cstd ecosoc · over 4.3 million premature deaths annually, according to the world health...
TRANSCRIPT
LAIMUN XXII December 3-4, 2016
Topics: Rural Electrification; Access to Nuclear Medical Technology
Chaired by: Hira Shah and Matthew Gutierrez
CSTD
ECOSOC
CONTENTS
Letter from the Secretariat
Introduction to the Dais
Topic A: Rural Electrification
1
2
4
Topic B: Access to Nuclear Medical Technology 14
3Committee Description
Letter from the Secretariat1
Incoming Delegates:
Welcome to LAIMUN XXII! We are thrilled to put on our twenty-second conference--now with both Advanced and Novice committees.
Our chairs intend to hold all delegates, novice and advanced, to high standards of research, substance, speech, and diplomacy.
With regard to resolutions and amendments, we have a strict no pre-written policy. All of your work must be original, created following the start of the first committee session.
We hope that you will get as much out of this experience as possible. While we do wish to run a professional conference, that should not hold you back from enjoying spirited debate in each committee.
If you have any questions, procedural or otherwise, you may direct them to [email protected]. Please do not hesitate to contact us with any inquiries or concerns. We wish you all the best of luck and look forward to seeing you in December!
All the best,
Eliza Davis and Matthew Dumont Beau StasoSecretaries-General USG
1
Introduction to the Dias2
Hi Everyone!Welcome to LAIMUN XXII! I’m Hira Shah and I will be co-chairing with Matthew
Gutierrez in the UN Commission on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD). I am a senior here at Mira Costa High School and have been in Costa’s Model United Nations Program for the past four years. This year, I am a teacher assistant for our freshman Introduction to Model United Nations Class. Chairing for LAIMUN these past years was a highlight of my Model UN experience, and I am so excited to see how this year’s conference turns out. Outside of Model UN, I participate in our school’s band program, playing the clarinet in the marching band. I am also president of the Mira Costa chapter of Young Philosophers’ Society. Prior to attending Mira Costa, I lived in France and spent four years at the Lycée International de Saint Germain-en-Laye. I am fluent in French and am currently studying Mandarin Chinese. I have a true passion for languages. Without any further adieu, I wish you all the best of luck in research. Please feel free to contact us with any questions. I can’t wait to see all your hard work and dedication pay off!
Hello Delegates!My name is Matthew Gutierrez, and I will be co-chairing the Commission on Science
and Technology for Development (CSTD) with Hira Shah at LAIMUN XXII. I am a junior at Mira Costa High School, and this will be my third year in Model UN but my first year chairing. Model UN has allowed me to debate at local conferences and travel conferences too like the Regional High School Model United Nations Conference in San Francisco. Aside from debate, itself Model UN has allowed me to develop better speaking and social skills. When I’m not doing schoolwork most of my free time is spent playing soccer, hanging out with friends or browsing through the internet. I can’t wait to see all of you and hear your ideas in committee!
Kind Regards,Matthew Gutierrez
Committee Description3
The Commission on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD) is an
organ of the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC). The CSTD was
established in 1992 in an attempt to reorganize and improve the ECOSOC committees.
Although it is a faction of ECOSOC, the CSTD is run by the secretariat of the United
Nations Conference on Trade and Development. Since its first meeting in 1993, the CSTD
has been responsible for increasing understanding of technology and science in the
underdeveloped world, regulating the implementation of actions outlined in United
Nations resolutions, and examining crucial questions regarding science and technology.
Currently, CSTD has 43 member states which are elected into four year terms by the
United Nation’s Economic and Social Council. The division of the member countries is as
follows: eleven members from Africa, nine from Asia, eight from Latin America and the
Caribbean, and fifteen from Europe and North America.
Topic A: Rural Electrification 4
I. Background
In the 138 years since Thomas Edison’s landmark discovery of artificial electric
light, electrical energy has become indispensable to life in modern civilization. Electricity
powers both technological development and the activities of daily life. Despite the
necessity of electricity in the modern era, the distribution of electric energy across the
globe is disparate and stratified. According to the Internal Energy Agency (IEA), 17% of
the global population – an estimated 1.2 billion people – remain without access to
electricity. In the world’s fifty poorest nations, 79% of people have no access to
electricity. While urban areas display average electrification rates over 90%, rural regions
fall below 33%. About 2.5 billion people worldwide rely on expensive and
environmentally detrimental sources of energy including firewood, charcoal, and
disposable batteries. Indoor air pollution from the burning of biomass for energy causes
over 4.3 million premature deaths annually, according to the World Health Organization
(WHO.)
