------------------- Governing functionsDANISH INVASION (5)

Origin/How they invadedThese people came from the Nordic area (Scandinavia, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark) of Europe.They came to the island through the North of Scotland and then, they headed downwards to the North of England to what was the kingdom of Northumbria. From Northumbria they moved to the Midlands and eventually occupied the northern Eastern area of the island. To the North of the Thames, the Danes had territorial control. And when they turned downwards, they destroyed every sign of civilization. Danes had never been in contact with Latin civilization before, so they felt no respect for a forwarded civilization. Moreover, they didnt value the importance of Celtic monasteries as centres of civilization and culture.

Physical featuresRacial stock was not altered. Danes were tall, fair-haired, strong, and well-built. They were similar to the A-S because they also belonged to the Germanic family. There was no displacement of the A-S, so both peoples mingled.

Main activities/ EconomyThey were bloodthirsty warriors who could fight on horses. They devoted themselves to sea-faring activities: trading and pirating.

Aim of the occupationTheir invasion took two steps:1. IXth C: Period of attacks, raids, and robberies in monasteries. It was impossible for the A-S farmers to fight as the Danes were the first ones who fought on horse. However, in the BATTLE of ETHANDUNE, the Danish leader Guthrum signed the Treaty of Wedmore with King Alfred The Great.

2. Xth to XIth C (900/924): Ethelred The Unready could not cope with Danish attacks so he levied a tax: the Danegeld in order to bribe the Danes. Direct taxation began in this way. When Ethelred could no longer bribe the Danes, Sweyn invaded England. Thus, the second Danish invasion involved a period of wholesale migration with families that settled in the North East. They even penetrated France and settled there, naming the area Normandy.

Social organisationThe middle class deteriorated since commendation took place among the churls. This practice implied that the churls surrendered their land to Lords in exchange of protection from Danish invasions. Later, churls as a social strata vanished in times of the Norman Conquest.

Political organisationDanish invasions constituted the third step towards the political unity of the country. As soon as the TREATY OF WEDMORE was signed the country was divided into Daneland (the north-east of England) and the Saxon area (the south, under Alfreds domain). After Alfreds death, Edward The Elder re-conquered the Daneland and became the first king of England. Again the country was governed by one AS king, but this time he ruled the whole country. The Danes became the subjects of the AS king of Wessex. They would surrender without resistance if their traditions were kept and respected.

a. Significance on the Danish invasion:

Socially, the racial stock was not changed because the A-S were not expelled by the Danes. Although they mingled with the A-S, they had racial similarities.

Economically, they introduced the commercial spirit into the English idiosyncrasy, for they were mainly traders. England became mainly commercial.

Politically, they contributed to the achievement of the political unity of the country. They contributed to the legal system; the word law is Danish.

MONARCHS UNTIL THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS:

( AETHELRED THE UNREADY (Xth c) was not able to resist the Danish invasions, so he decided to bribe the Danes with the Danegeld. Eventually, he could not raise the money because the country went overrun/invaded. The monarch had to flee, and a Danish monarch succeeded him.( CANUTE THE GREAT: Danish king of England (101635). After Aethelred died in April 1016, the English Witan (council) elected Canute, king at Southampton. He begun to better the English cultural standard because he became aware that many people was unable to read and write. He adopted Christianity and organized spiritual expeditions.Canute ruled under both Danish and A-S government. For the purpose of administration, the country was divided into EARLDOMS, which at the same time were subdivided into SHIRES and HUNDREDS. EARLDOM:

SHIRESHIRESHIRESHIRESHIRE

HUNDREDShire-moot: Assembly of the estates.Hundred-moot: Assembly of the district ( Witan)

HUNDRED

HUNDRED

Canute gave Englishmen's estates to his Danish followers as rewards. Yet Canute did not rule like a foreign conqueror for long: by 1018 Englishmen were holding earldoms in Wessex and Mercia. The Danish element in his followers steadily decreased; of his three most influential advisers only one was a Dane; the A-S Godwin was appointed Earl. Canute proved an effective ruler who brought internal peace and prosperity to the land. He became a strong supporter and a generous donor to the church, and his journey to Rome was inspired by religious as well as diplomatic motives. He needed English support against external dangers. In England, peace was broken only by Canute's expedition to Scotland in 1027, by which he secured recognition from three of the Scottish kings. English trade profited by Canute's control of the Baltic trade route. On his pilgrimage to Rome, in 1027, he befriended the Holy Roman emperor Conrad II and other princes and met reductions in tolls for English traders and pilgrims.Canute was defeated at the Battle of the Holy River, Sweden. Neither Canute's illegitimate son Harold, who ruled England until 1040, nor his legitimate son Hardecanute, who succeeded to Denmark in 1035 and to England in 1040, inherited his qualities. These kings died childless. Aethelred, in Normandy had two children: Edmund -who died in a battle, and Edward the Confessor, who became Canutes successor by the Witan. Thus, the English reverted to their old royal line in 1042. ( EDWARD THE CONFESSOR: king of England from 1042 to 1066. With the appointment of Edward, the Danish rule came to an end. He was called the Confessor because he devoted himself to religion. Edward was practically Norman by upbringing; he was not used to living in England. He was much concerned with spiritual affairs; he spent many hours in the chapel. When he arrived to England, he was rather shocked at finding that the administration of the church was rather disorganized; the men living in the monasteries were not so learned people, so he started a discipline in the monasteries. One of his main achievements was the building of Westminster Abbey.Nevertheless, for the first 11 years of Edwards reign, the real master of England was GODWINE, Earl of Wessex. Edward married Godwine's daughter Edith in 1045, but by 1049 a breach had occurred between the two men. In 1051 Edward outlawed the Godwine family and dismissed Edith. During this period Edward was rapidly losing popularity by giving foreignersparticularly Normanshigh positions in his government. Hence in 1053 Godwine and his sons were able to gather large forces against the king. They forced Edward to restore their lands, and they exiled many of his foreign favourites. Upon Godwine's death in 1053, his son Harold became the dominant power in the kingdom. ( WILLIAM I THE CONQUEROR: (or The Bastard, or William of Normandy) Duke of Normandy (as William II) from 1035 and king of England from 1066. Edward was married to Williams sister, so by family ties he became the natural successor to the throne. Edward on his deathbed named Harold as his successor even though he allegedly had already promised the crown to William. For breaking the oath, Williams organised an expedition to punish Harold. BATTLE OF HASTINGS: (1066): Williams mission was supported by the members of the French aristocracy and the Pope. To the aristocracy, Williams promised hides; and to the Pope William promised to organize the Church in England. Though the armies were equal in number, the Normans were superior. On the one hand, the Normans were professional fighters, whereas the Anglo-Saxons were only farmers who were amateurs in terms of war. On the other hand, military strategies were also more advanced, for Normans fought on horses, while the English did so on foot. Moreover, William did not attack London directly. There was a minority (from the aristocracy and the clergy) who rebelled against the Normans. William killed Harold at the Battle of Hastings, Sussex, in October 1066, and two months later he ascended the throne. Williams was one of the greatest soldiers and rulers of the Middle Ages. He made himself the mightiest feudal lord in France and then changed the course of England's history by his conquest of that country.THE NORMAN CONQUEST (6)

