cronyms and
TRANSCRIPT
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ACRONYMS AND DEFINITION OF TERMS
CAO Chief Agriculture Officer
CSA Climate Smart Agriculture
DoA Department of Agriculture
EOs Extension Officers
GHGs Green House Gases
MoAF Ministry of Agriculture and Forests
NEC National Environment Commission
RGoB Royal Government of Bhutan
SNV Netherlands Development Organisation
DEFINITION OF TERMS
Adaptation: Actions taken by farmers to reduce or minimize the negative impacts of climate
change.
Adaptive capacity: Capacity to adjust to climate change.
Climate Smart Agriculture: CSA is defined by FAO as “agriculture that sustainably increases
productivity, resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes GHGs [greenhouse
gases] (mitigation), and enhances achievement of national food security and development
goals.”
Exposure: Intensity of climatic stress upon a particular unit in a defined area.
Mitigation: strategies that reduce, prevent or remove Green House Gasses (GHGs)) and thus
reduce climate change.
Resilience: A capacity of a system to adapt.
Sensitivity: the degree to which a system can be affected.
Vulnerability: Factors, which make a system (chilly production) susceptible to the negative
impacts of climate change.
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Table of Contents
S/No. Contents Pages
1 Acronyms 1
2 Definition of Terms 1
3 Table of Contents 2
4 Foreword 3
5 Introduction: background, Development of CSA Manual 4
6 Manual Outline, Purpose 5
7 Target Group, Objectives, Tips to the Trainers 5
8 Raining materials required, Technical steps 6
9 What is Climate Change 6
10 Why is climate changing 7
11 Climate Risks & Impacts 7
12 Predictions in Climate-Rainfall 7
13 Exercise 1: Developing a list of impacts and Vulnerabilities in Agriculture 9
14 Aligning perspective on climate change 9
15 Group works preparation 10
16 Group Works-brainstorms 10
17 Presentations & discussions, Guiding questions 11
18 Session2: Responding to Climate Change 12
19 Techniques for Climate change adaptation 12
20 Soil & land management 12
21 Water conservation & Management 14
22 Integrated Pests Management 15
23 Improved varieties 15
24 Exercise 2: Identification of adaptation options 15
25 Exercise 3: Prioritization of adaptation options 16
26 Summary 17
27 Conclusions 18
28 Appendices-key findings 18
29 Remarks on findings 19
30 Training program outline 20
31 Sample problem tree 21
32 References 22
33 Box 1: General Tips for successful facilitation 5
34 Box 2: Group division & works 5
35 Box 3: Tips to ensure active & inclusive participation 6
36 Box 4: Greenhouse gas emission 7
37 Box 5: Mean annual & seasonal Temperature trends 8
38 Box 6: Mean annual & seasonal precipitation trends 9
39 Table 1: Examples of Adaptation & Mitigation 12
40 Table 2: Key Methods of soil conservation and management 13
41 Table 3: Water conservation & Management 14
42 Table 4: Prioritization of adaptation options 17
43 Table 5: Action planning of adaptation option 17
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Collaboration on Climate-smart Agriculture, SNV Bhutan and the Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture & Forests, Royal Government of Bhutan
FOREWORD
The Climate Change has emerged as an overwhelming challenge for the world which if not
attended to intellectually has the potential to serious cripple socio-economic development. The
impacts will be felt the most by the poorer sections of the society who mostly live on rural
agriculture due to low resilience. Realizing this Government of Bhutan has prioritized
mainstreaming climate issues into the general developmental plans. The Department of
Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Forests is fully committed to supporting our country
especially the agricultural farmers from the adverse impact of climate. This requires allocation of
resources to help support our smallholder farmers to enhance their abilities to respond to the ills of
climate change. In order to achieve this goal, we must find the root causes of climate change and
adapt to the impacts and share such information, knowledge, and technology in order to keep our
agriculture alive. One of the best methods to address climate change is by building capacity of our
farmers to understand climate changes, its potentials and threats and how to plan and execute
quick, low cost adaptation strategies. I am happy that Climate-smart Agriculture supported and
facilitated by SNV is coming out with this training manual to help extension agents and farmers
knowing about adaptation of agriculture to climate change. I must also admit that the Climate
Smart Agriculture (CSA) training manual could not have come at a better time.
This manual is an outcome of exhaustive process including desktop reviews, consultations with
experts from Department of Agriculture, Forest, SNV, and focus group discussions and individual
interviews with farmers. I would like to take this opportunity to urge our colleagues especially our
extension officers, farmers and WUAs to make full use of this manual to address climate change
more holistically. It is also recommended that extension officers support farmers in implementing
adaptation techniques for sustainable agriculture development.
I would also like to extend our sincere thanks to SNV Netherlands Development Organisation for
the CSA initiatives, technical and fund supports that have enabled us to work closely in all CSA
ventures including fielding-in Dr. Sonam Wangyel Wang, National Consultant from Happiness
Consulting Group for his expert service in developing this manual.
Tenzin Dhendup DIRECTOR GENERAL
Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Agriculture and Forest
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND
Bhutan is a small land locked country with a population of about 700,000 people of which over
70% are primarily subsistence agriculturists. However, the impacts of climate change in the forms
of extreme weather events, rainstorms, droughts, pest/diseases, and floods, which mostly affects
agriculture farms, crops, and water availability presents itself as a formidable challenge to
attaining food self-sufficiency especially given the limited ability of small holders to adapt to these
changes. Bhutan’s fragile geographical setting, lack of technological knowledge, and information
on climate impacts, and human capacity, further exacerbates this problem. Realizing this emerging
threat, the Department of Agriculture (DoA) with financial and technical support from SNV Bhutan
has undertaken a very promising initiative to produce this Climate Smart Agriculture (CSA)
training manual.
