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CS4023 – Operating Systems(week 4)

Processes and Concurrency

Dr. Atif AzadAtif.azad@ul.ie

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Acknowledgement

• Significant material in this set of lectures has been borrowed from:– http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~kubitron/courses/cs162/.

Copyright © 2010 UCB

– http://www.cs.berkeley.edu/~kubitron/cs194-24/index_lectures.html. Copyright © 2013 UCB

– http://www-inst.eecs.berkeley.edu/~cs162/fa14 . Copyright © 2014 David Culler. Copyright ©2014 UCB.

– http://www.os-book.com . © 2014 Silberschatz et al.

– Dr Patrick Healy at CSIS Department, University of Limerick.

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Review – Week 3• Operating System Services

– User View– Efficient Operation View (System View)

• System Calls– Provide links to Kernel Services (Resource Allocator)– Implementation– Viewing System Calls (strace)

• Policy vs Mechanisms – Policy: what needs to be done.– Mechanism: how it should be done.

• Structure of Operating Systems

FetchExec

R0…

R31F0…

F30PC

…Data1Data0

Inst237Inst236

…Inst5Inst4Inst3Inst2Inst1Inst0

Addr 0

Addr 232-1

What happens during execution?

• Execution sequence:– Fetch Instruction at PC – Decode– Execute (possibly using registers)– Write results to registers/mem– PC = Next Instruction(PC)– Repeat

PCPCPCPC

• Register: small, very fast memory for quick access to frequently used information• Program Counter (PC): A special register; holds address of current/next instruction

OS Bottom Line: Run Programs

• Program (passive) becomes alive to be a Process/job.– Load instruction and data segments of executable file into

memory– Create data structures in memory (stack and heap)– “Transfer control to it”– Provide services to it– While protecting OS and it

• One program can be several processes?– Consider multiple users executing the same program

int main() { … ; }

edito

r

com

pile

r

Program SourceExecutable

foo.c a.out

Load

&

Exec

ute

0x000…

0xFFF…

instructions

data

instructions

data

heap

stack

Memory

Processor

registers

PC:

OS

(passive) Program Process (active)

Process

Processorregisters

PC:

0x000…

0xFFF…

Code Segment

Static Data

heap

int i; flot w; chr *x stack

instruction

SP:

Pro

gra

m A

dd

ress

Sp

ace int array[6]; //Global data

float globalF=3.0f;

int main(){ int i=20; //local data float w=2; //dynamic allocation char* x=malloc( i ); //like new Object(); func(); free(x);}

void func(int a){ char c=‘a’; printf(“func”);}

• What’s in the code segment? Data?• What’s in the heap segment?

– How is it allocated? How big?• What’s in the stack segment?

– How is it allocated? How big is it?• What if an instruction accesses data outside heap/stack?

int a; char c;

Stack and Heap

Processorregisters

PC:

0x000…

0xFFF…

Code Segment

Static Data

heap

int i; flot w; chr *x stack:

instruction

SP:

Pro

gra

m A

dd

ress

Sp

ace int array[6]; //Global data

float globalF=3.0f;

int main(){ int i=20; //local data float w=2; //dynamic allocation char* x=malloc( i ); //like new Object(); func(); free(x);}

void func(int a){ char c=‘a’; printf(“func”);}

• When func exits, stack decreases.• When main exits, stack finishes.

– Heap still has memory allocated– But nothing points to it. – Needs to be free()d– Otherwise, heap may run out.

int a; char c;

free(x)

Recall Key Concept: Address Space• Program operates in an address space that is distinct

from the physical memory space of the machine

Processor Memory

0x000…

0xFFF…

translator

“virt

ual a

ddre

ss”

“phy

sical

add

ress

”

Example of Address Translation

Prog 1Virtual

AddressSpace 1

Prog 2Virtual

AddressSpace 2

CodeDataHeapStack

CodeDataHeapStack

Data 2

Stack 1

Heap 1

OS heap & Stacks

Code 1

Stack 2

Data 1

Heap 2

Code 2

OS code

OS dataTranslation Map 1 Translation Map 2

Physical Address Space

Q: Still vulnerable?

A simple address translation: Base & Bound

• Can the pgm touch OS?• Can it touch other pgms?9/3/14

code

Static Data

heap

stack

code

Static Data

heap

stack

code

Static Data

heap

stack

0000…

FFFF…

1000…

0000…

Programaddress

Base Address

Bound <

1000…

1100…1100…

Concurrency• “Thread” of execution

– Independent Fetch/Decode/Execute loop– Operating in some Address space– Single-Threaded processes for this lecture. (also called “heavy

weight” process) • Uniprogramming: one thread at a time

– MS/DOS, early Macintosh, Batch processing– Easier for operating system builder– Get rid of concurrency by defining it away– Does this make sense for personal computers?