Origin/How they invadedNormans were people who came from Normandy, a French province. They were people from the Nordic origin esp. from Scandinavia. While the Daneland was inhabited by Danes in England, Normandy was inhabited by Nordic people in France. The Normans invaded the Daneland. As soon as the Nordic invaders occupied the area they immediately adopted Christianity, Latin and French ways.

Aim of the conquestIt was a conquest, so it implied a military enterprise. The Norman aristocracy was in charge of the violent conquest. The conquest is similar to an occupation, yet the former is permanent. The Normans did not alter the racial stock because they didnt displace previous inhabitants. In general the conquest involves the growth of a new culture but this was not the case of the Normans because the English culture and civilization remained Anglo-Saxon.

Main activities/ EconomyThey were highly advanced on military strategies, they built buildings. William built the Tower of London to protect himself. The Normans also built churches, abbeys. They reached a high stage on civilization. They were mainly traders, and they devoted themselves to commerce. The Normans introduced the enterprising spirit into the English idiosyncrasy.

Religious

fieldAlso contributed to the coming of Christianity (hierarchical organization to the country)

Social organisationThe A-S aristocracy disappeared. It was replaced by the Norman aristocracy. Aristocracy: Made up by barons and knights. They were Norman and freemen. In Medieval Society there was NO middle class. Villains: Lower class made up of A-S half-free men. They were bound to toil the soil. They were not allowed to leave the Manor.

Political organisationThe Norman Conquest leaded by William the Conqueror meant the last step to the unity of the country. The FEUDAL SYSTEM also contributed to the unification of the country. In times of the Normans A-S feudalism was improved into a TERRITORIAL FEUDALISM:

Feudalism was the social and political domination of a military and land-owning aristocracy. (Lipson).

Agriculture was means of production. It was their main source of wealth, a sign of prestige and social status. To be a member of the Witan people should be landowners.

The Normans were gifted for government, administration and law. Instead of abolishing A-S administrative institutions, they improved them. For example, the WITAN became the GREAT COUNCIL. Normans also improved an efficient legal system. The most important cases were brought before the shire-moot presided by the sheriff (or shire reeve), who was a representative of the king. Bishops and Earls ceased to preside the courts. The Bishops formed the Ecclesiastical Courts, whereas the Earls constituted the Feudal Courts.

Significance of the Norman Conquest

AdministrativelyThe Witan turned to be called the GREAT COUNCIL (advisory body)Lay people came to be tried by FEUDAL COURTS, instead of ECCLESIASTICAL COURTS.

A-S FEUDALISM was improved into TERRITORIAL FEUDALISM.

SociallyMany of the English thanes had been killed at Hastings. Those who escaped were treated as traitors and those who survived became villains. The deterioration of the churls began with the Danish invasion. With the coming of the Normans, they finally lost all their lands. As a result, there was a very significant change: the disappearance of the middle class. A sharp differentiation between social classes emerged: Aristocracy

Barons: upper-class. Greater tenants-in-chief.Knights: lower-class. Mesne tenants Villains: lower class. Land-less AS thanes and churls. They tilled the soil either for the lord or the tenants-in-chief and mesne.

Culturally Their coming meant the return to the Mediterranean civilisation.

Three languages were spoken:

1. French: aristocracy

2. Latin: Church members, language of learning.

3. English: the lower classes, which were the masses. Middle Eng. Was highly affected by the introduction of Latin words from the French. It also became less inflected.

Many castles and churches were built: The Tower of London. No change in the racial stock as there were only military troops.

WILLIAM I(1066- )William was the duke of Normandy (as William II) from 1035 when he became the Monarch of England. He was one of the greatest soldiers and rulers of the Middle Ages. He made himself the mightiest feudal lord in France and then changed the course of England's history by his conquest of that country. He was afraid of having rebellions in the island, so he resorted to some measures to remain as strong as possible:

MEASURES TAKEN BY WILLIAM TO SECURE HIS THRONE:

ECONOMIC: Land was the sign of wealth and power. Therefore, the king:

Confiscated the lands belonging to the A-S. Kept the richest areas for himself. To weaken the power of the barons he granted them small pieces of land scattered all over the country.

Didnt allow aristocrats to build castles near his own, because they could threaten the king. He only allowed building castles on the coasts of the country for the sake of protection from invasions.

Collected the danegeld as a regular tax to improve his revenue.

