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WOOD ANATOMY

INSTRUCTIONS FOR LABORATORY

WORK

K ATARINA ČUFAR, MARTIN ZUPANČIČ

University of Ljubljana

Biotechnical FacultyDepartment of Wood Science and Technology


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PublisherDepartment of Wood Science and Technology, Biotechnical Faculty, Rožna dolina, Cesta VIII/34,

Ljubljana, Slovenia

The publishing of “Wood Anatomy - Instructions for Laboratory Work”, a textbook by Katarina Čufar and Martin

Zupančič, intended to be used for courses in “Wood Anatomy” and “Wood Structure” (university study programmeWood Science and Technology, higher professional study Technologies of Wood and Fibre Composites, university

and higher professional study programmes of Forestry and Renewable Forest Resources), is based on the decisionof the Dean of the Biotechnical Faculty Prof. Dr. Franc Štampar, dated 15 June 2009

CIP – Kataložni zapis o publikaciji Narodna in Univerzitetna knjižnica, Ljubljana

674.03(075.8)(076)630*81(075.8)(076)

ČUFAR, Katarina

Wood Anatomy - Instructions for Laboratory Work [text, illustrations and photos] Katarina Čufar, MartinZupančič; [translation Katarina Čufar, Maks Merela] – Ljubljana: Department of Wood Science and Technology,Biotechnical Faculty, 2009

ISBN 978-961-6144-27-81. Zupančič, Martin,1962-245920256

WOOD ANATOMY - INSTRUCTIONS FOR LABORATORY WORK

Authors

Katarina ČUFAR, Martin ZUPANČIČ

ReviewerProf. Dr. Željko Gorišek

EditorKatarina Čufar

Cover pageMartin Zupančič, Luka Krže

TranslationKatarina Čufar, Maks Merela

English language editingMartin Cregeen

Cover page photoCross section of a pine stem by Martin Zupančič

PrintTiskarna Pleško d.o.o. Printed 2009Barletova cesta 4 100 copies1115 Medvode


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UDK: 674.03(075.8)(076) GDK:630*81(075.8)(076) ISBN-978-961-6144-27-8

WOOD ANATOMYINSTRUCTIONS FOR LABORATORY

WORK

K ATARINA ČUFAR, MARTIN ZUPANČIČ

University of Ljubljana Biotechnical Faculty

Department of Wood Science and Technology

Ljubljana2009


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CONTENTS

CONTENTS........................................................................................................................................ 4Introduction and acknowledgements................................................................................................... 5The objectives ..................................................................................................................................... 5Exercise 1. The microscope ................................................................................................................ 9Exercise 2. Three-Dimensional Structure of Wood .......................................................................... 12Exercise 3. Microscopic structure of Scotch pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.)............................................ 15Exercise 4. Dichotomous microscopic key for identification of European softwoods ..................... 20Exercise 5. Cells in the wood of silver fir ( Abies alba Mill.) and beech ( Fagus sylvatica L.)......... 26Exercise 6. The microscopic structure of beech ( Fagus sylvatica L.) wood .................................... 27Exercise 7. The microscopic structure of oak (Quercus sp.) wood................................................... 30

Exercise 8. The microscopic structure of ash ( Fraxinus excelsior L.) wood.................................... 33Exercise 9. The wood of Albizia adianthifolia from tropical Central Africa.................................... 35Exercise 10. The wood of Manilkara fouilloyana from tropical Central Africa............................... 38Exercise 11. Combination keys for microscopic identification of hardwoods ................................. 40Exercise 12. European hardwoods .................................................................................................... 42Exercise 13. Tissue of young tree stems ........................................................................................... 48Exercise 14. Cambium, cambial zone............................................................................................... 50Exercise 15. The bark of fir ( Abies alba Mill.) ................................................................................. 51Exercise 16. The bark of lime (Tilia sp.)........................................................................................... 53Exercise 17. The bark of beech ( Fagus sylvatica L.)........................................................................ 55Exercise 18. The anatomy of compression and tension wood .......................................................... 58

Exercise 19. Inorganic inclusions in wood and bark......................................................................... 60Exercise 20. Macroscopic identification of European softwoods ..................................................... 62Exercise 21. Macroscopic determination of European diffuse-porous hardwood ............................ 64Exercise 22. Macroscopic determination of European semi-ring-porous hardwoods ...................... 67Exercise 23. Macroscopic determination of European ring-porous hardwoods ............................... 68Exercise 24. Special structures in wood............................................................................................ 70Exercise 25. Wood defects ................................................................................................................ 73Appendix 1. Hardwood identification - list of characters ................................................................ 79Appendix 2. INTKEY (Richter and Dallwitz 2002) ......................................................................... 87Literature: .......................................................................................................................................... 97


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Katarina Č ufar, Martin Zupanč ič , Wood Anatomy - Instructions for Laboratory Work 6

observed in different conifer woods. In the first step, students should learn how to use thedichotomous identification key. First, read the first line of question (1). If the answer is positive,go to question (2), if the answer is negative, read the second statement of question (1). A

positive answer to this statement leads to question (6). The procedure is repeated until the woodspecies is finally identified. The completed table gives an overview of features characteristic of

important central European softwood species. Exercise 20 is similar, but the work there is basedon macroscopic features.

