cross national newspaper coverage of coastal contamination: a community structure approach

CROSS NATIONAL COVERAGE OF COASTAL CONTAMINATION 1

Cross National Newspaper Coverage of Coastal Contamination:

A Community Structure Approach

Cleo Kordomenos ([email protected]) Rebecca Mamrosh ([email protected])

Theresa Soya ([email protected])

Marc Trotochaud ([email protected]) Lauren Longo ([email protected])

The College of New Jersey


ABSTRACT

A community structure analysis compared nation demographics and coverage of coastal

contamination in international cross-section of leading international newspapers from 19

countries, examining all relevant articles of 250+ words within a nine-year span from August 12,

2006 to October 5, 2015. The resulting 218 articles were coded for “prominence” and

“direction,” (“government responsibility,” “societal responsibility,” or “balanced/neutral”

coverage) and were combined into a “Media Vector” score for each newspaper (from 0.7347 to

-0.1825, total range of 0.9172). Of the 19 international newspapers sampled, 16 out of 19, or

84%, indicated government responsibility in media vectors, suggesting an international call for

government responsibility regarding coastal contamination. Initial Pearson correlations revealed

five significant findings. As expected, coastal economic vulnerability indicators, “aquaculture

production in tons,” (r = 0.666, p= 0.013) and “international fishery by principal export”

(r=0.451, p=0.053), were linked to media emphasizing government responsibility in combating

coastal contamination. The remaining four significant hypotheses also showed results that

confirmed what we predicted.

Most significantly, the present findings confirmed the vulnerability hypothesis of

Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien. In consistency with significant findings from Peitzet. al (2015)

on genetically modified organisms, this research supports the finding that measures of

vulnerability indicate media emphasis on government responsibility. Kohn et. al’s (2014) work

with child labor and Wissel et. al’s (2014) water handling research additionally confirm the

vulnerability indicator.

Overall, measures of privilege are linked to less coverage emphasizing government

responsibility for combating coastal contamination. The female school life expectancy


hypothesis, a sign of privilege, was found to be linked to societal responsibility (r = -0.415, p=

0.039). The physicians per 100,000 residents hypothesis, a health care access violated buffer

factor, was confirmed (r= - 0.413, p= 0.039). Lastly, the GDP per capita hypothesis was

confirmed (r= -0.399, p= 0.045). Although a portion these hypotheses were confirmed, the

results are consistent with previous community structure research, for example, Longo et al.’s

(2015) research on Muslim immigration and Kohn et. al’s (2014) work on child labor, which

respectively stated that measures of privilege were strongly correlated with negative coverage of

the issue and societal responsibility for resolving the epidemic (2015).

Regression analysis found that the amount of Aquaculture Production in Tons and

International Fishery Production by Export accounted for 53.7% of the variance, showing the

influence that a country’s aquaculture production has on government responsibility framing in

newspapers internationally. Conversely, number of migrants, accounting for 13.5% of the

variance in the regression, was linked to media emphasizing societal responsibility in combating

coastal contamination, creating an extremely interesting rift in our findings.


Introduction

As the world becomes more industrialized, coastal contamination progressively becomes

an imminent threat. Increased pollution from seafaring ships or land-based sources continually

threaten the sustainability of marine ecosystems and consequently, the development of fisheries,

aquaculture, and economic sustenance, as well as the overall health, safety, and quality of life of

coastal populations (Giroult, 1995). The issue is additionally present as a community health

crisis, as potential inhalation, ingestion, and skin contact with pollutants provide multiple

pathways for infection. Defining this contamination involves a spectrum of chemicals, hypoxia,

invasive species, disease-causing bacteria, viruses, and foreign materials in regional bodies of

water and respective coastlines (NCCOS, 2015). These toxins threaten not only the international

seafood supply and industry, but also the health and livelihood of both marine animals and

humankind on a global scale (NOAA, 2015).

As coastal contamination grows as an imminent threat to global health, safety, and

quality of life, dissent emerges in regards to sufficiency of current measures combating coastal

contamination. To explore variations in media perspectives on the efficacy of pollution

eradication efforts, analysis of international news coverage will examine media frames that

emphasize “government” or “societal” responsibility to address the issue. To frame a story is to

“select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them more salient in a communicating text,

causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation” (Entman, 1993, p.

52). For purposes of this study, two umbrella media frames are considered likely; a

“government” frame and a “society” frame. A “government” frame implies that it is primarily

the responsibility of each country’sgovernment to combat coastal contamination. By contrast, a


“society” frame implies that calls on the general population and non-governmental organizations

including foreign aid, to combat coastal contamination.

As this debate gains international precedence, newspapers continue to play a vital role in

the coverage of coastal contamination for multiple reasons. Primarily, newspapers are read by

the well educated and by political and economic leaders who seek insights and information on

current global events. These papers are also known to be inter-media agenda setters for other

media channels such as television, radio, and the internet. In addition, newspapers serve as

community forums to facilitate discussion on critical issues on a regional, nationwide, and global

scale.

The analysis of coastal contamination coverage will be examined using community

structure theory, linking aspects of societal characteristics and demographics with critical issue

reporting (Pollock, 2007, p.23). The community structure approach asserts that varying

characteristics of different societies hold the power to shape news stories covered by newspapers,

contrasting with the commonly held view that media affect society. Pollock and colleagues

(2007, 2013a, 2015) have made three special contributions to the community structure approach

in recent articles and books by: a) expanding geographic and demographic diversity by

conducting the first nationwide, multi-city studies; b) combining standard content analysis

measures of article “direction” or tone with additional measures of editorial “prominence” to

fashion a sensitive, composite “Media Vector” for each newspaper’s reporting on a particular

issue; and c) confirming that, contrary to the guard-dog hypothesis expectation that media favor

elites, newspapers are frequently capable of mirroring the interests of the most “vulnerable”

population segments.


The groundwork of the community structure approach was outlined by University of

Chicago’s Robert Park in 1922, when he focused attention on the impact society has on media, a

“reverse” approach to the prevailing model in media studies. Park’s work inspired the

development of structural pluralism and the “guard dog” hypothesis by Minnesota scholars

Philip Tichenor, George Donohue and Clarice Olien (1973, 1980, 1995) in later years. The

“guard dog” hypothesis expects that media typically reflect the interests of political and

economic elites as opposed to those of the general public (Olien, Donohue, &Tichenor, 1995;

Pollock, 2007, p.24.).Tichenor, Donohue and Olien’s concept of structural pluralism proposes

“that larger, more diverse, socially pluralistic communities would be associated with greater

diversity in media, especially newspaper reporting on critical issues” (Pollock, 2007,

p.1).However,the studies done by Tichenor, Donohue and Olien focused primarily on cities and

counties in Minnesota, excluding other states and nations.