• Multiprogramming: more than one thread at a time– Multics, UNIX/Linux, OS/2, Windows NT/2000/XP, Mac OS X

• ManyCore Multiprogramming, right?

The Basic Problem of Concurrency• The basic problem of concurrency involves resources:

– Hardware: single CPU, single DRAM, single I/O devices– Multiprogramming API: users think they have exclusive access to

shared resources• OS Has to coordinate all activity

– Multiple users, I/O interrupts, …– How can it keep all these things straight?

• Basic Idea: – abstract the notion of an executing program (process representation)– Then, worry about multiplexing these abstract beings

• Dijkstra did this for the “THE system”– Few thousand lines vs 1 million lines in OS 360 (1K bugs)

Multiprogramming – Many Processes

OS

Proc 1

Proc 2

Proc n…

code

Static Data

heap

stack

code

Static Data

heap

stack

code

Static Data

heap

stack

0000…

1000…

1100…

3000…

3080…

Base 1000 …

1100…Bound

regs

sysmode

…

1

PC

0000…

FFFF…

00FF…

0000 1234

xxxx…uPC

Multiprogramming – Interrupt (kernel code)

OS

Proc 1

Proc 2

Proc n…

code

Static Data

heap

stack

code

Static Data

heap

stack

code

Static Data

heap

stack

0000…

1000…

1100…

3000…

3080…

Base 1000 …

1100 …Bound

0000 1234uPC

regs

sysmode

…

0

PC

0000…

FFFF…

00FF…• How to save registers

and set up system stack?

IntrpVector[i]

Multiprogramming – Process 2

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OS

Proc 1

Proc 2

Proc n…

code

Static Data

heap

stack

code

Static Data

heap

stack

code

Static Data

heap

stack

0000…

1000…

1100…

3000…

3080…

Base 3000 …

0080 …Bound

xxxx xxxxuPC

regs

sysmode

…

1

PC

0000…

FFFF…

00D0…• How to save registers

and set up system stack?

000 0248

1000 …

1100 …

0000 1234

regs

00FF…

Concurrency: illusion of many processorsCPU3CPU2CPU1

Shared Memory

• Concurrency provides the illusion of multiple processors?– Multiplex in time!

• Each process is like a virtual “CPU”; needs a structure to hold:– Program Counter (PC), Stack Pointer (SP)– Registers (Integer, Floating point, others…?)

• Q: What structure holds this information: PCB. (coming next)• How switch from one CPU to the next?

– Save PC, SP, and registers in current state block– Load PC, SP, and registers from new state block

• What triggers switch?– Timer, voluntary yield, I/O, other things

• Q: what states can a process go to after a switch?

CPU1 CPU2 CPU3 CPU1 CPU2

Time

Diagram of Process State

• As a process executes, it changes state– new: The process is being created– ready: The process is waiting to run– running: Instructions are being executed– waiting: Process waiting for some event to occur– terminated: The process has finished execution

ProcessControlBlock

Multiplexing with Process Control Blocks (PCB)• The current state of process held in a

process control block (PCB):– This is a “snapshot” of the execution and

protection environment– Only one PCB active at a time

• PCB also notes multiplexing process info :– CPU time to different processes

(Scheduling):• Only one process “running” at a time• Give more time to important processes

– Resources held by Process):• Memory Mapping: based and bound registers• I/O info: opened files, network connections etc.

Process Representation in LinuxRepresented by the C structure task_struct

pid t_pid; /* process identifier */ long state; /* state of the process */ unsigned int time_slice /* scheduling information */ struct task_struct *parent; /* this process’s parent */ struct list_head children; /* this process’s children */ struct files_struct *files; /* list of open files */ struct mm_struct *mm; /* address space of this process */

CPU Switch From Process to Process

• This is also called a “context switch”• Code executed in kernel above is overhead

– Overhead sets minimum practical switching time

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Context Switch in Detail

• A context switch is the switching of the CPU from one process or thread to another.