The countries with the lowest rates of access to electricity are concentrated in the
chiefly rural nations of Sub-Saharan Africa. South Sudan falls at the bottom of the World
Bank’s Global Electrification Ranking with 5.1% of the population with access to
electricity, followed by Chad with 6.4%, Burundi with 6.5%, Liberia with 9.8%, Malawi
with 9.8%, and the Central African Republic with 10.8%.
5The IEA Outlook predicts that the number of people without access to electricity will fall
to 800 million by 2030. This growing rate of electrification is largely a result of
urbanization - the trend of population migration toward city centers. This means that
individuals from rural areas are migrating to electricity rather than electricity being brought
to rural regions. This reality has major ramifications; without electricity, rural regions are
deprived of a plethora of benefits.
There is a strong correlation between access to electricity and quality of life.
Electric lighting provides increased study time for rural scholars, greater community
security, and extended hours for business and industry. Electrification of the agricultural
sector boosts output, leading to revitalization of revitalizing stagnant agricultural
economies, increased familial incomes, and reduced poverty. For many, access to
electricity represents an opening to the outside world. Rural regions, previously
sequestered away from modernized civilization, are allowed by electrically powered radios
and televisions to access crucial health and safety information. Increases in electrification
are correlated with reduced premature death rates as well as reduced birth rates.
Historically, the funding for successful rural electrification projects has been
primarily provided by the central government. However, in many developing nations, like
those found in Sub-Saharan Africa, the central governments lack the infrastructure and
capital to carry out these initiatives. Due to this lack of central funding, many developing
nations have turned to private investment to finance electrical infrastructure expansion
projects.
6II. United Nations Involvement
At the September 2000 United Nations Millennium Summit, the UN released a set
of eight initiatives to reduce extreme poverty called the Millennium Development Goals,
expected to be completed before the year 2015. The United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), the body charged with overseeing the accomplishment of the eight
MDGs, has recognized that the expansion of global energy access contributes directly to
the achievement of all of the goals in rural regions. The first MDG, to eradicate world
hunger, is accomplished by the increased familial incomes and farming output generated
through agricultural mechanization. The expansion of educational opportunities, the focus
of the second MDG, is supported by electricity’s power to light schools and extend study
time. Rural electrification allows the mechanization of domestic tasks. With the
traditionally female task of gathering biomass-based fuel made obsolete, women are free to
attend school or pursue employment, contributing to the third MDG of increased gender
equality. The fourth, fifth, and sixth MDGs all relate to healthcare pertaining to child
mortality, maternal health, and infectious diseases, respectively. Electricity powers health
clinics and allows the refrigeration of medicines and vaccines - massively increasing the
effectiveness of delivery of health services to remote rural areas. The use of sustainable,
renewable energy advances the seventh MDG of environmental sustainability by slowing
deforestation and air pollution resulting from the use of wood and coal for traditional fuel.
Finally, the eighth MDG relates to the creation of a global partnership for development.
Global communication and collaboration can more effectively occur when rural and urban
areas are electrically connected, allowing for ample inter-regional information exchange.
7 The World Bank is the UN body at the forefront of rural electrification initiatives. Since
2009, the World Bank Group has allotted over 20 percent of its annual loans to electricity
infrastructure projects, most of which concentrate on disadvantaged rural areas. Funding
from the World Bank contributes to electrical power generation, transmission, and
distribution projects. The World Bank Group has supported major rural electrification
projects in India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Vietnam, and Brazil. The Climate Investment
Funds (CSF), founded by the World Bank Group in 2008, is another major subsidizer of
rural electrification projects. The World Bank’s Independent Evaluation Group (IEG)
evaluates the effectiveness of World Bank-funded rural electrification initiatives and offers
insights into possible improvements. In 2008, the IEG released a comprehensive report on
the impact of rural electrification entitled “The Welfare Impact of Rural Electrification: A
Reassessment of the Costs and Benefits,” evaluating the effectiveness of World Bank
loans, accessibility to key target regions, and feasibility of electricity methods. The
Alliance for Rural Electrification, a European non-governmental organization, works to
coordinate private business investment in rural electrification.