Scholars McLeod and Hertog, who studied with Tichenor, Donohue and Olien, further

contributed to the community structure approach by conducting studies in one or two cities

(McLeod &Hertog, 1992; Hindman, 1999). In their studies, they found that media often reflect

the size of protest groups (McLeod and Hertog 1992, 1999). Hindman (1999) found that mass

media can function as proponents of social change, linked to the size of local, dominant

minorities, and can more closely depict audience choices in the new information era. Demers and

Viswanath (1999) suggest that newspapers can either be agents of social control or social

change.

Recognizing newspapers’ prominence in discussing critical cross-national issues, Pollock

et al. utilized this powerful communication channel in the first nationwide studies across various

cities. These studies not only included article content, but also incorporated editorial evaluation


of article prominence within their respective publications by combining both into a cohesive,

single score. The conclusions sometimes challenge the “guard dog” hypothesis by reflecting the

interests of marginal and vulnerable stakeholders (Pollock, 2007, p. 24; Pollock, 2013aj 2015).

Through use of the community structure approach, this study will examine cross-national media

framing of coastal contamination in newspapers. This theory will be used to address two main

research questions to investigate connections between international characteristics and

newspaper coverage of regulations on coastal contamination.

RQ1: How much variation exists in cross-national coverage of coastal contamination?

RQ2: How closely linked is that coverage variation to differences in national

characteristics?

Various community characteristics, such as GDP and infant mortality, can affect media

coverage of where responsibility to combat coastal contamination lies. For example, it is

anticipated that in countries with a higher GDP, coverage will emphasize government

responsibility in combating coastal contamination. This prediction can be made following the

finding that wealthy countries are more concerned with associated health risks and

environmental implications than is the case in developing countries. Wealthier countries are also

more likely to contain more well-educated populations and to have a better understanding of

coastal contamination and potential risks. Conversely, the higher the infant mortality rate in a

country, the more likely coverage will emphasize societal responsibility in combating coastal

contamination. It is reasonable to assume that a nation with low health standards will be less

likely to manifest media support for government efforts to address human rights claims.

Newspaper coverage of coastal contamination may be linked to other cross-national


demographic characteristics as well. This study will analyze relationships between cross-national

demographic characteristics and coverage of coastal contamination in newspapers worldwide.

Literature Review

The topic of coastal contamination has been explored in a broad range of academic

disciplines, yet still lacks scholarly attention in the field of communication studies. Though

popular in several of other fields, including political science, environmental science, and biology,

studies on coastal contamination and media coverage seldom surface in communication studies,

where scholarly attention has the potential to relay crucial information.

Searches for the terms “Coastal Contamination AND Media coverage” and “Coastal

Pollution AND Media Coverage” as well as “Coastal Contamination AND Newspapers” and

“Coastal Pollution AND Newspapers” on the Communication Studies database, Communication

& Mass Media Complete, yielded zero results. The only results from this search emerged when

the terms “Newspapers” and “Media Coverage” were removed. The removal of these key terms

yielded a total of four articles on coastal contamination in the entirety of Communication & Mass

Media Complete.

Of the four results from Communication & Mass Media Complete, two articles were from

academic journals and the remaining were non-juried. The first piece of research was an article

titled, “Rhetorical Framing in Corporate Press Releases: The Case of British Petroleum and the

Gulf Oil Spill”. This article published in the Journal of Environmental Communication examined

how British Petroleum (BP) used strategic press releases to frame its involvement in the 2010 oil

spill in the Gulf of Mexico (Wickman, 2014). The author argued that the use of press releases

created a rhetorical framing that inaccurately portrayed BP (Wickman, 2014). This article is a


valuable resource and can be used as a case study demonstrating how a large company used

communication strategies to frame its involvement in an event that is harmful to the company.

The second academic article, “The Coastal Highway”, was published in the journal,

Visual Communication. This article focused on a typography of different advertisements, and

how certain advertisements in the environment could be harmful distractions for their audience

(Matta, 2005). This article is doing research that is important in a world flooded with

advertisements, but again it is tangential to this study’s focus. These two articles are valuable,

but major gaps still remain in the research of coastal contamination in the field of

communication studies. Our research aims to reduce these gaps and introduce more

understanding of this far-reaching global issue.

Unlike the field of communication studies, the field of political science has compiled

more academic research with regards to coastal contamination. When searching on the political

science database PAIS International, a search using the terms “coastal contamination” OR

“coastal pollution” yielded 114 results including academic articles that had either of the key

terms in their respective abstracts. The majority of these 114 articles looked at political

infrastructure of environment agencies at the government level, and how they dealt with coastal

contamination regulation. Exemplifying this, “A Sustainable Development Goal for the Oceans

and Coasts: Global Ocean Challenges Benefit From Regional Initiatives Supporting Globally

Coordinated Solutions,” focused on how it is important to both recognize the importance of the

ocean, and then work together as a global force to provide a positive system to protect one of

humanity's most valuable resources (Visbeck, 2014). A slightly more specific article that

examined political infrastructure when related to coastal contamination was titled, “Going Green

or Going Away: Environmental Regulation, Economic Geography and Firms’ Strategies in


China’s Pollution-intensive Industries”. This article looked at possible procedures to help

restructure the way that certain Chinese manufacturing companies related with the environment

(Zhu, 2014).