1.2. DEVELOPMENT OF THE CSA MANUAL
The manual has been produced to support extension officers in providing climate change
adaptation training to farmers in Bhutan. The manual provides information on climate change,
numerous adaptation initiatives including soil and water conservation, pest management,
improved crop cultivars, etc. With this manual, it is expected that extension officers will be able to
roll out training programs for farmers on a needs basis at specific locations. It is also
recommended that extension officers support farmers in implementing adaptation techniques and
also monitor and evaluate such actions.
The CSA training manual is an outcome of exhaustive process including desktop reviews,
consultations with experts from DoA, Forest, SNV, and focus group discussions and individual
interviews with farmers.
Desktop review of existing knowledge on climate science and agriculture including past studies,
reports, etc were carried out to generate information relevant to Bhutan’s context. Following this,
an expert level consultation was also carried out with key officials from Ministry of Agriculture and
Forests (MoAF), and SNV. Information thus gathered was partly used in developing the respondent
interview questionnaire.
Using the information thus generated, field visit was carried out in 7 sites in 3 Dzongkhags (Table
1) where the consultant conducted focus group meetings, respondent interviews, and field
observations. Data thus generated was entered into an EXCEL database and analyzed to ascertain
impacts and its implications for agriculture and farmers level of knowledge about climate change.
Some of the key findings from the field are summarized in appendix 1:
These findings along with information gathered from desktop review and expert consultation were
used to form a benchmark for development of this training manual. Preliminary findings and a
draft training manual outline were then presented to a team of officials from DoA and SNV.
Upon endorsement of the draft manual, it was pre-tested in three sites (Palokha, Rubesa Gewog,
Wangdue Dzongkhag, Goserling Gewog, Tsirang, and Chuzegang, Sarpang Dzongkhag) in three
Dzongkhags where actual training was imparted to the extension officers and select farmers.
Experiences and feed backs from the pre-testing exercise were used to further refine the manual
both in content and organization and submitted to DoA and SNV. Based on the final comments the
CSA manual has been edited and structured into 5 different parts as detailed below:
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MANUAL OUTLINE PURPOSE
1. Introduction To introduce CSA manual, its objectives, and background.
2. Session 1: Climate Change
To introduce the trainers and farmers to climate change, causes, risks, and impacts
3. Session 2: Responding to Climate Change: Adaptation
To expose the trainer and the farmers to a variety of local and scientific approaches available for adapting to climate change To identify doable climate adaptation options
4. Session 3: Action Planning
To prioritize the best adaptation options and plan for implementation
5. Summary To reflect back on the training and summarize experiences.
1.3. TARGET GROUPS
The CSA training manual has been developed to support extension officers in providing climate
change adaptation training to farmers in Bhutan. The targeted groups for the training are the
agricultural farmers.
1.4. OBJECTIVES OF THE TRAINING
To understand climate change, its causes, and impacts on agriculture;
To be able to apply local and scientific information to indentify and prioritize feasible
adaptation options.
1.5. TIPS TO THE TRAINERS
Tips to the trainers are provided as an additional tool to make the training sessions participatory
and effective. Trainers are encouraged to thoroughly read the tips as well as the CSA manual
thoroughly and make notes wherever possible to supplement the power point presentation
provided with the manual.
BOX 1- GENERAL TIPS FOR SUCCESSFUL FACILITATION
Below are some general tips that will enhance the chance of a successful facilitation process: Be well prepared and have clear objectives and goals of the workshop. Session objectives should be
clear as well and shared with the participants. Be informal, friendly and open. Seek contacts and discussions. Be open to new ideas and directions. Be positive, enthusiastic, and focused. Park or table topics that will derail the focus of the session. Be entertaining (e.g. use jokes and stories), do not lecture but listen, listen, listen. Maintain a balance of content and process. Include variety of activities. Summarize. Work toward consensus whenever possible and agree on group actions.
BOX 2- GROUP DIVISION AND WORK
Group work means working in team through common consensus and active participation from all the
team members to achieve a specific result. The trainer must communicate clearly the objective, expected outcome of the group work and guide
questions. The trainer may also like to double confirm by asking the trainees to repeat them.
Adequate time should be given for group work. The trainer must refrain from volunteering suggestions, personal opinions and/or leading questions.
However, the trainer could provide examples and clarify the advantages and disadvantages of different options while ensuring to remain as neutral as possible.
Breaking the participants into smaller groups to perform a specific task is called group division. The division can follow a randomized method (to obtain equal representation) or stratified based on specific criteria (on) so as to encourage active and inclusive participation (e.g. separate groups of women and men; separate groups of more dominant and reserved participants so as to ensure the dominating participants do not influence the whole group thinking and the shy participants do get a
chance to speak up and be heard).
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BOX 3- TIPS TO ENSURE ACTIVE & INCLUSIVE PARTICIPATION
Active and inclusive participation engaging all groups and individuals (women, men, girls, boys, old
women and men, etc. especially the most vulnerable ones like the poor women and men and the disabled women and men) is critical for any successful facilitation. Participation must not limit to just numbers and physical presence but quality participation.