Sent to each shire royal commissioners called BAILIFFS to represent the royal authority and control his possessions and used the Doomsday Book to record and control the possessions of barons. SOURCES OF ENGLISH HISTORY

Venerable Bede ( VIIIth/ XIXth C)

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

Domesday Book (in times of William I)

POLITICAL Oath of Salisbury, was an act of loyalty by which barons and knights swore to protect and support the king in first turn, in case of attack. If any baron rebelled against him, the king would get the knights to fight for him.LEGAL Sheriffs. were in charge of SHIRE COURTS. They acted as representatives of the Monarch and were to check that people were ready to fight for the Crown, if necessary.

MANORIAL COURTS were given to barons, who were in charge of minor crimes. At that time money had to be pay by wrongdoers. Thus, it meant money for the Crown.

CHURCH COURTS were given to the clergy to solve religious problems.

FEUDAL SYSTEMEconomically, Feudalism is a system of land tenure according to which land was held in return for services rendered. It was also called Manorial System, since those who tilled the land were grouped in Manors or Guilds. The King was the owner of all the land. He kept the richest part and the rest was granted for military services to his barons.Socially and politically, it was the domination of the military and land-owning aristocracy. This domination was due to the fact that land was the most important means of production and a pillar of economy until the Industrial Revolution. Man-to-man relationship:

king and Barons:

Barons and knights

Villains and Lord (Barons and Knights)

Presence of a powerful aristocracy:

The source of power was land in the political and social fields, sometimes aristocracy was more powerful than the king due to their holding of land. Presence of a weak monarch:Generally due to the presence of a powerful aristocracy. Villains did not know the king. Sharp differentiation of social classes and function.The king, barons, and knights belonged to the upper-class, while the villains, to the lower class. William, the king, granted lands to the barons (grater tenants-in chief), who give in return military services to the king. The barons also granted lands to their knights (mesne-tenants), who also paid military service to the baron and indirectly defended the king. Barons and knights did not possess the land, they just hold it. Villains could work for the king, the barons, or the knights. In return villains were given a few strips of land for cultivation. The villains tilled the soil. They could not leave the manor, and they paid field services. Weak feeling of nationalism:Due to the weak figure of the monarch. Besides the only unifying factor was the Christian Church. Only in the Tudors times, the idea of nation consolidated.

Weak feeling of individualism.Because of their communal way of living. Communal way of living:People felt they belonged to specific groups or communities (manors, guilds, monasteries) and not to the country. This also weakened the feeling of Nationalism.

Presence of a powerful church:

The churchmen were land-holders, the only learned, and those who monopolised education. The only way to study was to enter the church and prepare to become a priest. Members of the church were appointed as counsellors of the king. They advised the Monarch culturally and politically. Their god-centred philosophy prevailed, so they influenced peoples thoughts. People felt members of a Christian community and not of a nation. In this sense, church was a unifying factor. RURAL ENGLAND:DECAY OF FEUDALISM (XIVth XVth C)The central idea, the possession of lands in return for services, was attacked. The BLACK DEATH (1342) affected England in the XIVth C. and nearly half of the population died. The plague brought about shortage of hand-labour. A) THE MANORIAL SYSTEM ATTACKED:

Villains paid labour services to the Lord in exchange of military protection within the Manors. Commutation of services: A great feeling of individualism started among villains because of the Black Death since they became aware of their important position in the economic growth. Therefore, they started to ask for higher wages. Services began to be commuted by money payment. The lord released his non-free tenants from the customary obligation to work on his land. In return villains paid the lord an annual rent, with which the lord hired free-labourers to work in his land. This arrangement was registered in the Memorial Ralls and a copy was given to the villains who were called copy-holders. By the Late middle Ages, villains had already vanished because they became free-labourers. B) THE MAN-TO-MAN RELATIONSHIP ATTACKED:

King granted lands to barons in exchange for military service. Instead of paying military service back, barons paid money, the SCUTAGE, to the king annually. The king rented professional fighters to defend him if necessary. Alienation of the demesne (homeland): Villains became less submissive: Peasants Revolt. The villains demanded higher wages and the commutation of services. As costs increased and the problem was who was to till the soil, the big land-holders had two options in order to raise the scutage for the Lord:1. Subdivide the land and then lease parts. The wealthiest copyholders, were in a position to rent the land, so they became to be known as tenant-farmers, who formed the lower- middle class. The lords, in turn, became squires living on the rent of their lands; thus, they formed the higher middle class. The action of subdividing and leasing lands was referred to as alienation of the demesne.

2. Turn their arable lands into pasture for sheep-raising instead of leasing them. These lords in the future will become great producers of wool. Later, this would pave the way to the emergence of early capitalism because of the growth of trade, especially wool-trade.RURAL SOCIAL STRUCTUREEarly Middle Ages

Aristocracy

Barons (greater tenants-in-chief)Knights (mesne-tenants)Theres no middle class since the Normans conquered.

Lower class

Villains

Factors

Black Death

Commutation of servicesAlienation of the DemesneLate Middle Ages

Aristocracy Squires: members of the gentry. Upper class. (landed gentry)HMCs (ex villeins):

Tenant-farmers: upper- middle class.

Copyholders: lower-middle class.

Lower class

Free labourers: rural-working class.

URBAN ENGLAND:The city takes importance when the growth of trade began. In times of the Late Middle Ages, England was a corporate society organised on the basis of GUILDS. Each Guild had the control of economic activities in the city, i.e. trade. In those times it was not so important and was performed though barter. Money or capital was not important as it is today. The market was limited because it was only local. There was no overseas market. Thus, there were not many needs to satisfy. There was no division of labour. Craftsmen produced the raw material, worked the raw material with their own tools and owned the finished product. Thus, craftsmen performed both handicraft and trade activities. THE RISE OF EARLY CAPITALISM (late XIVth C)

Capitalism: A system of production and trade based on the private ownership of wealth, free buying and selling, and little industrial activity by the government.

