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CS/COE0447

Computer Organization & Assembly Language

CHAPTER 1 Part 1

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Five Computer Components

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Embedded Computers

• Not directly observable

• Very widely used in many applications

• Examples:

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Today’s Topics• Layered approach to computer design• Machine code example• Components of ISA• Computer implementations

– Inside a PC– IC technology and its trends– Input/output devices – Main memory– Secondary storage– Network

• IC process overview

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Transistors

Layered Approach in Computer Design

Computer Architecture orInstruction Set Architecture

Logic gates

Microarchitecture

Architecture

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Machine Code Example

swap:muli $2, $5, 4add $2, $4, $2lw $15, 0($2)lw $16, 4($2)sw $16, 0($2)sw $15, 4($2)jr $31

void swap(int v[], int k){

int temp;temp = v[k];v[k] = v[k+1];v[k+1] = temp;

}

00000000101000010…00000000000110000…10001100011000100…10001100111100100…10101100111100100…10101100011000100…00000011111000000…

com

piler

assemble

r

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Components of ISA

• In most cases, a “programmer’s reference manual” (PRM) will disclose the ISA of a processor

• To understand an ISA, find in PRM– Data types the processor supports– Supported instructions and their definitions– Registers (general-purpose & special purpose)– Processor modes– Exception mechanism

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Inside a PC

• Integrated Circuits (ICs)– CPU (Central Processing Unit), companion chipset, memory,

peripheral I/O chip (e.g., USB, IDE, IEEE1394, …)• Printed Circuit (PC) boards

– Substrate for ICs and interconnection– Distribution of clock, power supply– Heat dissipation

• Hard disk, CD-RW (DVD-RW), (floppy disk)• Power supply

– Converts line AC voltage to regulated DC low voltage levels– GND, +/-12V, +/-5V, …

• Chassis– Holds boards, power supply, and provides physical interface for

user and other systems• Connectors and cables

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Integrated Circuits• Primarily crystaline silicon• 1mm~25mm on a side• Feature size: 90nm ~ 130nm• 100 ~ 1000M transistors• 25 ~ 250M “logic gates”• 3 ~ 10 metal “conductive” layers• CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide

Semiconductor) technology

• Package spreads chip-level signal paths to board level

• Provides heat dissipation• Ceramic or plastic with gold wires• 8 ~ 1000 leads• Various form-factors and shapes

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Printed Circuit (PC) Boards

• Fiberglass or ceramic• 1 ~ 20 conductive layers• 1 ~ 20 inch on a side• IC packages are mounted

and soldered on a board

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Technology Trend (Processor Complexity)

2x transistors/chip every 1.5 years!

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Memory Capacity Trend (DRAM)

1.4x/year or 2x every 2 years8000x since 1980!

size

Year

Bit

s

1000

10000

100000

1000000

10000000

100000000

1000000000

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000

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Processor Performance Trend

0100200300400500600700800900

87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97

DEC Alpha21264/600

DEC Alpha 5/500

DEC Alpha 5/300

DEC Alpha 4/266

IBM POWER 100

Intel P4 2000 MHz(Fall 2001)

1.54x/year

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Technology Advances

• Memory– DRAM capacity: 2x / 2 years (since ’96)– 64x size improvement in last decade

• Processor– Speed (in terms of clock frequency): 2x / 1.5 years (since

’85)– 100x performance improvement in last decade

• Disk– Capacity: 2x / 1 year (since ’97)– 250x size improvement in last decade

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Your PC After Graduation

• Processor speed– 6~8GHz

• Memory capacity– 4GB~8GB

• Disk capacity– 1000GB or 1TB

• New units: Mega to Giga, Giga to Tera, (Tera to Peta, Peta to Exa, Exa to Zetta, Zetta to Yotta)

• New, faster serial interfaces for various peripherals

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My First PC (@college)• IBM PC AT

– Based on 80286 (80586 is Pentium-1)

• Processor speed– 20MHz (?) compared to 5,000MHz

• Memory capacity– 1MB compared to 4000MB

• Disk capacity– 40MB compared to 1000GB

• No CD-ROM!