Below are some specific tips for ensuring active and inclusive participation during the facilitation
process. Allow participants to learn from one another, encourage them to listen to each other. Enforce
positive and respectful interaction among participants. Facilitate and use the local language(s) of the participants. Be gender sensitive: make sure women are also made comfortable to share their own views and
ideas. Be aware that women and men may have different views given their different needs and experiences.
Ask open-ended questions and keep an eye contact with all participants. Clarify difficult content or discussions with examples, but do not overuse stories because participants
might get bored. Trust your participants; all have good ideas and good questions. Offer encouragement, praise, and recognition for any questions, suggestions. Encourage constructive differences of opinions. Keep participation balanced; encourage less active members to participate. Give everybody an equal
chance to speak. Vary the participatory tools and visual aids to fit the group and to add interest. Pay attention to participants’ reactions, moods, and attentiveness. Use energizers if needed.
1.6. TRAINING MATERIALS REQUIRED
To conduct the training, the facilitator requires the following materials:
Two to three numbers of Flip charts, (pre-prepared Problem tree and the tables)
Marker pens (different colors) Posted Pads LCD Projector Power point presentation (provided with the manual) Videos (provided with the manual)
2. SESSION 1: CLIMATE CHANGE
TECHNICAL STEPS TO BEGIN
i. The trainer introduces her/himself and facilitates the introduction of the participants.
ii. The trainer then introduces the objectives of the training and outlines the training
program (Appendix 2).
iii. Next, the trainer elicits the perception of climate change (aimed at getting a feel for
the knowledge of the participants regarding climate change and also to make
participants feel involved right from the beginning). Ask the trainees to write on post it
pads, how they perceive climate change in their village. The trainer will accordingly
arrange their responses on a flip chart into groups such as climate signals (like
temperature and rainfall) and effects of climate change (like loss in crop, etc).
iv. From now on, the trainer can proceed with the rest of the training using the power
point presentation as a tool.
2.1. WHAT IS CLIMATE CHANGE?
Climate change according to scientific research is the warming of the planet, which has greatly
increased during the last few decades due to human influence. Climate change induces changes in
temperature, rainfall, and wind patterns.
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In a natural setting, solar energy heats the earth and as the temperature rises, the heat is
radiated back through the atmosphere into the space. As it does, a belt of greenhouse gases (GHGs) that keeps the earth warm for human habitation absorbs some of the heat. The main gases that create greenhouse effect are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O).
2.2. WHY IS CLIMATE CHANGING?
Climate change is caused by excessive amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which traps more than necessary heat that causes global warming inducing climatic variations. Major sources of these gases are mainly from human activities such as large expansion of industry,
accelerated growth of population, burning of petroleum, coal and natural gas, as well as land use change and forestry, and agricultural activities. In Bhutan livestock is a major source of greenhouse gases (Box 4).
BOX 4- STATE OF GREEN HOUSE GAS EMISSION BY BHUTAN (ADAPTED FROM NEC SECOND NATIONAL
COMMUNICATION TO THE UNFCC)
Total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, excluding Land use change and Forestry (LUCF), in 2000
were 1,559.56 Gg CO2-equivalent, which includes 270.23 Gg CO2-equivalent from energy; 237.76 Gg CO2-equivalent from industrial processes; 1,005.30 Gg CO2-equivalent from agriculture, and 46.27 Gg CO2-equivalent from waste. CO2 sequestration by the forestry and land use sector in 2000 amounted to 6,309.6 Gg. Total GHG emissions, including LUCF, are estimated to be -4,750.04 Gg CO2-equivalent, indicating that Bhutan is a net
sink for GHG emissions. Emission trends were also estimated for 1994- 2009. Emissions have been growing mostly in the energy and industrial sector. Between the first GHG Inventory year of 1994
and the second inventory year of 2000, emissions from energy grew at 21.4% a year mostly due to transport and industry growth. Emissions from industrial processes grew at about 8.7% a year.
In 2000, agricultural activity contributed about 64.5% of Bhutan’s total GHG emissions with majority of emissions associated with methane from enteric fermentation (40%) followed by agricultural soils (mainly from use of animal waste) and nitrous oxide from livestock management.
2.3. WHAT ARE THE CLIMATE RISKS AND IMPACTS ON AGRICULTURE?
Impacts of climate change on agriculture can differ by agro ecological zones. Results of the field
study confirmed the impacts of climate change in Bhutan as:
Crop yield instability. Loss of production and quality (due to variable rainfall, temperature,
delayed sowing (late rainfall). etc.); Decreased water availability for irrigation and domestic use due to drying of water
sources;
Loss of soil fertility due to erosion of topsoil, runoff and lack of proper soil and land management practices;
Loss of fields due to flash floods, landslides and rill & gully formations; Deteriorated produce quality (fruit & vegetables) by untimely incessant heavy rains and hailstorms; Damage to crops by sudden early (paddy) and late spring (potato) frost (ref. seasons
shifting); Outbreak of pests and diseases in the fields and during storage where they were
previously unknown;
Increased risk of extinction of already threatened crop species (traditional crop varieties).
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2.4. SCIENTIFIC PREDICATIONS IN CLIMATE AND RAINFALL
The National Environment Commission has predicted (NEC) a trend of rising mean summer and winter temperatures from 2000-2009. However, there was no detectable trend for precipitation. Using the existing weather information and using state of the art technology, As evidenced in Boxes 5 and 6, NEC has predicted temperature and rainfall patterns for Bhutan in the short (2010-2039) and long term (2010-2069). It is estimated temperature will increase by 3.5oC by 2069
accompanied by about 500ml increase in annual rainfall/precipitation. Climate smart agriculture strategies will have to bear in mind these scientific predictions.