The main factors that brought about early capitalism are:

Expansion of the market: (This is the first and most important factor) The Black Death brought about shortage of labourers and demands for higher wages on the part of the villains. The big land-holders had to turn their lands into pasture for sheep-raising. The market expanded from being local or limited to being international since wool trade started with the Netherlands. Growth of trade: This led to the emergence of wool trade with the Netherlands. The market expanded and became international. Capital began to play an important role. It caused the collapse of the Guild System. Division of labour: Since there were more needs to satisfy locally and abroad, the process of production became more complex. It turned impossible to do the activities individually. The division of labour became a must in order to produce at a greater scale. Therefore the division of labour turned to be as follows:

Handicraft activity: CraftsmenMercantile activity: merchants and traders, who were those who were able to accumulate wealth (merchant capital) to buy the raw material. They grew a strong sense of individualism. Merchants and traders were also called middle-men, bourgeoisie or entrepreneurs.DOMESTIC SYSTEM:

Under the Guild System, craftsmen had an advantageous position because they owned the raw material and the final production. Yet, under the Domestic System, they lost such position and became half-dependent since they only crafted the product with their tools, but depended on middle-men (merchants and traders). The middle-men bought the raw material to squires and gave it to craftsmen. Therefore, the latter were neither the owners of the raw material nor the final product. Craftsmen could not fix a price to the product; instead they were paid a WAGE for their services. They, thus, emerged as the waged working-class. The system was called Domestic System because the craftsmen worked at home with their own tools. But they didnt work for a price but for a wage. Position of craftsmen.EARLY MIDDLE AGES

GUILD SYSTEMLATE MIDDLE AGES

DOMESTIC SYSTEM

System of production in a time when trade was unimportant.

Manorial system: workers at Manors, performing both handicraft and trade activities. Limited, local market.

Simple process of production. No division of labour.

Craftsmen were independent:

1. produced their own raw material.

2. fixed the price.

3. worked at home with their own tools of production

4. sold the final product.

Capital wasnt important because it wasnt necessary. System of production which replaced the Guild System when trade grew.

Domestic system: worked at home with their own tools for a wage.

International market.

Complex process of production so a division of labour was necessary to fit the needs of the market:

1. Mercantile function performed by the middle men.

2. Handicraft performed by the craftsmen.

The middlemen (merchants and traders) bought to the squires the raw material and gave it to the craftsmen. Craftsmen became half dependent on the middle-men. They worked for a wage at home with their own tools. Yet, the raw material and the final product belonged to the middle men.

Capital became important as the middlemen performed a mercantile function: the middlemen accumulated wealth to buy raw material, and later fixed the price and sold the final product.

Results of the transition to the Domestic System in the social field: The HMCs emerged as a powerful class. It was made up not only by the knights but also by the bourgeoisie (merchants and traders). They now had money to challenge the aristocracy, who no longer monopolised power.

Emergence of the working or wage-earning class. Deterioration of the economic situation of the craftsmen.

Deterioration of the aristocracy. After the Black Death and the emergence of the HMCs the aristocracy began to decay and finally lost its power in the Tudor period.

URBAN SOCIAL STRUCTUREEARLY MIDDLE AGESLATE MIDDLE AGES

ARISTOCRACY:

# Barons

# Knights

#Clergymen

LOWER CLASS:

# Land- labourers / craftsmen.

ARISTOCRACY

# Lord, barons and clergymen.

HIGHER MIDDLE CLASSES:

# Bourgeoisie

WORKING CLASS:

#Wage-earning class

LOWER CLASS

NORMAN KINGSWilliam I (the Conqueror) (1066- 1087)

RobertWilliam II (Rufus)Henry I (1100-1135)Adela = Stephen (1135- 1154)

William (died)Matilda = Geoffrey Plantagenet (Count of Anjou)

Henry II (of Anjou)(1154- 1189) Eleanor = Simon of Montfort

Richard I (11891199)Jhon Lackland (1199 -1216)Geoffrey (died)

Henry III (1216- 1272)

Edward I (Lawgiver) (1272 1307)Edward II 1307 to 1327_Edward III (1327 1377) Hundred Years' War with France. His son Edward the Black prince died.

Richard II (1377 1412) Edward IIIs grandson

Henry IV (1412- 1422)

Henry V (1422 1461)

Edward IV (1461- 1470) (1471- 1483)

Edward V (1483) two months

Richard III (1483 -1485) Last Yorkish King

E.M.A.L.M.A.

EconomicField Establishment of Feudalism and Manorial System LAND: was main means of production and main source of wealth and power. Agriculture was very important till the Industrial Revolution. Trade took a minor role. Only some barter within Guilds. Rural England: majority of people working for Manors.

Urban England: Few people in small communities. Not important Collapse of Feudalism and Manorial System. Rise of the Domestic System. LAND was still important for sheep-raising.

TRADE emerged in international market Rural England: Early Capitalism: Arable land into pasture for sheep-raising.

Urban England: Early Capitalism: Growth of trade. Cities developed.

Social

Field Clear-cut differentiation:

ARISTOCRACY:

# Barons

# Knights

#Clergymen

VILLAINS

# Land- labourers/ craftsmen Rural England:

HIGHER MIDDLE CLASSES:

# Squires (gentry)LOWER MIDDLE CLASSES:

# Tenant- farmers

# Copy holders

LOWER CLASS:

# Free labourers Urban England:

HIGHER MIDDLE CLASSES:

# Bourgeoisie

WORKING CLASS:

#Wage-earning class

LOWER CLASS

Political

Field Great Council: Advisory body composed by members of the aristocracy (barons), the church, and gilds.

Monarch: Weak figure in the rest of Europe. William the Conqueror enjoyed a better image, but people still rendered service to the aristocracy, so the king was not so strong. Nationalism is weak, too.

Corporate Society: Weak feeling of individualism.

