critical perspectives question 1b

CRITICAL PERSPECTIVES

SECTION 1b

(Adapted from materials from S-O-T College)

MEDIA LANGUAGEMedia language is difficult to write about in that all aspects of this section require us to use Media Language.

THE FIRST AREA WE WILL FOCUS UPON:SEMIOTICS - how meaning is constructed through language and codes.

THEORIES WE WILL STUDY:

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) - the signifier and signified

Roland Barthes (1913-1980) - denotation and connotation Stuart Hall (1981) – encoding and decoding (preferred reading)

Basically, this theory bears similarities to connotation and denotation, in that it suggests how there can be two levels of meaning in an object within a media text.

Firstly there’s the signifier—which is what is there in front of us, what we see, the form the sign takes. Then there’s the signified—which is an idea we associate with the signifier, the concept it represents.

THE SIGN OR SYMBOL WE SEE DOES NOT MAKE SENSE WITHOUT THE ACTUAL OBJECT AND THE MEANING IT CREATES.

For example, if in a film the characters are talking about a bank, its up to the audience to determine which bank they mean—a grassy slope or a place to deposit your money?

THINK ABOUT HOW YOU HAVE CREATED MEANINGS IN YOUR PRODUCTION WORK… CAN AUDIENCES CLEARLY MAKE SENSE OF DIFFERENT SIGNS YOU USE? OR IS THERE ANYTHING AMBIGUOUS – SOMETHING THAT ISN’T CLEAR TO THE AUDIENCE?

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) - the signifier and signified

Roland Barthes (1913-1980) - denotation and connotation

This is a theory we are all familiar with and looks at how the audience will interpret meaning from a particular media text. However, this interpretation is often influenced by society and the audience member’s own experience of the world.

The denotation is an object placed within media texts, eg a poppy. It is then up to the audience to draw on their own cultural, social and historical knowledge to interpret its connotations.

For example: is it just a red flower or do we think of war, violence, death, armistice. So the basic idea of denotation and connotation is what we see in a text and then what ideas we think of after or ideas we associate with that image.

WRITE A LIST OF ALL THE OBJECTS IN YOUR PRODUCTION THAT HAVE CONNOTATIONS ATTACHED TO THEM.

THINK ABOUT HOW DIFFERENT AUDIENCES MIGHT RESPOND.

Stuart Hall (1981)Encoding and Decoding

Continuing to look at meanings within a media text, Hall’s theory thinks about the preferred meaning of a text.

If something is encoded it is what is written within a media text. An image has been placed in the text by the producer and will challenge or promote dominant ideologies. Decoding is when the audience reads into this piece of media and makes their own interpretation of what the image means. Hall thinks the media circulates dominant ideas, and his theory says that producers place dominant ideas in different media. So basically, they would have cleverly encoded their views and opinions into say a film or newspaper article with the intention of the audience interpreting this preferred or intended meaning.

Hall says there are three ways the audience decodes texts:

1) The audience fully accepts the preferred meaning, showing they agree with dominant values.

2) The audience takes a negotiated position, meaning that they only agree with some-not all of the preferred meaning.

3) The audience takes an oppositional position, whereby they understand the preferred meaning but decide to make their own interpretation

WRITE A LIST OF ALL THE VALUES YOU ENCODED IN YOUR VIDEO PRODUCT. WHAT WERE YOUR PREFERRED MEANINGS? DO YOU THINK AUDIENCES PICKED UP ON THIS?

Stuart Hall (1981)Reception Theory


SECTION 1b)REPRESENTATION

REPRESENTATION

The way people, places,

events are shown through

media texts

Can be done through mise-

en-scene, camera or dialogue

Can be negative or

positive

Can be real or inaccurate

Can promote or challenge

dominant ideologies

Can be stereotypical

REPRESENTATION THEORY

These are the theories we will be focusing upon when looking at representation:

Roland Barthes– Mythologies

Laura Mulvey—The Male and Female Gaze

REPRESENTATION THEORYRoland Barthes– Mythologies

Barthes representation theory looks at myths—usually about people and place. Basically, his theory suggests how the media offers mythic representations, or a fairytale-like portrayal of a particular place of person.

Think about it… is London really the friendly, bustling community it is wonderfully presented as in the opening sequence of Notting Hill? Or is it much more urban, gritty and erm… real life? And what about the area’s ethnic population—did they just forget to represent them in the film?

HAVE YOU REPRESENTED A PERSON, SOCIAL GROUP OR PLACE IN A “FAIRY TALE” LIKE WAY IN YOUR COURSEWORK?

REPRESENTATION THEORYLaura Mulvey—The Male and Female Gaze

Laura Mulvey is a contemporary media theorist, who came up with the idea of how film producers make films from a male point of view. It’s called the male gaze, where the woman on screen is the object of desire. Film audiences have always been encouraged to identify with the protagonist of the film, who in most cases is a bloke. Women on the hand are, according to Mulvey, coded with "to-be-looked-at-ness." She wanted a new feminist approach to filmmaking, to get rid of the “patriarchal” system that was in place. And that was achieved by a role reversal or the female gaze, where instead of the woman being the object of desire it now becomes the man.