BOX 5- MEAN ANNUAL AND SEASONAL AIR TEMPERATURE TRENDS (C):1980-2069
The annual trends in annual mean temperature between 1980 and 2069 are shown in
Figure 4.2.3. The climate model outputs of air temperature show a progressive and steady increase in air temperature from 1980 to 2069. However, there is a difference of ~ 1.5C, between the downscaled HadCM3Q0 and ECHAM5 simulations, the HadCM3Q0
simulations being higher. This may well be due to the way the two models vary certain
parameters such as corrections for elevation, Bhutan being largely a mountainous country. The HadCM3Q0 simulations show an increase of 3.5C by 2069 (from ~ 13.5C
in 1980) to ~ 17.0Cin 2069) and ECHAM5 simulations show a similar magnitude of
temperature increase of 3.5C(from 12.0C to ~15.5C).
The seasonal trends in monsoon/summer mean temperature between 1980 and 2069
show similar trends (Figure 4.2.4) with a steady increase from 1980 to 2069 under both HadCM3Q0 and ECHAM5. Again, there is a difference of ~ 1.5C, between the downscaled
HadCM3Q0 and ECHAM5 simulations, the HadCM3Q0 simulations being higher. Under
HadCM3Q0 temperature during the monsoon wet season increases by ~ 3.0C (from ~
19.5C in 1980 to ~ 22.5C in 2069) and
ECHAM5 also shows a similar change of ~ 3.0C
(from ~ 17.5C in 1980 to ~ 20.5C in 2069).
Mean temperature for winter between 1980 and 2069 also show similar trends (Figure 4.2.5) with both the HadCM3Q0 and ECHAM5 showing a progressive and steady increase in air temperature from 1980 to 2069. There is a difference of less than 1.0C between the
downscaled HadCM3Q0 and ECHAM5
simulations, the HadCM3Q0 simulations again
being higher. Under HadCM3Q0, temperature during the winter increases by about 4.0C
(from ~ 6.75C in 1980 to ~ 10.75C in 2069).
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ECHAM5 simulations also show a steady increase of temperature during the dry winter season, increasing by 3.5C (from ~ 6.5C in 1980 to ~ 10.0C in 2069).
Both the downscaled HadCM3Q0 and ECHAM5 climate models project slightly higher temperature increases in the winter, similar to those for South-East Asia, from ensemble model simulations in Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC).
BOX 6- MEAN ANNUAL AND SEASONAL TOTAL PRECIPITATION TRENDS (MM)
The annual trends in annual mean total precipitation between 1980 and 2069, based on down-scaled simulations of both the HadCM3Q0 and ECHAM5 climate models are shown in Figure 4.2.6.
Both climate models show a progressive and steady increase in precipitation from 1980 to 2069. While there is a difference of ~ 100 mm/ year between the downscaled HadCM3Q0 and ECHAM5 simulations, both show steady increases in precipitation. ECHAM5 shows a steady increase of ~ 600mm/year in precipitation/rainfall (from ~ 2,000 mm/year in 1980 to ~ 2,600 mm/year in 2069), and HadCM3Q0 simulations shows an increase of ~500mm/year in annual precipitation/
rainfall, (from ~ 1,900 mm/year to ~ 2,400 mm/ year).
The seasonal trends in mean total seasonal precipitation during the monsoon from 1980 and 2069 are shown in Figure 4.2.7. Both climate model outputs for monsoonal season precipitation/rainfall show a progressive and steady increase in precipitation from 1980 to 2069. There is a difference of ~ 200mm between the downscaled HadCM3Q0 and ECHAM5 simulations but both show steady increase in monsoon precipitation.
Show Video: The Story of Agriculture and the Green Economy
EXERCISE 1: DEVELOPING A LIST OF IMPACTS AND VULNERABILITIES IN
AGRICULTURE A) ALIGNING PERSPECTIVES ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Guiding questions
i. What are the differences in how you perceive climate change vs scientific approaches? ii. What are the limitations in personal perceptions vs scientific approaches?
Expected output
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a) Trainer understands a baseline assessment of farmer knowledge regarding climate
change. b) Participants understand climate change and its causes. c) Participants understand limitations of personal perceptions and realizes the need to sync
both approaches
Steps The trainer must refer back to the personal perceptions on climate change and its effect,
which were generated at the beginning of the presentation. Show them the arranged list and explains the difference between signals and effects
(impacts). A discussion must be generated to allow participants to appreciate both their perceptions
and scientific data.
B) GROUP WORK PREPARATION ON CLIMATE CHANGE
Guiding questions
i. What are the main problems that climate change provokes? ii. Is everyone aware of the methodology of the group work? iii. Does everyone know which group they belong to?
Expected output
a) Participants are aware of the objectives and the methodology of the group work. b) Participants have been grouped.
Steps
To begin, the participants are asked to prioritize the main problems that climate change
provokes by choosing them out of the list of climate change impacts identified at the beginning and segregated in step 1.
The best results can be achieved by selecting biophysical impacts (e.g. drought, pest, wind storm) instead of socio economic impacts (e.g. reduced productivity, poverty, etc.). Each group must be assigned one problem.