Model Parliament: Still, advisory body, but acquired new functions. It became more representative of Higher-middle classes (merchants and traders) Monarch: Gained power after the 100s War. The feeling of nationalism was stronger.

Individualism: With early capitalism individual interests were raised. The power of nobility was checked by the monarch and the higher middle classes.

MEASURES TO CONTROL THE POWER OF NOBILITY

The power of the nobility began to be challenged:

from below by the middle classes from above by the king/ monarch William I: allowed barons to establish private courts (Baronial Courts) to deal with offences committed in their territories. So, barons acquired power. Instead, Henry I: increased the power of the sheriffs to control the nobility. All important cases should be brought against the sheriffs and not against the Baronial Courts.

Henry II tried to apply a legal system valid for all classes. So, he appointed royal officials (itinerant judges) who were mainly cleric experts in law and finance. The Curia Regis was a permanent small circle of advisors made up of churchmen who travelled around the country in pairs to:

Preside different courts and solve disputes between barons. Check their power.

Edward I: the law giver He checked the power of nobility by passing laws:

Statute of Gloucester or Quo Warranto (1278). The Monarch had the right to send officials to inquire the barons to know whether they had warrants granted by the king to sit in the Baronial Court. If they did not have warrants, the Baronial Courts would be abolished.

Statute of Quia Emptores (1290): When a lord divided a sold part of his land, the buyer should pay feudal service to the sellers overlord, i.e. the Monarch.GROWTH OF DEMOCRACY

Democracy: is the government of the people, for the people and by the people. All the social sectors are represented in government.

This involves the process through which Parliament turned from a class-body with limited political power into a representative governing assembly. It started during the A-S period (Middle Ages) and did not reach its final stage until the 20th century with womens franchising.

EMAANTECEDENTSA-Saxon

TimesINSTITUTIONORIGIN MEMBERSFUNCTIONSMEETINGS

A-S WITANThe Witan was created after the consolidation of the different kingdoms into one, the witanagemot It was a class body:

Only upper classes were represented.

* Wisemen: thanes and members of the Church. It didnt make laws nor raise taxes. Its was only an advisory and consulting body.Met three times a year.

LMANorman

Times

GREAT COUNCIL(Curia Regis)The Witan grew into the Great Council with William I.It was a class body:

Only upper classes were represented since land tenure resulted in being represented.

* Tenants-in-chief: barons, earls, and bishops, and abbots. All were granted land directly from the king.It assisted the king in Norman times. It performed the same advisory and consulting functions as the Witan.Met three times a year.

Henry ITHE CHARTER OF LIBERTIES It is the earliest written document given to the nation as a guarantee of good government. In the year 1100, it was issued by Henry I and it guaranteed the rights of

The church.

Owners and landowners against taxation demanded by the crown.

All the classes to the protection of the Old English customs and laws.

1 STEPJohn

Lackland GREAT CHARTER/ MAGNA CARTA: The MAGNA CARTA or GREAT CHARTER was signed by John Lackland in the year 1215. He was forced to sign because the Barons rebelled against his taxation abuses. John had lost all the possessions in the continent, so he began to impose heavy taxes. The most affected ones were the barons because they were the ones who possessed more land. Barons were supported by common people because the king was not loved.

The Magna Carta was a restatement of the Charter of Liberties, but fuller and stronger in its provisions. Its 63 clauses protected mainly the rights of the barons. It affected the function of the Great Council:12 clause: The king couldnt levy taxes without the consent of the Common Council of the Realm. The principle was no taxation without representation.

39 clause: No free man (baron) could be imprisoned or punished unless by the lawful judgement of his peers, or by the law of the land. This clause developed in the trial by jury and equality of all before the law.

National CouncilHigher classes: barons, earls, and churchmen

With the sign of the Magna Carta, the Council acquired the control over taxation. Indirectly, it acquired the control of war and peace.

ParliamentHenry III Henry was not liked by the nobility because he started granting titles of nobility to his wifes relatives, who were from French origin.

In the year 1258, the barons led by Simon of Monfort forced the king to sign the Provisions of Oxford by which the monarch lost most of his power

SIMON OF MONFORTS PARLIAMENT (1264-5):. A few years later, Monfort defeated Henry III and summoned a parliament in the year 1265. For the first time the word parliament was used. This is the starting point from which the modern parliament with a House of Commons and a House of Lords developed.Capital began to be important to be a member.

Higher classes: barons, earls, and churchmen

Higher middle classes who supported Monfort: two knights from some shires, two citizens from some cities and two merchants and traders from some boroughs. This affected the structure of Parliament. It became more representative, but not totally because only the aristocracy and the higher middle classes were represented.Advisory and consulting body.

* Control over taxation.

* Indirect control over war and peace.

Edward IEDWARD I defeated Simon of Monfort and brought about his death. Edward I The Law Giver was the first monarch who checked the power of the aristocracy. He governed a glorious period . However, he began to have some problems with Scotland and lost popularity.

EDWARD Is MODEL PARLIAMENT (1295):Scottish nobility had to pay for the lands they held in their country. Thus, they rebelled and forced Edward to summon his Model Parliament. .*House of Lords: barons, earls, and churchmen.

* House of Commons: 2 knights, 2 citizens, and 2 burgesses. The difference with the previous parliament is that he summoned all the shires, cities and boroughs.

This structure was taken as a model for future times.It had limited power and was not much consulted on state affairs. It could not make laws.

* Petitioned the king

* Had some control over taxation.

TUDORSNational Monarchy

Parliament was still an advisory body. It had some control over finance and had a good relationship with the monarch based on a community of interests against the Church. Both the Monarch and the MPs checked the power of the Church.

STUARTSStruggle between Parliament and the Crown because of differences in political ideas upheld by both of them.

James IPEACHAN CASE: Peachan, of the House of Common, complained against benevolences. SUPREMACY OF LAW & INDEPENDENCE OF JUDGES.