THINK ABOUT YOUR PRODUCT – HAVE YOU CONSTRUCTED A CHARACTER OR ARTIST/BAND MEMBER TO SIMPLY APPEAL TO THE OPPOSITE SEX?

GENRE

SECTION AQUESTION 1b)

WHAT IS GENRE?Genre is the classification of any media text into a category or type: e.g. news, horror, documentary, soap opera, docu-soap, science-fiction or lifestyle etc.

Genres tend to have identifiable codes and conventions which have developed particular expectations, which may either be fulfilled or denied / diverted by the producer.

You should consider typicality and subversion, as well as sub-genres or generic hybrids. The significance of genre to audiences, producers, publishers and broadcasters should also be carefully considered.

Using the handout, list the conventions you used in your chosen media product.

DOES GENRE EXIST?Film Theorist Rick Altman argues that there is no such thing as “pure” genre anymore. Genre is progressive, in that it will always change.

He says that generic conventions are very much a thing of the past. His theory suggests that audiences, in general have become tired of the same formula and need more to keep them entertained and to create appeal.

He says that genre is surviving due to hybridisation – or genres “borrowing” conventions from one another and thus being much more difficult to categorise.

Watch the trailer for Shaun of the Dead.http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yfDUv3ZjH2k

Try to identify which genres are evident in the trailer by listing the conventions from each genre.

On your handout, list the conventions you have developed or “borrowed” from other genres

AN EXAMPLE OF HYBRID GENRE

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yfDUv3ZjH2k

GENRE THEORY – DANIEL CHANDLER

Daniel Chandler is a former Media student at Aberystwyth University. He researched Genre in detail, identifying key components and formulas.

His work can be found at:

http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/intgenre/intgenre.html

The following slide details the ways in which, according to his research, genre can be identified.


NARRATIVE - similar plots and structures, predictable situations, sequences, episodes, obstacles, conflicts and resolutions.CHARACTERS - similar types of characters (sometimes stereotypes), roles, personal qualities, motivations, goals, behaviour.THEMES - topics, subject matter (social, cultural, psychological, professional, political, sexual, moral), ideologies and values. SETTING - geographical and historical;ICONOGRAPHY - echoes the narrative, characters, themes and setting, a familiar stock of images or motifs, the connotations of which have become fixed. Includes décor, costume and objects, certain 'typecast' performers familiar patterns of dialogue, characteristic music and sounds, FILMING TECHNIQUES - stylistic or formal conventions of camerawork, lighting, sound-recording, use of colour, editing etc.


Using Daniel Chandler’s criteria, identify how the following in your product help the audience to understand its genre:

NarrativeCharactersSetting

GENRE THEMES AND IDEOLOGIES

Values in a media product are not the same as codes and conventions. Values are the ideological and cultural ideas embedded in a film. In a Western, the lone gunslinger represents the power of good to destroy evil.

In gangster films greed and the lust for power or wealth undermine the possibly attractive, but deeply flawed, central gangster character. Jealousy, revenge, loyalty and deception are themes of many thrillers and crime movies.

In horror films the monsters and zombies can be interpreted as metaphors for serious diseases, death or destiny. In the end the films give some hope that the audience’s worst fears can be overcome.

In Bond films the audience feel safe in knowing that Bond (or his British MI5 equivalent) will save them from the political evils of the world – whatever they may be at the time

In Pop videos, the audience will often see good being represented as pop icons are often considered as role models for young children

On you handout, list the themes or ideologies that are conventional to your product

Have you developed these in any way?Have you “borrowed” themes from another genre?

GENRE THEMES AND IDEOLOGIES


SECTION 1b)

AUDIENCE

AUDIENCEThe consideration of audience is vital in Media Studies. You cannot answer ANY examination question without reference to you target audience, secondary audience, whether they are niche or mainstream. But most importantly, you have to acknowledge your awareness that different audiences will respond in different ways.

THEORIES WE WILL STUDY:

Blumler and Katz (1974) - Uses and Gratifications theoryEffects model/Hypodermic model

We will also look at the Social Demographics Table as a why to define an audience.

This idea was later developed by Richard Dyer in 1977, where basically it was decided that maybe the media audience isn’t passive at all and in fact they do actively make up their own minds about what they wish to consume from the media. Its simple to understand and remember: the audience uses the media to gratify their own needs. Blumler and Katz placed the audience into four categories that addressed the needs of members of the media audience. Diversion – a form of escape or emotional release from everyday pressures. Personal Relationships – companionship via television personalities and characters, and sociability through discussion about television with other people Personal Identity – the ability to compare one’s life with all the characters and situations within programmes/films and explore personal problems and perspectives. Surveillance – a supply of information about what’s going on in the world.