A major force in the expansion of rural electrification has been the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). The UNCTAD and the Commission
on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD) are closely related, as the secretariat
of UNCTAD oversees the work of the CSTD to provide expert advice on the feasibility of
scientific and technological policy recommendations. In 2010, UNCTAD released a report
on “Renewable Energy Technologies for Rural Development.” The paper defined
renewable energy technologies (RETs) as electricity generated from renewable sources
such as wind, solar, water, and geothermal. Through the use of case studies in countries
such as Nepal, Eritrea, Guatemala, China, Namibia, and Lao People’s Democratic
Republic, the paper analyzes the relative impact of various forms of RETs.
8 III. Topics to Consider
Economic Development in Sub-Saharan Africa
During the first decade after gaining independence from colonial rule in the 1960s,
Africa’s growth outpaced that any of the world’s other developing regions. In the 1970s a
major setback was experienced due in part to the huge influx of funds and a destabilization
of the economies, a phenomenon recognised today as Dutch Disease. Growth in the
continent throughout the 1980’s and 1990’s stagnated and even regressed. Decades of
poverty have left Sub-Saharan central governments lacking the funds to subsidize electrical
public works programs, as has been done in most modern examples of successful
nationwide electrification.
Foreign direct investment and domestic economic development initiatives could both
present possible avenues for stimulation of the government’s financial sector - a necessary
step before major rural electrification projects are undertaken.
Incentivizing Private Investment in Rural Electrification
Aside from relying upon Sub-Saharan African governments to invest in rural
electrification, private equity investors can be made aware of straightforward incentives to
invest in renewable sources of electrification. For example, investors in IHS Towers, a
major African operator of telecommunications towers, found that it could cut the $3,000-
4,000 average monthly cost of operating towers by nearly 33% by updating their diesel
generators or replacing them with solar panels. The manufacturing and distribution
systems that are developed to make conversions such as these possible provide
infrastructure by which similar conversions from outmoded, unsustainable sources of
electrification may be accomplished throughout outlying regions for a profit. Incentivizing
the private sector to contribute to electrification projects in developing nations could be the
solution to acute funding shortages on the federal level.
Renewable Energy Sources
9 Currently, power plants fired by coal fuel 41% of global electricity. Although fossil fuels
presently dominate the world’s energy sector, concerns about long term sustainability have
come to rise within the international community. As the effects of carbon emissions
become apparent in environmental change, demand increases for clean renewable energy
sources. Solar energy can be harnessed with solar panels costing roughly USD 0.17-0.3
per kWh. Wind turbines convert air currents to electricity. The force of the downhill flow
of water can be captured with hydroelectric power. Heat from the Earth’s core is utilized
as a geothermal power source. Depending on the geography of remote rural regions, one
or more of these alternative electricity sources may be cost-effective and advantageous.
IV. Case Study: Senegal
Senegal, a country located in West Africa, is a Sub-Saharan rural electrification
success story. Prior to 1998, Senegal’s electrification sector was a public monopoly
controlled by only one sponsor, the central government. The electrification rate in 1997
was only 5% in rural areas. To reform this ineffective energy system, the 98-29 bill was
passed on April 14, 1998. This bill liberalized the energy sector, splitting the control of
electricity between three organizations: the Agence Sénégalaise d’Electrification Rurale
(ASER), the Senegalese Agency for Rural Electrification and the Commission de
Régulation du Secteur de l’Electricité (CRSE.) In 2002, Senegal launched the Senegalese
Rural Electrification Action Plan to increase private sector involvement in electricity
infrastructure development. By partially privatizing rural electrification, Senegal opened
up access to funds from international donors. Senegal’s 2002 program was “technology-
neutral,” allowing electricity providers to determine the most cost-effective solution. This
program was exceptionally successful in attracting private finance; between 2002 and
2012, it generated an average of 49% private sector investment, over twice the 22% global
average for rural electrification initiatives.