Similarly to political science, the field of environmental science is substantially ahead of

communication studies with research on coastal contamination. Searching the database, Science

Direct, with the same terms used in searching PAIS International, a total of 4,997 articles

resulted. This outcome showed that the physical sciences were even further along in research on

coastal contamination than communication studies. Unlike articles in PAIS International that

focused on the logistical setup of nation’s coastal contamination response, and the goal of

communications research, which explores media coverage of coastal contamination, this research

highlighted specific case studies of coastal contamination, that looked at what happened, what

went wrong, and what could be done to improve the situation in these areas. An example is the

article, “Nutrients and Contaminants in Tissues of Five Fish Species Obtained from Shanghai

Markets: Risk-benefit Evaluation from Human Health Perspectives”. Due to the industrial nature

of China, a fair amount of the country’s coastal region has been contaminated with unnatural

chemicals and metals. This research examined five species of fish that lived around these coasts,

and were being sold to consumers (Jing-Jing, 2015). Another article based around coastal

contamination research looked at screening methods for finding plastic in water, and at how the

degradation process of plastic could add more contaminants at a faster rate through the

degradation process. The article finished by urging readers and other scientists to pay more

attention to existing plastic in the ocean and to treat it as a greater threat of coastal contamination

(Gauquie, 2015).


In contrast to the field of communication studies, biology has contributed far more

scholarship on the topic of coastal contamination. A search of the terms “coastal contamination

AND coastal pollution” in the Biological Sciences database yielded considerable results, totaling

6,532. Included in these results were scholarly, peer-reviewed articles that mentioned all of the

mentioned key search terms. A number of the articles evaluated specific coasts by level of

contamination and particular contaminants, and some went so far as to measure the significance

of potential risk on surrounding communities. “Organic Micropollutants in Coastal Waters From

NW Mediterranean Sea: Sources Distribution and Potential Risk” reported on efforts tracking

and evaluating levels of organic micropollutants in coastal waters of the Mediterranean Sea to

determine the risk of pollution for fish, algae and shrimp. A significant level of risk was

detected, which indicates potential risk for surrounding communities consuming seafood from

these coasts as well (Sanchez-Avila, Tauler, &Lacorte, 2012). Another article titled “The Little

Penguin (Eudyptula minor) as an Indicator of Coastal Trace Metal Pollution” looked at

measuring trace metals in creatures that live on contaminated coasts, this research looked

specifically at Eudyputla minor. This research found that the level of trace metal and metalloid

concentrations in Little Penguins were linked to the level of industrialization near their habitat

(Finger, 2015). In the field of biology, current research focusing on coastal contamination far

surpasses that of research in communication studies.

In the field of communication studies, little attention has been paid to the issue of coastal

contamination. The fields of political science, environmental science and biology have produced

substantially more research. This paper will address the lack of research in the communication

studies field by comparing national demographics systematically with cross-national coverage of

coastal contamination.


Hypotheses

Results of previous studies utilizing the community structure approach yielded many

hypotheses applicable to the research conducted in this study. These hypotheses were then

grouped in three branching categories: violated buffer, vulnerability, and stakeholder.

Violated Buffer Hypothesis

Privilege.The classical category that encompasses hypotheses dealing with privilege is

the buffer hypothesis. The buffer hypothesis indicates that with a greater proportion of privileged

city residents, it becomes more likely that a city’s major newspaper will report favorably on

several human rights claims (Pollock, 2007, p. 52). Dissimilarly, the violated buffer hypothesis

suggests that “issues viewed as imperiling either privileged groups or a relatively stable, secure

way of life will be regarded as threatening by privileged sectors and will be associated with

relatively ‘resistant, unfavorable reporting” (Pollock, 2007, p. 53). In this context privilege can

be measured cross-nationally through various demographic indicators, including gross domestic

product (GDP), literacy rate, and life expectancy. From the information presented on coastal

contamination, it can be assumed that coastal contamination will be seen as a threat to “a

cherished way of life” among populations of more privileged countries, therefore complying

with the violated buffer hypothesis.

Previous community structure research has confirmed the validity of the violated buffer

hypothesis. Pollock and Kohn found in a 2014 study that a country’s GDP per capita was linked

to variations in media coverage of child labor, finding that the higher a country’s GDP per capita,

the less media emphasis on government responsibility for regulating child labor; supporting the

violated buffer hypothesis. Another study discovered that the higher a nation’s literacy rate, the

more newspaper favored societal as opposed to government responsibility for water handling


(Wissel et al., 2014). A community structure study on coverage of human trafficking indicated

that the greater the female school life expectancy in a nation, the more media emphasis on

human trafficking (Alexandre et al., 2014). A community structure study on HIV/AIDS by

Etheridge et al. (2014) showed that the greater the percentage of a population that is

undernourished, the greater the media support for government responsibility to reduce

HIV/AIDS.

In 2004 Pollock, O’Grady, Hiller, Pannia, and Lutkenhouse executed a study showing

that the violated buffer hypothesis was confirmed regarding newspaper coverage of GMOs in

foods. Statistical evidence in the forms of Pearson correlations and regression analysis found that

the “greater the proportion of privileged groups ‘buffered’ from economic uncertainty, the less

favorable the coverage of GMO foods (Pollock, O’Grady, Hiller, Pannia, &Lutkenhouse, 2004).

Pollock (2007) validated the significance of the violated buffer hypothesis, finding that the

higher the level of privilege in a city, the more unfavorable the newspaper coverage of drilling in

the Arctic national wildlife refuge, further bolstering the hypothesis (p. 184-194).

Based on results from previous literature, it is likely that the coverage of coastal

contamination will align with the violated buffer hypothesis, for privileged and well-educated

individuals will be less trusting and more concerned with the economic, environmental, and

health problems associated with coastal contamination. Therefore, the following hypotheses

apply to coverage of coastal contamination: For example,

H1: The higher a nation’s GDP, the more likely media coverage emphasizes government

responsibility in combating coastal contamination (Central Intelligence Agency [CIA],

2011).


H2: The higher a nation’s GDP per capita, the more likely media coverage emphasizes

government responsibility in combating coastal contamination (CIA, 2011).

H3: The higher the literacy rate in a country, the more likely media coverage emphasizes


H4: The higher a nation’s male life expectancy at birth, the more likely media coverage

emphasizes government responsibility in combating coastal contamination (CIA, 2011).

Health care access. Another crucial community measure of privilege is health care

access. According to Pollock (2007) healthcare access can be evaluated by “the proportion of the

municipal budget that a city spends on health care, in addition to the availability of hospital beds

and physicians” (p. 93). Pollock (2007) found a positive correlation between the number of

physicians per 100,000 residents and more favorable coverage of stem cell research (pp. 89–

100). A cross-national study on climate change showed that the greater the number of hospital

beds per 100,000 and physicians per 100,000, the greater the media support for the government

to address climate change (Pollock, Reda, et al., 2010). Similarly, Pollock found a correlation

between physicians per 100,000 residents and favorable coverage of physician-assisted suicide

(2007, pp. 75– 88).