• 14 inch monitor (not flat!), VGA (640x480)

• Wheel mouse– 2 buttons

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Input Devices

• Accepts input from human (or from other machine)

• Desktop computers– Keyboard– Mouse (touchpad)– Joystick– …

• Servers– Terminals on network

• Cell phone – Embedded computers– Keypad

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Input Devices, cont’d

• Mouse– Wheel mouse (hard to find nowadays)– Optical mouse

• Takes 1,500 “photo shots” of LED reflection to detect any movement

• Keyboard or keypad– Not many changes so far

• Web camera

• Voice recognition– Partly successful

• New input device?

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Output Devices

• Passes information to human (or to other machine)

• Desktop computers– Display (CRT or LCD)– Sound– …

• Servers– Terminals on network

• Cell phone – Embedded computers– Screen– Sound– Vibration

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Output Devices, cont’d

• Display– CRT to LCD– LCD size from 10 inch to 24 inch

• Resolution from 640x480 to 1600x1200

• Sound– Simple “tick” to theatre-like effects, 5.1

channel, etc.

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Main memory

• PC/servers use “DRAM” (Dynamic RAM)– SDRAM– DDR SDRAM– RDRAM (RAMBUS DRAM)

A typical SDRAM “module”

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Main memory, cont’d

• Embedded computers use DRAM or SRAM (or both) depending on applications– On-chip SRAM (embedded SRAM)– On-chip SDRAM (embedded SDRAM)– SDRAM– Mobile SDRAM (1.8V operation)

SRAM, SDRAM, FLASH allin a same chip!

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Storage

• Secondary storage (cf. main memory)• Non-volatile• Stores programs, user-saved data, etc.

• In PC/server domain, magnetic disk (hard-disk) is usually used

• In embedded computers, “flash” memory or “ROM” is usually employed

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Storage, cont’d

5.25-inch floppy disk1.2MB

3.5-inch floppy disk1.44MB

USB Flash card256MB

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Storage, cont’d

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Computer Networks

• Local Area Network (LAN)– Within limited distance (e.g., in a building)– Mostly based on Ethernet– 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps, …

• Wide Area Network– Connecting networks far apart

• At home,– Modem: 14.4Kbps, 28.8Kbps, 33.6Kbps, 56Kbps– Cable modem/DSL: several hundred Kbps ~ several Mbps– Higher-speed DSL technologies

• Proliferation of wireless LAN (IEEE802.11)– 1 ~ 100Mbps

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(Simple) IC Process Overview

• Silicon ingot (silicon cylinder)• (Blank) Wafers• Various steps to build circuits on wafers

– Photomask process– Chemical process– Mechanical process

• “Wafer test” to sort out bad parts• Tested “die”• “Packaging” steps

– Wire bonding– Material filling– Marking

• “Chip test” to sort out bad parts• Products

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Testing Your Chip

• Function– “The chip is working correctly” as intended

• Speed– “The chip is running at 4 GHz” as intended– “Speed binning”

• Power– “The chip consumes 50 Watt at 4 GHz” as intended

• Reliability– “The chip will be operational for 10 years” as written

on manual and box

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Calculating Your Chip Cost

• Things to consider:– Mask cost: we need 20 ~ 40 masks used to form different

patterns used in different process steps a.k.a. Non-Recurring Engineering (NRE) cost

– Wafer cost– Cost put in process steps– Defect parts (we spend money producing defect parts!)– Any other overhead including marketing

• Can we calculate cost of each chip now?• What happens if we adopt a new technology that can

build smaller transistors?

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(Simple) IC Process Overview

• Silicon ingot (silicon cylinder)• (Blank) Wafers• Various steps to build circuits on wafers

– Photomask process– Chemical process– Mechanical process

• “Wafer test” to sort out bad parts• Tested “die”• “Packaging” steps

– Wire bonding– Material filling– Marking

• “Chip test” to sort out bad parts• Products

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Testing Your Chip

• Function– “The chip is working correctly” as intended

• Speed– “The chip is running at 4 GHz” as intended– “Speed binning”

• Power– “The chip consumes 50 Watt at 4 GHz” as intended

• Reliability– “The chip will be operational for 10 years” as written

on manual and box

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Calculating Your Chip Cost

• Things to consider:– Mask cost: we need 20 ~ 40 masks used to form different

patterns used in different process steps a.k.a. Non-Recurring Engineering (NRE) cost

– Wafer cost– Cost put in process steps– Defect parts (we spend money producing chips with

defects!)– Any other overhead including marketing

• Can we calculate cost of each chip now?• What happens if we adopt a new technology that can

build smaller transistors?

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Packaging

mounting

wire bonding

packaging material filling &marking

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