10 V. Guiding Questions
1. How can we better equip governments of developing nations to reform their energy
sectors? What role should developed nations play in rural electrification? What
role should domestic private companies play? What role should foreign private
companies play?
2. Which electricity-generating technologies are the most cost-effective? Which are
easiest to implement in rural regions? Which are the most environmentally
sustainable? As a whole, what is the most logical investment?
3. How can we ensure return-on-investment for rural electrification initiatives?
4. Which rural areas should be prioritized to maximize on benefits of electrification?
What geographic, social, and political factor could facilitate or hinder
electrification?
11Works Cited
"About the Millennium Development Goals." UN Millennium Project. Ban Ki Moon, n.d.
Web. 23 May 2016.
"Access to Electricity (% of Population)." World Bank. The World Bank, n.d. Web. 22
May 2016.
The Alliance for Rural Electrification. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 May 2016.
"Coal & Electricity." World Coal Association. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 May 2016.
"Energy Access Across The World | BERC." Berkeley Energy & Resources Collaborative.
University of California Berkeley, 03 Feb. 2015. Web. 22 May 2016.
Gronewold, Nathanial. "One-Quarter of World's Population Lacks Electricity."Scientific
American. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 May 2016.
"Home Page." National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). N.p., n.d. Web. 22 May
2016.
"Institutional Barriers to a ‘perfect’ Policy: A Case Study of the Senegalese Rural
Electrification Plan." Science Direct. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 May 2016.
Niang, Aliou. "Rural Electrification in Senegal Case Study." Economic and Political
Weekly (n.d.): n. pag. Rural Electrification Workshop, Nairobi. UNEP. Web. 22 May
2016.
Renewable Energy Technologies for Rural Development. New York: United Nations,
2010. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. UNCTAD Current
Studies on Science, Technology, and Innovation. Web. 22 May 2016.
Rose, Amy. "Solar Power in Developing Countries: Big Opportunities for Unique
Markets." The Energy Collective. Energy Post Productions, n.d. Web. 22 May 2016.
"The Senegalese Rural Electrification Action Plan: A 'good Practice' Model for Increasing
Private Sector Participation in Sub-Saharan Rural Electrification?" Academia.edu. N.
p., n.d. Web. 22 May 2016.
12"A Sub-Saharan Scramble." The Economist. The Economist Newspaper, 24 Jan. 2015.
Web. 22 May 2016.
"The Welfare Impact of Rural Electrification." Independent Evaluation Group (2008): n.
pag. World Bank, 2008. Web. 22 May 2016.
"What Dutch Disease Is, and Why It's Bad." The Economist. The Economist Newspaper,
05 Nov. 2014. Web. 22 May 2016.
The World Energy Outlook 2015. N.p.: International Energy Agency, 2015. International
Energy Agency. Web.
7Topic B: Access to Nuclear Medical Technology
13
I. Background
Nuclear medicine is a form of treatment that uses small amounts of radiation for
diagnosis or therapy for certain diseases that cannot be improved through surgery or regular
forms of medication. The main diagnostic procedure that uses nuclear medicine is the
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan. Although X-rays, Magnetic Resonance Imaging
(MRI), Chemotherapy and Mammograms are commonly associated with PET Scans, these
methods do not use radioactive material. The usage of radioactive materials requires the
Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) to oversee the usage of PET scans in the United
States and the countries it works with. In addition, PET scans have been responsible for more
accurate diagnosis of abnormalities in the function and size of organs, cancers, and internal
infections. The main risks that come from PET scans, or any other diagnostic measures using
radioactive materials, are allergic reactions and radiation affecting babies that are still in the
womb. In order to prevent any lasting contamination during the diagnostic procedures, the
radioisotope technetium-99 is used. technetium-99 is convenient since its half-life, the time
required for half of the radioactive atoms to deteriorate, is about six hours, meaning that it
will die soon after entering the body.
Treatment through nuclear medicine is done through the usage of a pharmaceutical
that is placed on a small radioisotope or radioactive material; together they are known as a
radiopharmaceutical. Radioisotopes are also commonly referred to as radionuclides in the
medical field. New developments in nuclear medicine has allowed for the direct treatment of
cancer with radionuclides.