Charles IPETITION OF RIGHTSELLIOTS RESOLUTIONSJOHN HAMPTEM: Second case of the supremacy of the Law.

LONG PARLIAMENT:

GRAND REMONSTRANCE:

Charles IIRESTORATION: RESTORATION OF KING; PARLIAMENT (AND CHURCH OF ENGLAND):

DECLARATION OF BREDA: The King would be in charge of foreign affairs and the Parliament of internal matters.

TREATY OF DOVER: Beginning of political parties: Court Party and Country Party

James IIGLORIOUS REVOLUTION: Achievement of Constitutional Monarchy

DECLARATION OF RIGHTS ( BILL OF RIGHTS

HANOVERSWilliam IIIMODERN CABINET: Prime Minister and Parliament.

Victoria1919: Women were given the right to franchise.

HOW MONARCHS CHECKED THE POWER OF THE CHURCH IN THE MA.

WILLIAM I: The Monarch demanded that landowners, included the Pope, should pay HOMAGE to the Crown. On the other hand, the Pope demanded that the Monarch should pay HOMAGE to the Church as a representative of God on Earth. The solution was that Pope Gregory VII, knowing Williams character did not press the Monarch to pay homage to him.William granted the Church with the privilege of having the CHURCH COURTS. This act was called the Benefit of the Clergy because all members of the church could be tried there. Besides, common people also benefited from these courts.WILLIAM II: Was very different from his father because he was not very religious. Therefore, he started keeping revenues for himself and did not pay the Church. The Monarch resorted to many malpractices to raise money. Then, he fell severely ill and, after he recovered, he promised to make up for what he had done. Thus, he appointed ANSELM as the Archbishop of Canterbury. Anselm asked the Monarch to pay the money he had gained wrongly back to the church. There were certain problems, so the Anselm had to leave. No archbishop was appointed. HENRY I: He was central in the struggle against the Pope. He stated that the members of the church were supposed to pay for the lands they possessed. In addition, the struggle between the Crown and the Pope was about who had the power to appoint bishops and archbishops. The Pope demanded to have the power to do so, and so did the Monarch. Also, there was an investiture contest, since it was not certain who was to invest prelates with the symbols of office (the ring and the crosier). The problems went on and a sort of compromised was reached: - Members of the church were to pay feudal homage as land-owners.

- The Monarch kept the right to appoint members of the church.

- The Pope kept the right to invest with the symbols of office.

HENRY II: When Anselm died, THOMAS BECKET was appointed Archbishop of Canterbury. He no longer supported the Monarch and started to claim the Churchs rights. Henry II summoned all the clergy and issued the CONSTITUTION OF CLARENDON. This constitution stated that if a member of the clergy was found guilty in the Church courts, he must be degraded from his orders and then be brought before ordinary courts and no appeals could be made to Rome without the kings consent.JOHN LACKLAND: He wanted to appoint one of his favourites as Archbishop, yet the Pope was against his decision because he thought that the Monarchs duty was not to appoint Archbishops. The Pope appointed Stephen Langton as Archbishop but he was not allowed to enter England, thus the Pope declared England under INTERDICT, i.e. all religious services came to an end. English people were left adrift in religious matters. Then, John recognised the Pope as Supreme Overlord, so the Church gained the battle again.The Church remained powerful throughout the EMA. However, it lost prestige during the LMA. Therefore, the Church had less power.EDWARD I: Statue passed to attack the economic position of the church. (anticlericalism)a. Statue of Mortmain: It limited the power of the English Clergy to acquire further property from laymen by prohibiting the granting of lands to the Church except with the expressed permission of the King.

EDWARD III: Two statues were passed to limit the power of the Pope over the English Church. (antipapalism)1. Statue of Provisors: (1351) It forbade the sending of English revenue to the Pope.

2. Statue of Praemunire: (1353) It stated that it was illegal to appeal to a Roman Court when the decisions were taken by the English church court. It also forbade the entrance of Papal Bulls to the country without the Kings permission.

POSITION OF THE CHURCH

E.M.A.L.M.A.

Economically powerful because churchmen were landholders. Land was an important source of wealth.

Politically influential because they had seats in Parliament as land-owners. Besides, as they were the only learned people, they were appointed as the kings advisors.

Socially and morally powerful as they set up the values and patterns of behaviour according to their god-centred philosophy.

Culturally authoritative since they had the monopoly of education in monasteries. To get education men should become clergy men. The power of the church began to deteriorate but they didnt lose power completely.

Middle classes checked its power because:

a) They developed a critical attitude towards the Churchs corruptive ways of raising money.

b) People were becoming educated since they could have study without becoming priests.

DETERIORATION OF THE PRESTIGE OF THE CHURCH IN THE L.M.A.1. FACTORS OUTSIDE THE CHURCH

PHILOSOPHICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF THE LATE MIDDLE AGES: The God-centred philosophy was replaced by the man-centred philosophy. Humanism and Renaissance. THE 100 YEARS WAR: A war between England and France in times of Edward III (XIVth c). France was said to have supported the Scots, who wanted to become free from the English. England obtained the victory over France, and this reinforced the feeling of nationalism

THE BABILONISH CAPTIVITY: It meant the transference of the Pope to Avignon. A French Pope had been elected, so the king of France advocated that he should live in Avignon and not in Rome. As a result, the English considered the Pope an allied to the French. Thus, sending part of the revenue to the Pope would be sending money to their enemies.

THE STATUTE OF MORTMAIN (Edward I) It forbade the granting of land to the church without the expressed approval of the monarch. This attacked the economic position of the church. THE RISE OF THE LAY CULTURE: In the XIVth and XVth c., the Church has lost the monopoly in education due to the introduction of the printing press. Education, then, ceased to be the only way to acquire wealth and prestige. Many laymen were well-educated and start thinking critically, so they were in a position to oppose the church. The emergence of capitalism also contributed to the power of the laymen over the clergy.2.FACTORS WITHIN THE CHURCH THE WORLDLINESS AND GREED OF THE CHURCH: many bishops were too much concerned with the administration of the State and began to disregard spiritual functions. Monks left their monastic rules and became accustomed to the lifestyle of the lay society. Friars were criticised as they had forgotten their principles of poverty, chastity, and obedience.