Exercise 5. Cells in the wood of silver fir ( Abies alba Mill.) and beech ( Fagus sylvatica L.). Formaceration of wood, we prepare particles of wood and treat them with chemicals (e.g., amixture of hydrogen peroxide and acetic acid). The chemicals dissolve the middle lamellae, andthe wood tissue is then decomposed into individual cells. Exercises 3 and 4 dealt with cells ofconifer woods. We must review which cells can be found in silver fir wood, then try to findthese cells on the microscopic slide. While drawing the cells, attention should be paid to theforms and dimensions of the individual cells. The dimensions can be estimated with help of thenotes made in exercise 1. Cells that can be found in beech wood are listed in this exercise. The

cells of both species should be drawn under the same magnification.Exercise 6. The microscopic structure of beech ( Fagus sylvatica L.) wood. Beech is consideredto be an evolutionary primitive hardwood (dicotyledonous wood species). The cells of the woodare listed. The aim of the exercise is to observe the wood in cross, radial and tangential section,write the remarks and the required descriptions of the images and answer the questions.

Exercise 7. The microscopic structure of oak (Quercus sp.) wood. The wood of European oaks,durmast and sessile oak (Quercus robur, Quercus petraea), is ring porous and evolutionarilymore developed than beech wood. The cells in the wood are listed. The aim of the exercise is toobserve the wood in cross, radial and tangential section, write the remarks and the requireddescriptions of the images and answer the questions. Students should pay attention to the Latin

name of the observed wood species. Durmast and sessile oak cannot be exactly differentiated bytheir wood structure.

Exercise 8. The microscopic structure of ash ( Fraxinus excelsior L.) wood. Ash wood is ring porous and evolutionarily highly developed and specialized. The cells in the wood are listed.The aim of the exercise is to observe the wood in cross, radial and tangential section, write theremarks and descriptions of the images and answer the questions.

Exercise 9. The wood of Albizia adianthifolia from tropical Central Africa. The wood of thisspecies is evolutionarily highly developed and specialized. It was selected because it has vesselswith very large diameters, paratracheal axial parenchyma, septate fibres, gum deposits in thevessels, rhomboidal crystals in the chambered cells, and non-distinct growth ring boundaries.

Many of these features are rare in the wood of European species. The wood has a similardensity as the wood of European black alder ( Alnus glutinosa). The aim of the exercise is toobserve the wood in cross, radial and tangential section, write the remarks and descriptions ofthe images and answer the questions.

Exercise 10. The wood of Manilkara fouilloyana from tropical Central Africa. The density ofthe wood often exceeds 1000 kg/m3. None of the commercial Central European wood specieshas such a high density. The heartwood is dark brown to red-brown. The aim of the exercise isto observe the wood in cross, radial and tangential section, write the remarks and descriptions ofthe images and answer the questions.

Exercise 11. The combination keys for microscopic identification of hardwoods. The aim of the

exercise is to use one of the microscopic keys for hardwood identification, such as Brazier andFranklin (1961) (Appendix 1), the IAWA list of microscopic features for hardwood


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Exercise 2. Three-Dimensional Structure of Wood

Observe the samples of softwood, and diffuse-porous and ring-porous hardwood. Find annualrings (syn. tree-rings, growth rings) and tree-ring boundaries, early- and late-wood, rays, resin

canals and vessels. On the picture below mark cross (C), radial (R) and tangential (T) sectionsand mark how you should cut the sample to obtain an oriented cube of wood.


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In the blank squares below draw the features that can be seen on C, R and T planes of the cubeof a softwood, and semi-porous and ring-porous hardwood. The sample must be oriented. The

pictures of three-dimensional structure of a hardwood and softwood below can help you.

Wood of fir Wood of beech

Softwood


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Exercise 3. Microscopic structure of Scotch pine ( Pinus sylvestris L.)

Look at a microscopic slide of Scotch pine. Where are the cross (C), radial (R) and tangential

(T) sections? Observe each of the sections under the microscope. Find the microscopic features

and mark them on the photos.

On the images, mark tree-rings and tree-ring boundaries, axial resin canals, radial resin canals,

late-wood, transition from early- to late-wood, early-wood, radial tracheids arranged in radial

rows, bordered pits, axial and radial parenchyma cells, ray tracheids, axial tracheids,

fenestriform pits and define the type of rays (homocellular or heterocellular).

Cross section


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Cross section

Radial section Radial section

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