The trainer then uses a pre-prepared problem tree to explain the group works (Diagram
of a Problem Tree is given in Appendix 3). A problem tree is a tool used in logical framework analysis to illustrate cause and effect relations. In this case, the problem tree could resemble an orange tree, chilli plant or paddy, etc depending on what is relevant locally, which is suffering one of the main problems (lack of water, pest, wind storms,
etc.) of climate change.
In the middle of the plant the problem is written, indicating that the plant is hampered in
its development by this problem. The objective here is to allow farmers to identify the impacts on and the vulnerabilities of crop production in their village based on the personal perceptions and scientific findings presented before.
The impacts on the plant can be written on post it pads and posted on the top of the tree
and each group is allocated one impact.
Next, the group focuses on the root causes (vulnerabilities). Causes that are closer to the problem are pinned closer to the trunk where the roots are drawn. The roots causes are the reasons for the primary causes. For every category (impact and causes) an example is given. Now, the trainer asks if there any questions.
C) GROUP WORK TO BRAIN STORM AND IDENTIFY IMPACTS AND VULNERABILITIES IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN
LOCAL VILLAGES/AREAS
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Guiding questions
i. What are the effects of climate change on agriculture (paddy, chilly, vegetable, etc.) in your area?
ii. What are the reasons for these effects?
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Expected output
a) Participants identify present and future impacts of climate change on agriculture (could
differ based on their crops). b) Participants identify causes (vulnerabilities) for climate change impacts.
Steps Each group is provided with a problem tree (can be imagined as a paddy plant, chilly
plant, orange tree, or even a vegetable).
The groups first refer to the impacts of climate change induced problems on agricultural
production (crop that they choose) that were identified and presented in step 1 (personal
perception). Direct impacts are posted lower in the treetop, indirect impacts higher in the
tree top.
When the impacts are identified the vulnerabilities should be tackled by identifying the
causes for the problem. The answers should be grouped into three categories: maladjusted locations of the plantations (exposure), poor crop management (sensitivity) and weak adaptive capacities.
These categories can also help the facilitator formulate guiding questions for her/his
group. The closer the cause is related to the problem the closer to the trunk it is posted.
At the end of the group work, trainer asks one member of the group to present the
results to the participants.
D) PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF GROUP WORK
Guiding questions
i. What did you find out? ii. Are there differences in perceptions between the groups? Why?
Expected output
a) The participants exchange different views and explanations for climate change impacts. b) The participants reflect about causes (vulnerabilities) for climate change impacts.
Steps
The management in turn depends on framework conditions, e.g. farmer who invest time,
knowledge and money in their cultivation (adaptive capacity). The trainer here shows the farmers that a bad performer is more vulnerable to climate change and a good performer is more resistant to climate change impacts.
The discussion should end by the trainer saying that the locations of agriculture can hardly be changed and what can be improved are crop management practices and framework conditions. This change towards more reliance is called adaptation. This definition is written on the flip char
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3. SESSION 2: RESPONDING TO CLIMATE CHANGE : ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION
OPTIONS
3.1. DEFINE ADAPTATIONS AND MITIGATIONS TO CLIMATE CHANGE
The manual is developed to support farmers in adaptation to climate change; however it is also equally important to know a bit about mitigation. Adaptation is used to describe activities that help alleviate social, environmental, and economic impacts of climate change. As climate will continue to change, adaptation is not a one-time action;
rather it is a process of change that is implemented in response to a continually changing environment. Simply put adaptation is living with climate change. On the other hand, mitigation (farmer need not know this) is an intervention that reduces emissions of greenhouse gasses to minimize the speed and scale of climate change. In agriculture
GHGs are produced from burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, and methane produced during decomposition of organic waste and from cattle. In Bhutan, livestock is a major emitter of methane while in other countries paddy cultivation is the major contributor.
TABLE 1: EXAMPLES OF ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION MEASURES
3.2. TECHNIQUES FOR CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION
There are numerous climate change adaptation techniques however; we will restrict ourselves to
practical adaptations that are relevant to Bhutan agriculture.
3.2.1. SOIL AND LAND MANAGEMENT
Fertile soil is a must for sustaining agriculture and livelihoods. Thus maintaining and improving soil fertility is an important way in which farmers can increase their resilience to climate change. Climate related events including high temperatures, floods, droughts, strong winds, and increased
evapo-transpiration can all reduce soil fertility. Soil fertility can also be lost through agriculture without the input of organic matter, deforestation, use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, etc. To maintain fertile soils, soil must contain organic matter, soil organisms and nutrients. Mineral fertilizers can improve soil fertility by supplementing soil nutrient content, but cannot improve soil organic matter content and organisms. Compost on the other hand can benefit soils in all these
elements.
Adaptation Mitigation
Develop and introduce extreme temperature and drought resistant crop varieties;
Improve soil and water management through techniques including agro-forestry or agro-silvo–pastoral systems to reduce soil erosion and run-off on steep slopes; also to mitigate heat stress and respiration problems;
Terracing and contour bunding; Convert wetland to dry land (from risks of: prolonged rain and flood
); Change cropping patterns; Improve or upgrade storage facilities to store and have access to food
grains as an insurance against crop loss or damage or bad yields; Create more off-farm or cash earning job opportunities (weaving,
constructions, road labor, etc.) for farmers who are affected by crop loss due to climate change effects (early/late rains, pest damage, frosts, hail storms or droughts).