PLURALISM AND ABSENTEEISM. Pluralism meant having two or more official posts, while absenteeism accounted for not having time to devote to spiritual affairs. Both were considered malpractices within the Church.

LACK OF VOCATION AND PREPARATION OF THE LOWER RANKS OF THE CLERGY. Due mainly to the Black Death many priests died. So they were replaced by men without education.

JOHN WYCLIFF and the LOLLARD MOVEMENT: This religious movement was against the power, wealth and privileges of the church. Wycliff argued that:

a) Priests should get back to the life of poverty.

b) The Bible was the only authentic rule of faith, thus it should be translated into the vernacular language.

c) The theory of the transubstantiation was just a Catholic dogma and not a Christian one.

Wycliff was a member of the church who worked at Oxford. Llolards were persecuted in times of Henry IVth, VIth, and the VIIth. Yet, in times of Henry VIIIth they rise with Protestantism. The LLOLARDY became an important antecedent of the Reformation.

All these factors inside and outside the Church led to two feelings: Feeling of anticlericalism: (social connotation) It was the reaction of the laymen against the malpractices and greediness of the members of the church. The lay culture was against :

Absenteeism. Pluralism. All the factors within the church. FEELING OF ANTIPAPALISM (political connotation) It was the reaction on the part of the HMCs against the church mainly due to the political and economical power of the pope. The factors that contributed to this feeling were:

The 100 Years War:

The Babilonish Captivity: In the late Middle Ages, social, political, economic, and moral motives worked together and produced a world in which the church was seriously questioned. However, the hostility against the church was not strong enough to break down into a conflict.DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION1- AIMS OF EDUCATION IN THE M.A.:

Elementary education: Nunneries and Song Schools were attached to Cathedrals, Parish Churches. Children were instructed in faith there. Elementary schools provided the academic education to enter Grammar Schools. In Grammar Schools learning was based in oral repetition and rote memory. Its main subjects were Grammar, Latin and Composition. These teachings were permeated with dialectics partly because books were scarce and expensive. Grammar Schools were designed as pathways to university studies, where Theology was the highest aim. The main universities at the time were the University of Paris and Bologna. Language was not a problem because Latin was the language of instruction at Grammar Schools. Many educational institutions were still directed by the church and had ecclesiastical aims. Chantries became extremely popular, and Chantry Priests, who had a lot of spare time, devoted their time into teaching poor boys. Change in educational aims: In the L.M.A., the church partly lost control over education. Previously its aim was merely the training of future priests thought the study of Theology, Metaphysics, Cannon and Philosophy. Due to the rise of capitalism many skills were needed to cope with the trade. This constituted the emergence of schools founded by gilds and merchants and traders. Its purpose was technical training. Thus, lay societies fostered lay/ secular education. The secularisation of education as such was completed in the Tudor Period (16th c) because in L.M.A. Latin was still the language of learning.

Grammar schoolTechnical school

Aim: Academic level to enter university.Aim: training in crafts and trades.

2- SIGNIFICANCE OF THE INTRODUCTION OF THE PRINTING PRESS:

Learning could be at the reach of everyone.

Books were vast and cheap.

Translations to the vernacular spread rapidly.

E.M.AL.M.A.

Latin: learning Latin: learning

French: court and nobility

English: common peopleEnglish: Official language (1362)

3- FOUNDATION OF UNIVERSITIES: The first English university was founded under the reign of Henry II:a. Oxford: 1264 - 1274.

b. Cambridge: also 13th C.

By the end of the 13th century these universities became established institutions, i.e. well-organised:

# Timetables

# College organization# Registration of students

# Beginning of Tutorial System.# Living on holds under control of master.TUDOR PERIOD

(XVIth century- beginnings of Modern Age)Dates associated with the beginning of the Modern Age:

1492 .............. Discovery of America1453 .............. Fall of Constantinople due to the Turks.

1485 ..............England: A new dynasty came to the throne: The Tudor Dynasty. They supported the theory of the Divine Hereditary Right of the Monarch but they didnt express it openly.

1. HENRY VII (1485- 1509). First Tudor Monarch.

2. HENRY VIII (1509- 1547)3. EDWARD VI (1547- 1553)4. MARY TUDOR. (1553- 1558) First Queen of England.

5. ELIZABETH I (1558- 1605) 45 years of English splendour. Leading sea country up to the First World War.

The XVIth C: Marks THE EMERGENCE OF ENGLAND AS: CAPITALIST: Early capitalism consolidated in the Tudor Period with the expansion of the market, the growth of trade and the consolidation of the higher middle classes. In the Early M.A. agriculture was the most important economic activity. In the Late M.A. trade emerged as the most important activity, but agriculture was still the pillar of the English economy. In the Tudor Period, trade grew considerably due to the opening of new sea-routes, which led to the expansion of the market. IMPERIALIST: England performed her first attempts to set a colony in North America with John Raleigh. SEA-FEARING: The Royal Navy was created and England defied the Spanish monopoly of America. She began to trade with the New Continent becoming one of the leading countries in the world. New sea-routes were discovered by Columbus and Vasco Da Gamma. This led to the growth of trade as an important activity, which led to the expansion of the market. Englands relation with the sea began to be active and acquisitive. PROTESTANT: The Church of England was set up by Queen Elizabeth. MIDDLE-CLASS COUNTRY: The higher middle classes: merchants and traders consolidated in this period. When monasteries were confiscated, lands were bought by merchants and traders. Meanwhile the power of nobility was checked by government.ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL PANORAMA AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 16TH CENTURY.