Blumler and Katz (1974) - Uses and Gratifications theory

Effects model/Hypodermic model

This was an idea developed in the early 20th Century whereby media theorists believed the media acted as a hypodermic syringe – injecting the audience with biased ideas and influencing their opinions. The theory suggests that the media brainwashes or drugs a passive audience with certain sets of values and it is responsible for reinforcing dominant rules, behaviours and ideologies. Its name comes from the idea of how the audience is drugged by the media

Social Demographics Table

When we identify a target audience, we have to look at a number of things to establish whether that particular media product is suitable for them. As well as looking at age, gender, ethnic background etc, we also have to look at the audience’s occupation as this can then determine an audience’s social class.

Social Grade Job

A Top management, bankers, lawyers, doctors and other professionals

B Middle management, teachers, many creative type jobs such as graphic designers etc

C1 Office supervisors, junior managers, nurses, specialist clerical staff etc

C2 Skilled workers, tradespersons

D Semi-skilled and unskilled manual workers

E Unemployed, students, pensioners and casual workers


SECTION 1b)

NARRATIVE

NARRATIVEAudiences’ understanding of a media product’s narrative is vital. The audience need clarity of what’s happening, whether it is at the end – all questions are answered, or understanding characters and their motives.

For meanings to be interpreted correctly by audiences, narratives can function in many ways:

OPEN – questions remain unanswered eg. a cliffhanger, the end of the first part of a serial.CLOSED – all questions are answered, e.g. a magazineLINEAR – the narrative is in order, it makes sense.NON-LINEAR/FRACTURED – out of order e.g a film trailer or use of flashbacksSINGLE STRANDED – one storyline in the media textMULTI-STRANDED – several storylines weaving into an overall narrative eg. Soap operas

There are a number of theories we can apply to narratives in media products.

Roland Barthes—narrative codesThis French critic devised five different narrative codes that we can use when analysing media products: Action code: The audience will recognise an action code in a media text as it is used to indicate what is the next logical step. It advances the narrative eg the buckling of a gun belt in a Western film signifies the start of a gun fight. Look at the following…. What do you think they indicate?Packing of a suitcase?Starting of a car engine?Whistle of approaching train?Flashing lights?

NARRATIVE THEORIES

BARTHES CONTINUED… Mystery Code or Enigma code: This code is used to explain the narrative by controlling what and how much information is given to the audience. It grabs the audience’s interest and attention by setting up an enigma or problem that is resolved during the course of the narrative. Eg, someone’s murderous hand in the opening sequence – who does it belong to? The Semic CodeBasically, this code is all about signs and meanings in a text that tell us about its narrative and characters. Eg, in a horror film, the supernatural would be signified by the fear of light/garlic, an increase in body hair etc. The Cultural CodeThis code is used in order for the narrative to make sense to a culturally and socially aware audience. It makes reference to elements from the real world that the audience will recognise, eg Aston Martins and Martinis in James Bond films. Code of OppositionsThis code refers to a narrative that relies on binary opposites, eg, black v white, hot v cold, male v female, nature v civilisation, war v peace etc.

YOUR TASK, QUESTION 2:

Consider both your AS music magazine and a product from your A2 coursework (but in isolation)

Identify which of Barthes Narrative Codes you have used.

How does the audience make sense of your narrative thanks to these codes?

Claude Levi-Strauss (1970)—binary opposites

Alike to Barthes, theorist Levi-Strauss (the man, not the jeans) also worked with the idea that there are binary opposites within media texts. He studied the myths of tribal cultures and discovered how there were underlying themes in these myths, such as darkness v light, good v evil. In media we look at his work to find out the underlying themes and symbolic oppositions in media texts. For example men v women, good v evil.

QUESTION 3: IDENTIFY ANY BINARY OPPOSITIONS IN ONE OF YOUR MEDIA

PRODUCTS

NARRATIVE THEORIES

NARRATIVE THEORIES

Tzvetan Todorov— Equilibrium and disequilibrium

Todorov looks at the way narratives are structured. He suggested how in many narratives there is a change. The narrative begins with the equilibrium or balance or harmony. But then this is then disrupted by something known as an ‘agent of change’ which brings unbalance to the narrative or unpredictability causing disequilibrium. For the audience to feel that all is well, the equilibrium or balance must be restored.

EQUILIBRIUM

DISRUPTIONAGENT OF CHANGE

YOUR TASK

As boring as it is, watch the Dr. No trailer to see if you can identify Todorov’s Equilibrium theory.

Vladimir Propp (1968) - Propp’s Morphology Propp came up with the idea of how fairy stories have certain stages to it. He then applied the same theory to different genres and realised that in many cases it was accurate. Altogether there are 31 stages to Propp’s Morphology, but we can condense it into six stages… Preparation the scene is setComplication a problem occurs or some evil takes placeTransference the hero receives help (often a magic object) and goes

on his questStruggle there is a fightReturn the hero succeeds in his missionRecognition the villain in punished and the hero is rewarded

NARRATIVE THEORIES

critical perspectives question 1b

Education