• In detail, kernel does the following:– Suspend one process and store its state as a PCB– retrieve the PCB for the next process from memory and restore it in

the CPU’s registers– Start executing the new process as pointed by its program counter

(PC)– The more complex the OS and the PCB the longer the context

switch• Time dependent on hardware support

– Some hardware provides multiple sets of registers per CPU multiple contexts loaded at once

Operations on Processes

• Operating systems must provide mechanisms for:– process creation,– process termination,

Process Creation• Parent process create children processes,

which, in turn create other processes, forming a tree of processes

• Generally, process identified and managed via a process identifier (pid)

• Resource sharing options– Parent and children share all resources– Children share subset of parent’s resources– Parent and child share no resources

• Execution options– Parent and children execute concurrently– Parent waits until children terminate

A Tree of Processes in Linux

• Run pstree command. Can’t see init? Instead see systemd? • http

://www.pcworld.com/article/2841873/meet-systemd-the-controversial-project-taking-over-a-linux-distro-near-you.html

Process Creation (Cont.)• Address space

– Child duplicate of parent– Child has a program loaded into it

• UNIX examples– fork() system call creates new process– exec() system call used after a fork() to

replace the process’ memory space with a new program

C Program Forking Separate Process

Parent Process Child Process

??

Process Termination

• Process executes last statement and then asks the operating system to delete it using the exit() system call.– Returns status data from child to parent (via wait())– Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system

• Parent may terminate the execution of children processes using the abort() system call. Some reasons for doing so:– Child has exceeded allocated resources– Task assigned to child is no longer required– The parent is exiting and the operating systems does not

allow a child to continue if its parent terminates

Process Termination

• Some operating systems do not allow child to exist if its parent has terminated. If a process terminates, then all its children must also be terminated.– cascading termination. All children, grandchildren, etc. are

terminated.– The termination is initiated by the operating system.

• The parent process may wait for termination of a child process by using the wait()system call. The call returns status information and the pid of the terminated process

• pid = wait(&status); • If no parent waiting (did not invoke wait()) process is a zombie• If parent terminated without invoking wait , process is an

orphan

Process Scheduling• Maximize CPU use, quickly switch processes onto CPU for time sharing• Process scheduler selects among available processes for next

execution on CPU• Maintains scheduling queues of processes

– Job queue – set of all processes in the system– Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and

waiting to execute– Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O device– Processes migrate among the various queues

• Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process should be executed next and allocates CPU

– The processes are ready to execute. – Scheduler should be fast.

• Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes should be brought into the ready queue

– Long-term scheduler is invoked infrequently (seconds, minutes) (may be slow)

– The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming

Ready Queue And Various I/O Device Queues

Process Scheduling

• PCBs move from queue to queue as they change state– Decisions about which order to remove from queues are

Scheduling decisions– Many algorithms possible (few weeks from now)

Multiprocess Architecture – Chrome Browser

• Many web browsers ran as single process (some still do)– If one web site causes trouble, entire browser can hang or

crash• Google Chrome Browser is multiprocess with 3 different

types of processes: – Browser process manages user interface, disk and network

I/O– Renderer process renders web pages, deals with HTML,

Javascript. A new renderer created for each website opened• Runs in sandbox restricting disk and network I/O, minimizing effect

of security exploits

– Plug-in process for each type of plug-in

Interprocess Communication• Processes within a system may be independent or cooperating• Cooperating process can affect or be affected by other processes,

including sharing data• Reasons for cooperating processes:

– Information sharing– Computation speedup– Modularity– Convenience

• Cooperating processes need interprocess communication (IPC)• Two models of IPC

– Shared memory– Message passing

Communications Models

(a) Message passing. (b) shared memory.

Shared Memory: Producer-Consumer Metaphor

• Paradigm for cooperating processes, producer process produces information that is consumed by a consumer process– unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on

the size of the buffer– bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed

buffer size

Bounded-Buffer – Shared-Memory Solution• Shared data

#define BUFFER_SIZE 10typedef struct {. . .

} item;

item buffer[BUFFER_SIZE];int in = 0;int out = 0;

item next_produced; while (true) {

/* produce an item in next produced */ while (((in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE) == out) ; /* do nothing */ buffer[in] = next_produced; in = (in + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;

}

• Solution is correct, but can only use BUFFER_SIZE-1 elements

Bounded Buffer – Consumer

item next_consumed; while (true) {

while (in == out) ; /* do nothing */

next_consumed = buffer[out]; out = (out + 1) % BUFFER_SIZE;

/* consume the item in next consumed */ }

Interprocess Communication – Shared Memory

• An area of memory shared among the processes that wish to communicate

• The communication is under the control of the users processes, not the operating system.

• Major issues is to provide mechanism that will allow the user processes to synchronize their actions when they access shared memory.

• Synchronization is discussed in great details in Chapter 5 of SGG.

IPC POSIX Producer

IPC POSIX Consumer