14Specifically, Yttrium-90, which sends Cytotoxic amounts of radiation to areas affected
by Cancer. Subsequently, benign and malignant tumors become suppressed by the increasing
amount of radiation. When it comes to treatment of subsidiaries of Cancer , the most commonly
used radionuclides are Strontium-89, Lutetium-177 and Samarium-153. Both Strontium-89 and
Samarium are used to treat metastasis, the development of secondary malignant tumors away
from the primary site of cancer. Lutetium-177 however, is used to treat neuroendocrine tumors.
The usage of nuclear medicine has become preferable to chemotherapy for tumor treatment due
to its reduced costs and minute pain. Even though the half-life of Radionuclides in the
diagnostic field tend to be short, the opposite is true for therapeutic radionuclides. The longer
half-life of these Radioisotopes allows them to treat diseases such as cancer, hyperthyroidism
and lymphoma. Although both of these uses for Nuclear medicine are effective their costs make
them difficult to access. Currently, only well-developed countries that are members of the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), like the United States and Japan, have prominent
markets for nuclear medicine. The inability for developing countries to quickly implement these
new forms nuclear medical technology comes from their lack of resources in a field where
materials are already being depleted.
II. UN Involvement
At the forefront of increasing access to nuclear medical technology is the International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Since 1985, the IAEA has held a yearly symposium on nuclear
medicine within underdeveloped countries as a forum to review new ways to increase access of
nuclear Medicine. In addition to the annual symposium, the IAEA has started a technical
cooperation (TC) to help with the implementation of nuclear medical technology in developing
countries. The TC has helped countries project the costs of nuclear medical facilities, train local
doctors on how to use nuclear medical technologies, and fund their ventures with $54 million
USD provided by the IAEA. Countries that have benefitted from the IAEA’s TC are located in
eastern Europe, Africa, and Latin America.
15However, the African member states have seen the greatest improvements since their
allocated funds from the TC were used to improve infrastructure. Facilities were either
created or improved and old machinery has been replaced with single-photon emission
computed tomography machines and Positron Emission Tomography scanners.
Aside from providing materials for diagnostic machinery, the IAEA has attempted to
strengthen the radiopharmaceutical market in its member states. However, instead of
attempting to raise profits, the IAEA has created a set of guidelines for their member states
to follow. These guidelines are based off the fundamentals of the Good Manufacturing
Practice (GMP). The GMP is meant to be a system that “ensures that products are
consistently produced and controlled to quality standards,” and has now been implemented
in underdeveloped member-states such as Mauritania in order to attempt to ensure that
radiopharmaceuticals produced are safe for usage. In addition to the GMP, the IAEA has
implemented a new Quality Management System which assists scientists when making new
radiopharmaceuticals wherever it is implemented .
III. 3 Topic-based sections
Regulation of Radiopharmaceutical usage
Although the GMP guidelines have been set in place for the IAEA member states,
they have not been completely followed. Despite this issue being brought up at the 13th
International Conference of Drug Regulatory Authorities, no real solution was devised by
the IAEA or any other faction of the United Nations. They were unable to create an effective
solution because they came to the conclusion that the legislature of each country's national
government undermines guidelines set by the UN or the IAEA. The IAEA’s lack of power
on national governments allowed these governments to ignore their guidelines and put their
interests over the GMP. In addition, regulatory inconsistencies come from the lack of
accurate reports from nuclear medical centers in Developing countries due to poor record
keeping by inadequately trained doctors.
16The lack of regulation over radiopharmaceuticals can lead to losses in revenue, over
or under-usage of a certain radiopharmaceutical and even the creation of a black market.
In contrast to the failures of countries that lack regulation, those who do, have very
successful markets for nuclear medicine. For example, the market of the United States is
regulated by Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC). The NRC oversees the usage and
distribution of PET scanners and radioisotopes or radionuclides. Since the United States is
the largest producer of Technetium-99, which accounts for 70% of the radiopharmaceutical
market, they are the largest contributor to the $7 billion USD evaluation of the global
radiopharmaceutical market.