If a country enjoys substantial access to health care services, it is reasonable to assume

that the country would manifest media attention that highlights government responsibility in the

treatment of coastal contamination. Coastal contamination can be seen as a threatto the wellbeing

of a community. Therefore:

H5: The greater the number of physicians per 100,000 in a country, the more likely media

coverage emphasizes government responsibility in combating coastal contamination.

(United Nations Statistics, 2011).


H6: The greater the number of hospital beds per 100,000 in a country, the more likely media

coverage emphasizes government responsibility in combating coastal contamination.

(United Nations Statistics, 2011).

Vulnerability Hypothesis

The vulnerability hypothesis asserts that “newspaper reporting on critical events can

reflect the interests of more vulnerable segments of society” (Pollock, 2007, p. 138). These

segments may include minority communities, the poor, the unemployed, and those who reside in

high-crime areas (Pollock, 2007, p. 137). The vulnerability hypothesis concludes that “the larger

the proportion of those below the poverty level in a city, the more sympathetic the newspaper

coverage of each vulnerable group’s concerns” (Pollock, 2007, p. 137). This hypothesis contrasts

sharply with Donohue, Tichenor and Olien’s (1995) “guard dog” hypothesis. The “guard dog”

hypothesis suggests newspaper coverage mirrors the interests of elite groups, while the

vulnerability hypothesis maintains that minority population concerns are reflected in newspaper

reporting (Pollock, 2007, p. 137).

Prior studies utilizing the community structure approach support the vulnerability

hypothesis. A study on capital punishment found that high poverty rate was associated with

negative coverage of the death penalty, and that, in general, vulnerability was “a major factor

associated with reporting unfavorable to the death penalty” (Pollock, 2007, p. 145). Likewise, in

a study on nationwide coverage of the Patients’ Bill of Rights, it was discovered that “the higher

the percentage of individuals below the poverty level in a city, the more favorable the newspaper

coverage of the Patients’ Bill of Rights” (Pollock, 2007, p. 156). Additionally, in coverage of the

Roe v. Wade Supreme Court Decision which legalized abortion, in cities with a large population


below poverty level coverage of abortion legalization was favorable, representing the interests of

the vulnerable population (Pollock & Robinson, 1977; Pollock, Robinson, & Murray, 1978).

A cross-national study of HIV/AIDS also confirms the vulnerability hypothesis. The

study found that the higher the percent of undernourished in the population, the more media

focus on HIV/AIDS reduction as a government responsibility (Etheridge et al., 2014). Another

study asserted that reporting in cities with high poverty and unemployment levels was reflected

in less inflammatory coverage of a conflict between Caribbean Americans and Hasidic Jews

(Pollock & Whitney, 1997). A cross-national study of GMOs found a positive correlation of

poverty level, percent of a population without access to improved water services, and fertility

rate with favorable coverage of GMOs (Peitz et al., 2015). In a study of United States nationwide

coverage of immigration reform, it was discovered that the higher the percentage below the

poverty level, the more favorable the newspaper coverage of immigration reform (Pollock,

Gratale, Teta, Bauer, & Hoekstra, 2014).

In regards to coastal contamination, it is reasonable to expect that vulnerable populations

will consider current initiatives combating coastal contamination as sufficient, or themselves

lacking an agency to effect change as they may be less aware of potential risks associated with

such pollution. Therefore, newspaper coverage in vulnerable countries is likely to emphasize

societal responsibility in combating coastal contamination. Populations may consider vulnerable

populations as inevitably vulnerable, and fatalistically report coastal contamination as yet

another of the world’s dilemmas. Based on previous research, we propose the following

hypotheses:


H7: The greater the percent living below the poverty line, the less likely media coverage

emphasizes government responsibility in combating coastal contamination (United

Nations Statistics Division, 2011).

H8: The greater a nation’s fertility rate, the less likely media coverage emphasizes

government responsibility in combating coastal contamination (United Nations

Statistics Division, 2011).

H9: The greater the mortality rate, the less likely media coverage emphasizes government

responsibility in combating coastal contamination (United Nations Statistics Division,

2011).

H10: The greater the number of migrants in a nation, the less likely media coverage emphasizes

government responsibility in combating coastal contamination (United Nations Statistics

Division, 2011).

Health vulnerability. Coastal contamination is closely linked to a nation’s health,

therefore it is reasonable to assume that many public health concerns will play a role in coverage

of coastal contamination. A previous study on cross national newspaper coverage of HIV/AIDS

found that the greater the percent of a nation’s population that is undernourished, the greater the

media coverage focus on government support to reduce HIV/AIDS (Etheridge et al.,

2014).Based on this previous research, we hypothesize:

H11: The greater the percent of the population under the age of fourteen, the more likely media

coverage emphasizes government responsibility in coastal contamination (United Nations



H12: The greater the percent of a nation’s population that is undernourished, the less likely

media coverage emphasizes government responsibility in combating coastal

contamination (United Nations Statistics Division, 2011).

H13: The greater a nation’s Gini inequality index, the less likely media coverage emphasizes

government responsibility in combating coastal contamination (CIA World

Factbook, 2011).

H14: The greater the percent of a nation’s population without access to improved water

services, the less likely media coverage emphasizes government responsibility in

combating coastal contamination (United Nations Development Programme, 2010).

H15: The greater the infant mortality rate, the less likely media coverage emphasizes

government responsibility in combating coastal contamination (United Nations


Stakeholder Hypothesis

A great number of stakeholders can be linked to favorable content regarding issues of

their concern within media. Previous research confirms that the higher the percentage of

particular stakeholders in a community, the more likely newspaper coverage will report

favorably on their interests (McLeod &Hertog, 1999; Pollock, 2007, p. 172). For example, an

examination of sub-Saharan Anglophone African newspaper coverage of AIDS found that the

higher the level of AIDs victims within a nation paralleled greater media support for non-

governmental organization (NGO) intervention to fight the crisis (Pollock, D’Angelo, et al.,

2010).

Female empowerment. As women’s rights continue to rise as a global focus,

populations with higher levels of gender equality become more outspoken and involved in


controversial issues. Evidence for the association of female empowerment with increased

avocation with social issues is mixed. The International Water and Sanitation Centre found that

when women participate in the running of a project, the project is more effective and sustainable

than when it is designed and run without women (Task Force on Gender and Water, 2006, p. 2).