THE BLACK DEATH: was also an important factor in the decay of Feudalism. It was a pestilence that affected England in the 14th century. CONSEQUENCES1. UPON THE POPULATION: Nearly half of the English people died, especially villeins. Once villeins became aware of the degradation of servitude, they became less submissive and took part in the PEASANTS REVOLT, which was the first great struggle between those owing capital and those performing labour.

2. UPON THE ECONOMY OF THE COUNTRY: this brought about the shortage of the labour force. Villeins realized they were for the country, so a group started demanding higher wages and another required the commutation of services. THE GROWTH OF POPULATION AT THE BEGINNING OF THE 16TH C: By the year 1485 (15th c.), Englands population begun to increase due to internal peace and order because the 100s War and the War of the Roses had come to an end. Then, it was necessary to produce crops and to satisfy the needs of a growing population. VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY It is of great importance that with the Discovery of America, England started trading with America, Asia and Africa. Moreover, after the defeat of the Spanish Armada, England acquired the monopoly of international trade and the command of the seas. Thus, Colonies would be the providers of cheap raw material to the mother country.

EXPANSION OF THE MARKET: Meanwhile and due to the market expansion, there was a growth trading activity with the Netherlands. Wool trade became the main source or wealth in the international sphere. This increasing demand of wool caused an acceleration of pasture farming. OPEN FIELDS were swept away and enclosed. The main purpose of ENCLOSURES was the conversion of arable land into pastures for sheep-raising. Two consequences arose from enclosures:

Depopulation of villages

Farmers divorce from land.

THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE TWO FORMS OF LAND UTILIZATION: Characteristic of the Tudor period.

Thus, a struggle arose between the two forms of land utilizations. Two groups reflected the conflict: BIG LANDOWNERS (squires) wanted to devote land to sheep-raising because they were concerned with trading, whereas TENANT FARMERS wanted to devote their land to farming/ agriculture. The customary system of tillage began to break down with the spread of enclosures and profit-making husbandry.OUTCOME: To put an end to the struggle, the Monarch decided to stop wool export because of:a. The progressing growth of population.

b. The high prices of wheat and corn.

c. Shortage of supplies from abroad due to the War with France

Therefore, the export of raw wool was stopped and it was kept to fulfil the needs of population.

15th c.

Decline of wool trade.

17th c. Low significance of wool industry because other industries emerged: coal, glass, cotton, ship-building).PHILOSOPHICAL PANORAMA OF THE MODERN AGES: HUMANISM: It was the philosophy of the RENAISSANCE. It puts emphasis on man and his abilities. Its a man-centred philosophy. (XVIIth c.) RENAISSANCE was an artistic revival of the classics (Greek and Latin). Anew vision of man: adventurous, versatile, intelligent, independent. It led to a strong desire for knowledge and the Age of Secularisation. INDIVIDUALISM: became stronger. People were no longer guided by the ideas of the church. It was an individual freedom. BEGINNINGS OF EARLY LIBERALISM. Philosophical doctrine which has individualism as its pillar. NATIONALISM: It consolidated since the early modern states emerged. Besides England defeated the Spanish Armada to foster international trade.ATTEMPTS AT OPENING NEW SEA ROUTES(THE NORTH-EAST AND THE NORTH-WEST)i- THE UNOFFICIAL WAR WITH SPAIN:

At the beginning, England was too much concerned with religious issues and wasnt interested in the voyages. The Spanish were discovering and opening new routes. When Elizabeth came to the throne, the religious problems were settled from the time being. Now England was ready to participate in international trade and overseas adventures. Spain had the monopoly of trade and sea routes and this is the period when England began to be in conflict with Spain.

a) John HAWKINGS: a wealthy English merchant, realised that the king of Spain could not prevent him from trading with the settlements in Central America. He sailed to Africa and exchanged goods for Negroes, and then he took them to America and sold them as slaves to the Spaniards at a high price. When King Philip of Spain heard about this private enterprise he attacked Hawkings in his third voyage. The merchant managed to escape. H., then, asked Queen Elizabeth to obtain redress from Spain, but she did nothing because she wanted to keep in good terms with King Philip. b) Francis DRAKE: A friend of H., started to attack and rob Spanish ships. So, the king of Spain told him that he would be hung. This time Queen Elizabeth realised that a war was inevitable and that she would need men such as Drake, so she knighted him in her ships. From now on his voyages were no longer private enterprises but they had the authority of the Queen. This showed the support of the Queen to acts of piracy, so many merchants and traders began to attack and raid Spanish ships. The English found another form of hitting Spaniards to get profit. The English Channel was the hideaway between Spain and the Netherlands, so ships laden with goods and treasures passed trough it. The English, then, would capture Spanish vessels and divide up the lot. When King Philip realized that Elizabeth wouldnt do anything to stop these practices, he declared war on England.

ii- THE DEFEAT OF THE SPANISH ARMADA

King Philip had already begun to prepare for his conquest of England. Many soldiers were trained in Spain and the whole of Philips naval force was concentrated to transport them. Englands only chance of resisting this attack was to prevent the Spanish from landing. Finally, the Spanish Armada was defeated when trying to anchor at night in Calais. English hammered them unmercifully. Spaniards then flew away to the North Sea.

CONSEQUENCES of the Attempts at Opening New Sea Routes: Leading sea power country: England acquired the control of the sea and spread colonies in America, Asia and Africa.

Expansion of the market. She became active and acquisitive, for she began to participate actively in international trade and acquired new territories.

Mercantilism: The changes were so quick that the whole economic structure was about to collapse. The government, then, adopted this new economic policy based on self-sufficiency.

Feeling of nationalism increased, and also the image of a powerful Queen who represented the whole country. This sense fostered poetry and music. Also, play- going took part among the humbler classes.

Protestantism: People began to feel affection and devotion for the Church of England simply because it was a National church. Thus, Protestantism became stronger. If the Spanish Armada had w