Critical and Neo-Marxist Theory

The Frankfurt SchoolThe Ideas of Jurgen Habermas

Gramsci’s HegemonyWallertstein’s Historical Marxism

Intellectual Roots

• Early critical theorists drew on Marx (especially concept of alienation)

• Also influenced by ideas of Hegel, Nietzsche, and Freud

• Emphasized link between macro-level processes such as culture and effects on individual psyche and consciousness

Frankfurt School (1923)

• Ideas developed by Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, and Erich Fromm

• Two main ideas:– 1. all ideas influenced by the current times

and by prevailing thought patterns– 2. cannot separate facts and values – need to

be self-reflexive and self-critical and develop a critical stance toward society

Frankfurt School (cont.)

• Linked culture to personality formation– Looked at how ideology of capitalism and

alienation warp the individual personality• Developed critique of mass cultur e

– Noted use of popular culture to manipulate individuals

– Standardization of taste– Distraction from real world– Encourages passiveness

Jurgen Habermas (1929 - )

• Studied philosophy• In 1956 became Theodor Adorno’s

assistant at Heidelberg• Adorno wrote “The Authoritarian

Personality” 1950: linked prejudice and anti-Semitism to authoritarianism

• Habermas became chair of philosophy at Frankfurt 1964

Habermas (cont.)

• Put Marx’s ideas into critical framework

• Shift from materialism to idealism

• Added Weber’s rationalization, Durkheim’s consensus, Parson’s value generalization

• Emphasis on communicative action and the generation of ideology

Legitimation Crisis (1975)• Society developed through qualitatively

different stages:Primitive

Traditional CivilizationsModern Civilizations:

Class Societies Capitalist – Liberal- Organized

Capitalist Post-Capitalist

Post-Modern

Legitimation Crisis (cont.)

• Marx said change developed out of contradictions in material base

• But Habermas says change occurs out of contradictions in ideas and how they are legitimated through norms and values

• Legitimation = new set of norms and values used to justify the system

• Consensus breakdown = societal crisis

Legitimation Crisis (cont.)

• Traditional societies – breakdown of religious norms and values led to idea of rational exchange between equals

• Early liberal capitalism – doubts re: market ideology of led to organized capitalism

• Need for formal legitimations based on “reason and rationality”

• “legitimation crisis” occurs

Legitimation Crisis (cont.)• Legitimation part of socialization process in

“lifeworld” through “communicative action”• The norms we use to justify the truthfulness of our

communicative acts are the same norms that are used to justify the system

• Change in legitimation system = change in lifeworld

• Increasing rationalization • Necessitates consensus about norms (Durkheim)

and value generalization (Parsons)

Reason and Rationality

• Two types of action and rationalization:

• 1. purposive-rational action using means-end rationality

• 2. communicative action using reason

• First type used by capitalist system• Now we need to move to second type

Communicative Action

• Ideal speech = no barriers (i.e. coercion)• Consensus about truth developed through

communication process• Ideal speech has 4 criteria:

1. understandability of utterances2. truth of utterances3. reliability and sincerity of speaker4. authority (right to offer ideas)

Criticism of Habermas

• Too idealistic• Total consensus impossible• Do all speakers have equal ability?• How will conflict be handled?

Marxism and Neo-Marxism

Variants of Marxism:

• Hegelian Marxism (Antonio Gramsci)• Neo-Marxian Economic Theory (Braverman)• Fordism and Post-Fordism• Historical Marxism• Analytical Marxism• Post-Modern Marxian Theory (Laclau / Mouffe)

Gramsci and Hegemony

• Italian Marxist• Co-founder of Italian Marxist Party• Analyzed political situation in Italy• “The Prison Notebooks” 1929-1935• Cultural leadership and domination used

by ruling party of a society• Domination through ideology rather than

force

Hegemony

• Hegemony = “uniting persuasion from above with consent from below…it is done by the dominant and collaborated in by the dominated”

• Intellectuals need to ally selves with revolutionary party rather than ruling party to lead masses to power

Immanuel Wallerstein and World Systems Theory

• Extension of Marx’s historical materialism• Looks at global historical change rather than

societal historical change• Two “world systems” so far:

1. World Empire - political and military domination2. Modern Capitalist World Economy- global economic division of labour

Modern Capitalist World Economy

1. Core countries -Exploit rest of system- free labour market – skilled and supervisory

2. Semi Periphery- has industry set up by core- “sharecropping”

3. Periphery- provide raw materials and labour for core

Future World System

• Socialist world government

• All labour will be free labour