One cross-national study found that the higher the percent females in the workforce, the more

emphasis on government responsibility for HIV/AIDS (Etheridge, et. al., 2014). Another

community structure study on cross-national newspaper coverage of human trafficking indicated

that the greater the female school life expectancy in a nation, the more media emphasis on

government responsibility for human trafficking (Alexandre et. al, 2014).

Other studies, however, yielded different results. One exploration found that the higher

the female literacy rate, female school life expectancy or percent satisfied with female freedom

of choice in a country, the less media emphasis on government responsibility for water handling

(Wissel, et. al., 2014). Another cross-national examination concluded that the higher the female

school life expectancy, the less media emphasis on government responsibility for child labor

(Kohn & Pollock, 2014). These studies validate the importance of female empowerment

variables, and it can be assumed that these will prove significant in the case of coastal

contamination coverage as well. When discussing the significance of media coverage regarding

coastal contamination in a country, the following are offered:

H16: The higher a nation’s female health literacy rate, the less likely media coverage


H17: The greater the female school life expectancy, the less likely media coverage emphasizes



H18: The higher a nation’s percentage of women in the workforce, the less likely media

coverage emphasizes government responsibility in combating coastal contamination

(United Nations Statistics Division, 2011).

H19: The higher a nation’s percentage of females who are satisfied with their freedom of

choice, the less likely media coverage emphasizes government responsibility in

combating coastal contamination (United Nations Development Programme, 2008).

H20: The higher a nation’s female life expectancy at birth, the more likely media coverage


Energy production/consumption and infrastructure . The amount of energy that

countries expend tends to be highly correlated with their status as a world power. In such studies

English, O’Conner, Smith, and Pollock (2012) found that the higher the rate of coal production

in a country, the greater the cross-national newspaper support for intervention in Libya.

Furthermore in a case study on climate change Pollock, Reda et al. (2010), concluded that the

greater the oil production, natural gas production, and natural gas consumption in a nation, the

greater the media support for government responsibility to address climate change. Additionally,

Wright et al. (2008), in a cross-national study, established that the greater terawatt hours of

electricity production in a country, the less favorable the coverage of Muslim immigration.

Lastly, Kohn and Pollock found in their 2014 study a correlation between a country’s industrial

growth rate and less media support for coverage regarding child labor. The aforementioned

findings indicate that a population’s energy production/ consumption are significant in issues of

social importance. Along with these findings, it is also important to consider national

infrastructure. Infrastructure includes a nation’s roadways and analysis of how energy production

is expedited. A study by Longo, et. al 2015 found that nations with stable infrastructures that are


efficient in organizing the manufacturing of resources would most likely be interested in

protecting their high-functioning infrastructures (Longo et. al 2015). In light of these findings,

the following assumptions are reasonable:

H21: The higher a nation’s natural gas consumption, the more likely media coverage


H22: The higher a nation’s natural gas production, the more likely media coverage emphasizes


H23: The higher a nation’s electricity consumption, the more likely media coverage


H24: The higher a nation’s electricity production, the more likely media coverage emphasizes


H25: The higher a nation’s coal consumption, the more likely media coverage emphasizes


H26: The higher a nation’s coal production, the more likely media coverage emphasizes


H27: The higher a nation’s oil consumption, the more likely media coverage emphasizes

government responsibility in combating coastal contamination(CIA, 2011).

H28: The higher a nation’s oil production, the more likely media coverage emphasizes


H29: The higher the total length of a nation’s road network, the more likely media coverage


H30: The higher a nation’s industrial production growth rate, the more likely media coverage



Media access and penetration. Media access is a key stakeholder when discussing core

societal issues. Research by Tichenor, Donohue, and Olien (1980) confirmed that regions with

larger populations, and consequently, a larger variety of social groups, tend to have a wider range

of interests and perspectives than smaller communities, which boast less demographic diversity.

Continuing, Kohn and Pollock (2014) discovered that the greater the number of broadband

subscriptions per 100 citizens in a nation, the greater media emphasis on government

responsibility to reduce child labor. Wissel (2014) found that the more freedom of the press and

higher percentage of population covered by a mobile phone network, the more media emphasis

on government responsibility for clean water access. These correlations between media access

and variation in media coverage of these topics should have a similar correlation in regards to

coastal contamination coverage in media. Accordingly, the following are hypothesized:

H31: The higher the Freedom of the Press Report score, the more likely media coverage

emphasizes government responsibility in combating coastal contamination (Organisation

for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2011).

H32: The higher the number of daily newspapers per 1,000 citizens, the more likely media


(Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2011).

H33: The higher the percent of population covered by a mobile phone network, the more likely


contamination (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2011).

H34: The higher the number of broadband subscriptions per 100 citizens in a nation, the more

likely media coverage emphasizes government responsibility in combating coastal

contamination (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2011).


Coastal economic vulnerability.The abundance of coastal populations spans across

nations throughout the world. Consumer fishing, trade, and tourism allow coastal economies to

function and prosper, as well as influence the health of coastal wildlife and safety from pollutants

(Population Reference Bureau, 2015). Over time, these industries have contributed to the

environmental decline of coastal areas. In developing countries, where environmental decline is

at its worst, conservation efforts are regarded as best. Countries that rely on coastal economies to

supplement their national economy will support their factories, fisheries, and industries and

ignore growing damage to their coastlines, while more developed countries, whose stabilized

economies need not rely solely on coastal beneficence, will acknowledge a decline in efforts to

prevent coastal contamination. Previous research shows that coastal inhabitance and economy

influence surrounding opinion regarding progress or decline of efforts to combat coastal

contamination (Population Reference Bureau, 2015). This should additionally reflect media

coverage of the issue. This leads us to hypothesize the following:

H35: The greater the amount of coastline per capita, the more likely media coverage emphasizes


H36: The higher the percent of marine protected area per capita (percentage of territorial

waters), the more likely media coverage emphasizes government responsibility in

combating coastal contamination (Population Reference Bureau, 2015).

H37: The higher the amount of seafood supply per capita, the more likely media coverage

emphasizes government responsibility in combating coastal contamination (Population

Reference Bureau, 2015).