Controlling Hazardous Waste
Considering that many underdeveloped countries have not yet learned techniques on
proper waste disposal, hazardous waste has become a prevalent issue. The disposal
guidelines are simple, but are often ignored by those who handle the radionuclides and
radioisotopes because of its tedious process. The procedures for waste disposal includes
Waiting a 48-hour period before mixing radioactive waste with other waste, recording dates
of collection for used syringes and gloves after they are placed in plastic bags, and letting
radioactive materials decay for 2 months before they are released. When these procedural
guidelines are ignored, contamination between different radioisotopes and radionuclides can
lead to defective mutations in humans if contact is made. In developing countries, the lack of
education on proper disposal methods alongside the costs cleaning chemicals and other
materials for disposal makes it difficult to successfully implement .
Shortage of Radioisotopes/Radionuclides
Even though a wide variety of Radionuclides and isotopes can be used for nuclear
medicine, technetium-99 is the most commonly used. Accounting for 70% of all nuclear
medical usage, technetium-99 is a man-made radioisotope. Despite its high demand there are
fewer than ten reactors in the world capable of producing this radioisotope.
17The creation of the PET has created a higher demand for technetium-99 since its half-
life of 6 hours makes it the most efficient and usable radioisotope for diagnostic purposes. As
the usage of nuclear medical technology becomes more widespread, the current production
rates will not suffice. In addition to growing demand, the conditions of the current
technetium-99 generators are very poor seeing as most of them have been around for
decades. For example two of the largest producing generators of technetium-99 in Canada
and the Netherlands will be depleted of their resources by 2016 and 2022 respectively. The
inevitable depletion of technetium-99 comes from the fact that it has to be extracted from
uranium, which is an element hard to come across, and also because the productivity of
reactors are constantly decreasing
Many of the issues facing the depletion of technetium-99 seem to be resolved by the
creation of its possible replacement, Molybdenum-99. This replacement for technetium-99
was well received since it could be produced easily in the facilities available to the United
States. However, this optimism is premature, as countries like Australia, South Africa, and
The Netherlands are not capable of producing Molybdenum any time soon. In addition to
technological constraints, the costs make it even less convenient to convert from technetium-
99 production to Molybdenum-99 production.
IV. Case Study: University College Hospital, Ibadan, Nigeria
As the amount of people with hyperthyroidism, a disease that causes overactivity of
the thyroid gland, resulting in a rapid heartbeat and an increased rate of metabolism,
increased to 1.2-9.9% of the Nigerian population from 1991 to 2013, doctors at the
University College Hospital (UCH) in Ibadan, Nigeria turned to nuclear medicine. The
increase in Hyperthyroidism in Nigeria started because of the high amounts of untreated
cases of Graves’ disease. When left untreated Graves’ disease, begins to rapidly produce
thyroid hormones which eventually leads to hyperthyroidism.
18Since Hyperthyroidism is not as severe as cancer, the Nigerian doctors settled for a
mild Radionuclide, Iodine-131 (RAI), which has a half-life of about 8 days. RAI had been
introduced to Nigeria in 1991 but had not been used on a larger scale until 2006-2013.
Before the UCH study on Hyperthyroidism was conducted, a set of ethical guidelines was
established to follow along with Nigerian practices. These guidelines, based on the Helsinki
Declaration in 1975, stated that “the Nuclear Medicine Technologist will provide services
with compassion and respect for the dignity of the individual and with the intent to provide
the highest quality of patient care, maintain strict patient confidentiality in accordance with
state and federal regulations, comply with the laws, regulations, and policies governing the
practice of nuclear medicine, and provide care without discrimination regarding the nature of
the illness or disease, gender, race, religion, sexual preference or socioeconomic status of the
patient” . Fifty-six Nigerian patients were treated with RAI in UCH over a period of 6
months to see whether or not their hyperthyroidism improved with new medication. After the
6 months of nuclear treatment, about 20 % of all patients were cured and under 5% were left
uncured. The status of the remaining 75% of the patients is unknown due to poor data
collection techniques, poorly trained doctors and absence of a regulatory body overseeing the
UCH.
19 V. Guiding Questions
1. Does your country have access to Nuclear Medical Facilities? If so, what problems
have they encountered and how have they been dealt with? If not, how have they
attempted to implement them?
2. How can countries improve methods of accurate regulation of nuclear medical
technology usage?
3. How does your country plan on combating the shortage of radioisotopes and
radionuclides?
4. Does your country have a code of ethics towards the usage of nuclear medicine? If
so, how has it limited your country in the past?
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