Energy efficiency; Low carbon agriculture Change in agricultural
practices (e.g. avoid excessive use of
fertilizer); Change in consumer
behavior
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TABLE 2: KEY METHODS OF SOIL CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT FOR CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION.
Soil conservation methods Brief detail
Option 1 – cover crops
Easiest way to protect soil from erosion by water and wind
is to grow cover crops, which are planted as inter crops or
during no crop seasons.
Farmers are already aware of this methods and the
trainer can ask them to highlight to remind the
participants.
Option 2 – mulching
Mulching is process of covering of covering the top soil
with dead plant materials such as prunings from bushes,
trees, crop residues or straw or leaf litters to protect soil
from elements.
Discussion: ask farmers if they practice mulching? And if
yes share their experience with others
Option 3. Increasing organic matter and nutrient content
Soil organic matter also known as humus consists of
decomposed plants or animal residues such as compost or
well-rotted manure. Its presence allows the soil to hold
more water and nutrient thereby avoiding leaching and
making soil fertile. Organic matter also provides food for
soil organisms. A soil rich in organic matter tends to
appear dark. Composts are a good source of organic
matter
Option 3.1 – compost application
Combining organic materials at specific ratios creates
compost. It provides an organic but cheap alternative to
pricey chemical fertilizers, which are not good for soil in
the long run.
Activity: find out if there are farmers engaged into
composting. If yes then ask them to share the benefits of
using compost.
Option 4 – green manure
Green manure provides another option to add organic
matter to the soil. Green manures consist of plants that
are grown in the soil with the purpose of incorporating
them back into the soil to increase organic matter.
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Option 5 – liquid manures
Liquid fertilizers are made from animal manures or
chicken waste and are mostly used in vegetable gardens.
Steps to make liquid manure:
1. A sack full filled with animal manures or chicken
wastes are dipped into a bucket or drum full of
water;
2. Nutrients gets dissolved in water;
3. Remove the sack from the container; and
4. Apply the liquid manure at the base of the crops.
3.2.2. WATER CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT
Water is an indispensable commodity in agriculture either for irrigation, or domestic use. In most
areas, farmers’ livelihood depends on water availability, which can get difficult when dealing
having to wait for rains. With climate change, water sources are drying up displacing agricultural
farmers from their ancestral land or having to change their farming practices. Water conservation
and management is clearly a must, as we have no other alternative. Some of the water
conservation methods are given in Table 4.
TABLE 3: SHOWING WATER CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT METHODS
Water conservation methods Brief detail on how
Water source management/
protection
Water source protection is a process of protecting
watersheds, springs, wells, streams etc. from threats such as
deforestation, excessive grazing, and other human activities.
Activity: as farmers to identify traditional waters sources in
their area? List those that are dried, and drying. Are they
involved in protecting the water sources?
Rain water harvesting/storage
Rainwater harvesting is the collection of rainwater as it runs
off a surface. Easiest place to catch rainwater is from roof,
gulleys where we can use guttering to direct the rainwater
into a storage, which can be tank, or a pond, reservoir or an
underground tank, where water can be used for drinking or
irrigation purposes.
Optimizing existing water (drip
irrigation, alternate wetting,
drying)
Optimizing water is perhaps most efficient way of conserving
water. Around the world, water use is maximized in
agriculture using drip irrigation technology and alternate
wetting and drying methods. In Bhutan traditionally, water
rationing and using pipes to water plants is practiced.
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3.2.3. INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT
Climate change affects agricultural pests. The spatial and temporal distribution and proliferation of
pests is determined to a larvae extent by climate, because temperature, light, and waters are
major factors controlling their growth and development. Most established literature show that in
warmer climate, pest become more active than currently and may expand their geographic range,
resulting in increased frequencies of pest outbreaks. This demands increased use of inorganic
pesticides, which are accompanied with health, ecological and economic costs. Higher
temperatures are also known to reduce the effectiveness of pesticides.
Pest is another adaptation challenge farmers especially in Bhutan have to grapple with to be food
secure. According to the farmer interviews, there is an increased frequency of pests and most
farmers reported relying on extension officers to solve their pest problem.
Integrated pest management presents an effective and environmentally sensitive approach to pest
management. It uses current, comprehensive information on the biology of pests in combination
with available pest control methods to control pests. Some of the cost effect and environmentally
sensitive methods include: crop rotation, multiple cropping, etc.
3.2.4. IMPROVED VARIETIES OF SEEDS/CULTIVARS
Global warming will alter the ambient conditions under which crops grow. One important
adaptation strategy is to use research and development to both conserve and improve local
cultivars and to research and develop climate resilient varieties of crops. For example dryland
paddy is gaining popularity in some parts of Bhutan (e.g. Digala village under Zhemgang geog).
Show Video: Water harvesting
EXERCISE 2: IDENTIFICATION OF ADAPTATION OPTIONS (ADAPTATION & MITIGATION)
A) GROUP WORK TO IDENTIFY ADAPTATION OPTIONS
Guiding questions
i. What can poor performers do to adapt to climate change?
Expected output
a) Different adaptation options get identified.
Steps Working with the same group as before, groups will identify appropriate adaptation
options referring back to the causes (vulnerabilities) of the problem tree. This time, an
adaptation option is identified for each cause and posted on the flip chart.
Trainer must make it clear to the groups that adaptation options should not be limited
due to feasibility considerations. B) PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF GROUP WORK
Guiding questions
i. What are the outcomes from your group work? ii. Are there differences in findings and perceptions between the groups?