H38: The higher the amount of fish species threatened per capita, the more likely media


(Population Reference Bureau, 2015).

H39: The greater the amount of aquaculture production in tonnes, the more likely media



H40: The greater the amount of aquaculture production of fish, crustaceans, mollusks, etc. by

principal producers, the more likely media coverage emphasizes government

responsibility in combating coastal contamination (Population Reference Bureau, 2015).

H41: The greater the amount of fisheries production by capture in USD, the more likely media



H42: The greater the amount of fisheries production by aquaculture in USD, the more likely


contamination (Population Reference Bureau, 2015).

H43: The greater the amount of international fishery production by principle export, the more

likely media coverage emphasizes government responsibility in combating coastal

contamination (Population Reference Bureau, 2015)

Methodology

To explore the topic of the coverage of coastal contamination, a cross-national sample of

19 major newspapers was selected from the NewsBank and All Africa databases, including all

topic-relevant articles with 250 words or more in the same established time frame, yielding a

total of 218 articles. The compilation of publications included articles from the following: China


Daily, Daily News Egypt, El Mercurio, El Universal, The Japan Times, La Nación, Le Monde

Diplomatique, The News Agency (Ghana), The Nation (Pakistan), The Nation (Thailand), The

New Vision (Uganda), The New Straight Times, The New York Times, The Star, The Statesman,

The Sydney Morning Herald, The Times London, The Toronto Star.

The sample period utilized in this study ranged from August 12, 2006 until October 5,

2015. On August 11, 2006, a tanker carrying 500,000 gallons of oil sunk off the coast of the

Guimaras Islands in the Philippines. The spill devastated the ecosystem, adversely affected the

health of those near the coast, and was even further felt by a local economy largely based on

fishing (“Guimaras oil spill”, 2006). This event is of major importance on the historical timeline

of coastal contamination, making it a sensible chronological location to start data collection. On

October 5, 2015, it was announced that BP was obligated to pay over $20 billion as part of a

settlement to five states whose environments and economies were greatly affected by the 2010

DeepWater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico (“US, States Announce Settlement with BP

over Gulf Oil Spill”, 2015). . This major settlement was selected as the study’s conclusion date

because of its recency and its importance to the coverage of coastal contamination.

Article Prominence

Each article was assessed by two separate measures, prominence and direction. The first

measure determines the “prominence” of each article, based on editors’ judgments on its

significance. A score ranging from 3 to 16 is attributed to each article based on four elements:

article placement, headline size, article length and photos/graphics. Articles with a higher

number of points received a greater attention score. The prominence score is outlined below in

Table 1.

Table 1: Prominence Score*


For coding databases

Dimension 4 3 2 1

Placement Front page first section

Front page inside section

Inside page first section

Other

Headline size

(# of words)

10+ 9-8 7-6 5 or fewer

Article length

(# of words)

1000+ 750-999 500-749 250-499

Photos/Graphics 2 or more 1

*copyright John C. Pollock, 1994-2015

Article Direction.

Upon receiving a prominence score, an article was assigned a “direction” category based

on the content of the frames it used. “Direction” indicated whether an article primarily focused

on “government” or “society” responsibility to combat coastal contamination, or whether it was

“balanced/neutral.” The articles were coded for these directions based on the following criteria:

Government. Articles emphasizing government responsibility in combating coastal

contamination were coded as “government”. Coverage in favor of “government” included

articles suggesting that there must be increased governmenteffort to combat coastal

contamination. An article in Ghana’s News Agency stated that the Department of Marine and

Fisheries Science at the University of Ghana had called on the government to establish a

National Coastal Zone Management Commission to help streamline the management of coastal


areas. “Such a commission would take care of the sectoral approaches and minimize overlaps

and duplications which in the long term negatively impacts marine and coastal areas” (“Establish

a National Coastal Management Commision”, 2013, para. 1). An additional article from India’s

Statesman stated that a team of the Odisha State Pollution Control Board verified the damage to

coastal areas by leaks in the pipeline of oil refinery, IOCL (“State verifies impact of oil spill on

soil, water”, 2015, para. 1).

Society. Articles interpreted as society or non-government agencies being primarily

responsible for combating coastal contamination were coded as “societal responsibility.”

Coverage in favor of “society” included articles suggesting that there must be increased societal

effort to combat coastal contamination. An article in The Daily News Egypt states that Tony

Hayward, CEO of BP at the time, “bears the brunt of criticism for the oil spill in the Gulf of

Mexico in 2010” and that as CEO, “”He must carry the can” (“A profitable moment”, 2010, para.

2). In addition, an article in Mexico’s El Universal stated that Greenpeace, non-governmental

environmental organization was to investigate the damage to marine life by the oil spill of British

Petroleum in the Gulf of Mexico (“Greenpeace started tracking spill damage”, 2010, para. 1).

Balanced/neutral. Articles perceived to be unbiasedregarding coastal contamination, or

covered both sides of this issue in approximately equal measure, were classified

as“balanced/neutral.” Additionally, any article that tried to provide the reader with current

events regarding the controversy was coded in this category. An article in Malaysia’s New Strait

Times provides detail on the “wonderful ‘wet’ assets of Johor”, which make up sixty percent of

Malaysia's wetlands. In addition, an article in Canada’s Toronto Star reported on the price

increase of Gulf shrimp after a 2010 oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico (“Gulf shrimp likely to go up

in price”, 2010, para. 1).


A total of 109 articles out of 218 were read by two coders, resulting in a Scott’s Pi

coefficient of inter-coder reliability of .88.