Expected output
a) Participants exchange a variety of ideas about adaptation options.
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b) Participants also think about the suitability of the adaptation options and ask why?
Steps
The trainer asks the group appointed leader to present the findings of the group work to
the participants, following which a discussion will be facilitated by the trainer.
If not already voiced by the participants, the trainer must pick out some adaptation
options, whose feasibility is questionable, and thereby driving the point that utility of
adaptation options needs research and sometimes the benefits could be marginal.
EXERCISE 3: PRIORITIZATION OF ADAPTATION OPTIONS
Guiding questions
i. Of the list generated in step 2, which ones would you prioritize for implementation based
on the selected criteria?
ii. Do the selected options address the range of vulnerabilities?
iii. Do the options overlap or complement each other?
Expected output
a) Participants have learnt to prioritize adaptation options based on a criteria
b) The participants also reflect on the criteria and either adapt or modify them.
Steps
This step allows the participants to select adaptation options based on some technical
criteria.
The trainer asks the groups to transfer the adaptation options identified in step 2 into
column 1 of the table below, which is provided in a flip chart.
With assistance of the trainer, the groups finalize the criteria presented in the table
(effectiveness, low cost, feasibility) and devise new one if necessary (e.g. ecological
sustainability, no of beneficiaries, etc).
Each adaptation option is then scored from 1 (lowest) to 3 (highest) and adding the
scores carries out evaluation.
The group leader must ensure that group is in agreement that the results address the
range of vulnerabilities. The groups must also identify if the options will be effective
together and if they complement each other.
The group findings are then presented to the participants for feedback and discussion.
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TABLE 4: PRIORITIZATION OF ADAPTATION OPTIONS
Adaptation option Criteria
Effectiveness Low cost Feasibility Total score
4. SESSION 3: ACTION PLANNING FOR IMPLEMENTATION
Guiding questions
i. Who are the key partners in implementation of local adaptation options?
ii. What are the key inputs needed for a successful implementation and where will they
come from?
Expected output
a) The participants identify the main stakeholders that need to be involved in
implementation of adaptation options.
b) The participants understand that farmers are the main actor in adaptation.
c) Necessary inputs required in the implementation are identified.
d) Participants also realize that financial issues are as important.
Steps
The trainer asks the groups to select an adaptation options each (preferably the top ones
from Step 3 under session 2 and ask the participant to identify the most responsible
institution or person for its implementation.
The expected answer is, the agriculture farmer. This answer must be written in the middle
of the flip chart.
The trainer then generates a list of other important stakeholders to support the farmer by
asking the participants.
TABLE 5: ACTION PLANNING FOR THE TOP ADAPTATION OPTION SELECTED.
Stake holders Roles Inputs Sources Time Frame
5. SUMMARY
5.1. SUMMARY BY PARTICIPANTS
The trainer asks the participants to summarize in their words the experience and share concerns.
Participants may also exchange ideas.
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5.2.CONCLUDING REMARKS BY THE TRAINER
The trainer must summarize the training program highlighting achievements, what worked and
what didn’t, concerns, and recommendations for participants.
5.3.EVALUATION OF THE TRAINING PROGRAM
The trainer asks the participants to evaluate the training program and provide suggestions for
improvement. The evaluation of the training must include presentation, style and content and can
be rated out of 10.
6. APENDICES
Appendix 1: Key findings from the field study
TABLE 1: RESPONDENT PROFILE (N = 127, 2013)
Dzongkhag Gewog/village Target groups N
Gender Age
F (n) M (n) < >
Punakha Talo Water users group 25 5 20 7 18
Sarpang Chuzegang Water users group 25 10 15 12 13
Samteling Vegetable group 18 9 9 10 8
Sershong Water users group 12 4 8 5 7
Tsirang Goserling Vegetable group 27 10 17 17 10
Wangdue Kazi Water user group 14 8 6 3 11
Rubesa/Palokha Dollo chilly group 13 8 5 10 3
TABLE 2: CROP PRODUCTION AND INPUT TRENDS REPORTED BY RESPONDENTS (N = 127, 2013)
INPUT TRENDS PRODUCTION TRENDS
(% respondents reporting)
CROPS
(Rice, Maize,
Vegetables,
Chilly
Inputs
FYM, Fertilizers,
pesticides, labor
Trend
Increasing
Increasing
6
Decreasin
g
77
Same
17
20
to control diseases,
weeds and
to increase
productivity
-increase in use of
agricultural inputs,
-use of improved
variety and
-increase in land
size.
-unfavorable
climatic conditions,
-labor shortage,
-disease outbreak
and
-damage by wild
animals
TABLE 3: TRENDS IN WATERSHED RESOURCES AS REPORTED BY RESPONDENTS (N = 127, 2013)
Trends Respondents% Reason
Recommendations to
sustain watershed
resources
Decrease 77
-drought
-increased population
-climatic variations -protection of water source
-afforestation
-land management
-reduce or ban power chains
-restrict grazing
Steady 19
-no change in volume of water
-tap water supply
-irrigation
Increase 4 -irrigation
-rainwater
TABLE 4: TYPES OF EXTREME CLIMATIC VARIATIONS AND IMPACTS EXPERIENCED AND COPING
MECHANISMS REPORTED (N=127, 2013).
Extreme
variations
Impacts Coping mechanisms
Drought
Delayed onset of
rain
Landslide
Soil erosion
Early onset of rain
Prolonged rain
Negative impact on livelihood for eg.
low production from field, shortage of
food, no surplus to sell, etc.