Calculating a Media Vector

The Janis-Fadner Coefficient of Imbalance was applied to calculate a “Media

Vector”after analyzing 226 newspapers from nations worldwide. The Media Vector was

calculated by combining prominence and directional scores to measure article “projection” onto

audiences (Pollock, 2007). The “magnitude” of the Media Vector was measured by the article’s

prominence. The “direction” was defined by the article’s direction towards eitherprogress or

decline in efforts combating coastal contamination. Media Vector scores range from +1.00 and -

1.00. Coverage emphasizing government efforts combating coastal contamination yielded a

score between 0 and +1.00, while coverage emphasizing societal efforts combating coastal

contamination yielded scores between 0 and -1.00. This formula is depicted in Table 2:

Table 2: Media Vector Formula

g = sum of the prominence scores coded “government responsibility” s = sum of the prominence scores coded “societal responsibility”

n = sum of the prominence scores coded “balanced/neutral” r = g + s + n

If g > s (the sum of the government prominence scores is greater than the sum of the societal

prominence scores), the following formula is used: Government Media Vector:

GMV = (g2 - gs) (Answer lies between 0 and +1.00) r2

If g < s (the sum of the societal prominence scores is greater than the sum of the government scores), the following formula is used: Societal Media Vector:

SMV = (gs – s2) (Answer lies between 0 and -1.00) r2


* Media Vector copyright John C. Pollock, 2000–2015

Procedures

In order to examine connections between cross-national characteristics and Media Vectors,

Pearson correlations and regression analysis were used. Pearson correlations determined which

country characteristics were most strongly linked with variation in coverage of responsibility in

combating coastal contaminations. Regression analysis compared the strength and significance

of each independent variable. When these two statistical procedures were applied, connections

were discovered between national characteristics and newspaper coverage of responsibility in

combating coastal contamination.

Results

This study examined cross-national newspaper coverage of coastal contamination in 19

newspapers from August 12, 2006 to October 5, 2015. The China Daily had the highest Media

Vector, at .7347, while La Naciónfrom Argentina had the lowest Media Vector at -0.1285. The

range of Media Vector results was .8632, demonstrating variation in coverage of coastal

contamination. Of the 19 newspapers, sixteen (84%) reflected positive Media Vectors,

indicatingsubstantial media support for government responsibility in combating coastal

contamination, while only three (16%) reflected negative Media Vectors, indicating societal

responsibility in combating coastal contamination. In the table below appears a complete list of

the newspapers used and their Media Vectors, listed from most positive to most negative.

Table 3.

Media Vector by Country

Country Newspaper Media Vector


China The China Daily .7347

Japan The Japan Times .7284

Chile El Mercurio .6478

Ghana The New Agency .6447

Uganda New Vision .6427

Thailand The Nation .6112

Mexico El Universal .5307

Rwanda The New Times .4756

United Kingdom The Times- London .4339

Pakistan The Nation . 4156

Egypt Daily News Egypt .3677

Australia The Sydney

Morning Herald

.3225

India The Statesman .2736

Canada The Toronto Star .1422

Malaysia New Straight Times .1406

South Africa The Star .0896

France Le Monde Diplomatique -.0222

USA New York Times -.0307

Argentina La Nacion -.1285

Discussion of Significant Findings

Vulnerability Significant

Aquaculture Production in Tons (confirmed). It was predicted that the greater a

nation’s output of aquaculture production in tons, the greater media will emphasize government


responsibility in combating coastal contamination. The hypothesis was confirmed (r = .666; p =

.013). This was apart of an original set of hypotheses measuring a nation’s coastal economic

vulnerability.

Number of Migrants (confirmed). It was predicted that the greater the migrant

population in a nation, the greater media will emphasize societal responsibility in combating

coastal contamination. The hypothesis was confirmed (r=-0.447, p=0.048). Number of migrants,

a measure of vulnerability, indicates the potential for vulnerable populations to fatalistically

report coastal contamination as just another one of the world’s problems.

International Fishery by Principal Export (confirmed). It was predicted that the great

a national’s international fishery produced by principal export, the greater media will emphasize

government responsibility in combating coastal contamination. The hypothesis was confirmed

(r=.451, p=0.053). This hypothesis was among a set of hypotheses, along with aquaculture

production in tons, developed to measure a nation’s coastal economic vulnerability.

Violated Buffer Significant

Female school life expectancy (confirmed). The violated buffer hypotheses link

indicators of privilege to relatively “resistant, unfavorable reporting” on “issues viewed as

imperiling either privileged groups or a relatively stable, secure way of life” (Pollock, 2007,

p.53). Under the female school life expectancy hypothesis, an indicator of privilege, it was

predicted thatthe higher the rate of female school life expectancy, the greater media will

emphasize societal responsibility for combating coastal contamination. This hypothesis was

confirmed (r = -.415; p = .039).


Physicians per 100,000 (confirmed). Measuring privilege in the form of healthcare

access, this hypothesis regarding number of physicians per 100,000 in a population, was

confirmed (r = -.413; p = .039). Similarly to the reasoning behind the disconfirmed GDP

hypothesis, countries with greater healthcare access may also have the leisure to lean on society

members for the combating of coastal contamination.

GDP per capita (confirmed). It was predicted that the greater a region’s GDP per capita,

the greater media emphasizes societal support for combating coastal contamination. This

hypothesis was confirmed (r = -.399; p = .045). As per the violated buffer hypothesis, those in

regions with higher GDP per capita lead relatively privileged lives and thus, media emphasize

societal responsibility for combating coastal contamination. In addition, countries with high GDP

and subsequent economic stability may have the leisure to lean on society for the resolution of

the issue.

Table 4.

Pearson Correlations

National Characteristic Pearson Correlation Significance

Aquaculture Production in Tons 0.666 0.013*

Female School Life Expectancy -0.415 0.039*

Physicians per 100,000 -0.413 0.039*

GDP per Capita -0.399 0.045*

Number of Migrants -0.447 0.048*

International Fishery by Principal Export 0.451 0.053*


Natural Gas Production -0.371 0.059

Marine Protected Areas -0.393 0.059

Aquaculture Production by Principal Producer 0.434 0.069

Without Water Access 0.33 0.084

Fisheries Production by Aquaculture 0.327 0.086

Broadband Subscription -0.307 0.1

Poverty Level 0.308 0.107

Coal Consumption 0.316 0.116

Oil Production -0.286 0.118

Industrial Productivity Growth Rate 0.279 0.123

Undernourished 0.278 0.124

Daily Newspapers 0.34 0.128

Females in the Workforce 0.271 0.116

Fishery Production by Capture 0.266 0.135

Females Satisfied with Free Choice -0.262 0.14

Mobile Phone Network -0.261 0.14

Female Health Literacy -0.226 0.172

Literacy Rate -0.227 0.176

Seafood Supply per Capita 0.221 0.182


Infant Mortality Rate 0.212 0.192

Fertility Rate 0.208 0.197

Road Network -0.205 0.199

Coal Production 0.262 0.218

Coastline KM -0.184 0.226

Fish Threatened -0.16 0.257

Population Under 14 0.157 0.26

Natural Gas Consumption -0.152 0.267

GDP -0.149 0.271

Male Life Expectancy -0.127 0.303

Freedom of the Press 0.112 0.324

Oil Consumption -0.101 0.34

Female Life Expectancy -0.089 0.359

Electricity Consumption 0.042 0.432

GINI -0.038 0.448

Electricity Production 0.027 0.456

Hospital Beds 0.013 0.478

Regression Analysis: Vulnerability Significant


A regression analysis identified specific variables influencing Media Vector scores,

revealing that indicators of coastal economic vulnerability, “Aquaculture Production in Tons”

and “International Fishery by Principal Export”, accounted for a combined 53.7% of the

variance, with “Aquaculture Production in Tons” carrying the greatest weight accounting for