Negative impact on income i.e.,
decrease in household income
Loss of Properties for eg. land being
washed away, forest fire
Switch farming/ cropping systems
Reduce food intake?
Pray to god
Use stored food
Leave land fallow and look for off-farm
work
Request remittances from family members
Seek kidu for resettlement elsewhere.
REMARKS ON THE FINDINGS
Connection between climate changes, impacts, agriculture is poorly understood.
Extension agents and Gewog officials are aware/some vaguely on this subject.
A lot of ah-ha moments were observed when we explained some facts about climate
change to the participants.
This important initiative by DoA and SNV could not have come at a better time then now.
I feel that post training, if anything the ignorance will be lifted and adaptation measure
each or two will be implemented in each area.
Recommendations
Agricultural adaptation as a priority agenda
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Research to deepen understanding into climate, agriculture and food security/poverty
nexus
Development, dissemination and extension of drought and disease tolerant crop varieties
should be ensured as priority
Low carbon-climate smart agriculture
Early warning systems to be developed and strengthened to inform farmer about their
roles in impeding adverse weather and climatic conditions (information on agro-
meteorology and agro-climatic data and forecast of the planting and harvesting time with
possible yield of crops would be critically important).
Integrated management of water sources/watersheds
Knowledge transfer _ capacity building of extension officers/farmers
APPENDIX 2. TRAINING PROGRAM OUTLINE
0830 Registration of participants Local EO
0845 Opening remarks Local Official
0900 Introduction of the trainer and the participants Trainer/Farmers
0920 Training objectives and program outline Trainer
0930 Exercise to gather participants perception on climate change Trainer
1000 Climate change, its causes, and impacts Trainer
1030 Videos to highlight information & Discussion Trainer
1100
to 1300
Exercise 1. Developing a list of impacts and vulnerabilities Farmers
Group work preparation Farmers
Group work to brain storm and identify impacts and vulnerabilities in agricultural production in local villages
Farmers
Presentation and discussion of group work Representative
1400 to 1700
Responding to climate change: Adaptation and Mitigation Trainer
Exercise 2: Identification of adaptation options Farmers
Group work to identify adaptation options Farmers
Group presentation and discussion Representative
DAY 2
0900 Prioritization of adaptation options Farmers
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1000 Action planning for implementation Trainer/Farmer
s
1200 Group work to identify key stakeholders and inputs Farmers
1400 Group presentation and discussion Farmers
1630 Summary by participants Farmers
1500 Concluding remarks by the trainer Trainer
1520 Evaluation of the training program Farmers
APPENDIX 3: SAMPLE PROBLEM TREE
Appendix 4: Community Assessment Tools
# Tool used Purpose Process
1 Crop Phenology Find out the critical stages of the crop growth,
harvesting and post-harvest handling
Group discussion on year
calendar
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2 Timeline Find out the history of crop production in the
village and major shifts in terms of cultivation
practices and marketing, also to mark the
years where major climatic factors & effects on
production system
Group discussion
3 Comparative
Seasonal Calendar
of the crop
Prepare the annual work calendar on
comparative basis (now and 10-15 years ago).
Map out the comparative observation of
weather factors in terms of intensity, time shift
and others
Group discussion on year
calendar
4 Crop Vulnerability
Mapping
Identify the vulnerability of the producers to
climatic factors and map out their intensity
Spider web
5 Geo-social Map Map out the locations of the orchard and
vulnerable points from climatic factors
Generic sketch of the area on
paper by participant/s
6 Livelihood Profiling Know the overall livelihoods of the community Discussion on financial,
human, natural and social
capitals including mobility
map
7 Stakeholders
Mapping
Know the actors in the overall values chain and
the relationships with them
Venn- diagram
8 Prioritization of Strategies and Actions
9 Action Plan Development
Note: On top of the above tools, key informants interview held on the climate change issues. Lead
farmers, government expert/extensions’, research scientist and private sector people are amongst
them.
REFERENCES
Department of Local Government (undated). Hand book on Mainstreaming Environment, Climate-Change and Poverty (ECP) issues into local development plans and programs. Thimphu Bhutan.
FAO (2008). Climate Change, Water and Food Security. Technical background documents document from the expert consultation. FAO, Rome.
NEC (2011). Second National Communication to UNFCC. Thimphu Bhutan.
ICIMOD (2010). Climate Change Vulnerability of Mountain Ecosystems in the Eastern Himalayas.
Kathmandu, Nepal.
Ministry of Environment and Forest (2002). Initial National Communication under the United Nationals framework Convention on Climate Change. Dhaka, Bangladesh.
Ministry of Environment and Forest (2009) Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan 2009. Dhaka,
Bangladesh.
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International assessment of agricultural knowledge, science and technology (2009). Synthesis
report of the global and sub global IAASTD reports. Island Press, Connecticut Avenue, Washington D.C. Wang, S.W. (2011) State of climate change adaptation and mitigation efforts for agriculture in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, and Nepal. A country level reports. Climate Change Agriculture and
Food Security. Wang, S.W. (2011) Assessing the current state of adaptation and mitigation efforts in South Asian Agriculture. A synthesis report. Climate Change Agriculture and Food Security. Wang, S.W. (2011). Report on the outcomes from Expert Group Workshop on low carbon pathways in Indian Agriculture. International Water Management Institute. New Delhi