42.8% of the variance. In addition, Number of Migrants accounted for 13.5% of the variance, for

a combined total of 67.2%. This analysis strongly confirmed the vulnerability hypothesis, as

“Aquaculture Production in Tons”, “International Fishery by Principal Export”, and Number of

Migrants are all indicators of vulnerability and contributed to the entire variance in the results.

While number of migrants was linked to less media emphasis on government responsibility in

combating coastal contamination, indicators of coastal economic vulnerability prevailed in the

regression analysis, confirming the notion that media reflect the interests of vulnerable

populations. Table 5 below illustrates the findings of the regression analysis.

Table 5.

Regression Analysis

Model R R Square

(cumulative)

R Square

Change

F

Change

Sig. F

Change

Aquaculture Production in Tons .655 .428 .428 5.996 .040

Aquaculture Production in Tons,

Number of Migrants

.751 .563 .135 2.163 .185

Aquaculture Production in Tons,

Number of Migrants, International

Fishery by Principal Export

.820 .672 .109 1.995 .208

Conclusions and Implications for Further Research


Coastal contamination is an international problem that will continue to grow as more

critical an issue with the inevitable impact of global warming on the world’s economy and

health. In accordance with its significance, ‘coastal contamination’ yielded many significant

results that stem from national demographics. Six major variables within our research were

confirmed significant, with indicators of vulnerability proving most significant followed by

violated buffer: aquaculture production in tons, female school life expectancy, physicians per

100,000, GDP per capita, number of migrants, and international fishery by principal export.

One of the most interesting aspects of our findings was the confirmation of the

vulnerability hypotheses, and most significantly the confirmation of the Coastal Economic

Vulnerability hypotheses. The Coastal Economic Vulnerability hypotheses, represented by

Aquaculture Production in Tons and International Fishery by Principal Export, carried the

greatest weight, accounting for a combined 53.7% of the variance, emphasizing government

responsibility in combating coastal contamination. The findings from the regression analysis

strongly link indicators of vulnerability to government responsibility in combating coastal

contamination. Since this was the first time that this section indicating Coastal Economic

Vulnerability was utilized in a community structure approach study, the significance of these

findings sets a precedent for future studies within the communication studies field.

Also contributing to the significance of the vulnerability hypothesis was the number of migrants

in a country, which accounted for 13.5% of the variance in the regression analysis. Interestingly,

contrary to Aquaculture Production in Tons and International Fishery by Principal Export,

migrants were linked to less government responsibility and more societal responsibility for

coastal contamination. Thus, while our results yielded vulnerability most significant, it is

important to note that both indicators of vulnerability went in two different directions.


However, as mentioned earlier, Coastal Economic Vulnerability was the undoubted winner in the

regression analysis, ultimately linking vulnerability indicators and cross-national coverage of

coastal contamination, emphasizing government responsibility in addressing the issue. The

confirmation of the vulnerability hypothesis remains consistent with previous research linking

vulnerability to more favorable media coverage of GMO usage (Peitz et al., 2015). Additionally,

related research finds links between vulnerability indicators and cross-national coverage of water

handling and child labor, both cases emphasizing government responsibility in addressing each

issue (Wissel, et. al., 2014; Kohn & Pollock, 2014).

Other major findings have a connection to “privilege”, and confirm the violated buffer

hypothesis, which associates privilege to relatively resistant and unfavorable coverage of issues

threatening a cherished way of life (Pollock, 2007). GDP per capita, physicians per 100,000, and

female school life expectancy are classic factors related to “privilege”. This ultimately suggests

that the more privileged the country, the more media emphasizes societal responsibility in

combating coastal contamination, which confirms the violated buffer hypotheses and is

consistent with Pollock and Kohn’s 2014 study finding that the higher a country’s GDP per

capita, the less media emphasis on government responsibility in regards to eliminating child

labor. Also, a study discovered that the higher a nation’s literacy rate, the more media coverage

favored societal responsibility in regards to water handling (Wissel et al., 2014). Similarly, a

study by Longo et. al 2015 links indicators of privilege to unfavorable coverage of Muslim

immigration (Longo et. al, 2015). Past research clearly links indicators of privilege to relatively

resistant coverage on privileged groups’ cherished ways of life, aligning with this study’s finding

that the more privileged a region, the less media emphasis on government responsibility in

combating coastal contamination.


By combining these two sections of our results, a possible narrative forms: countries who

are more privileged can afford to push toward societal responsibility, due to their economic

stature, and countries that rely on their production of aquaculture do not have this opportunity.

The overwhelming weight that aquaculture holds in these findings perfectly illustrates the battle

between those who rely on clean coasts for their livelihood and depend on government assistance

in this upkeep, as compared with those who are privileged enough to avoid living in consuming

fear of impending damage from coastal contamination to their main infrastructure and livelihood,

and thus may rely on societal responsibility in combating coastal contamination.

In regard to future research, studies can look closer at the relationship between coastal

vulnerabilities and the privilege of a country. Although 16 of the 19 countries posted Media

Vector scores that emphasized government responsibility regarding coastal contamination, it

may be interesting to see how many of these higher media vectors come from less privileged

countries. There is also an opportunity to do research regarding other forms of media. This paper

has touched upon the advantages of studying newspaper coverage, but with adequate resources,

it may be interesting to see if the patterns observed in this study translate into other forms of

news media. Although research on this topic is new to the field of communication studies,

coastal contamination should be a topic to investigate further. As the inevitable destruction of the

coasts continues through human neglect and overuse, communication studies must stay aware of

this threat and help advance the research of such as a crucial topic.


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