Synoptic unit dummies’ guide

A contribution to society is anything that helps society to function well i.e. treatments for people with mental disorders but it is also something that helps create a more harmonious and peaceful society i.e. understanding how prejudices arise and how to reduce them. It can be also controlling members of the society whose antisocial behaviour is a threat to others.

Contributions of the approaches:

Social approach:

Reducing prejudice:

The social approach has contributed to our understanding of prejudices by proposing the Social Identity TheorySocial categorisation: categorise self as member of a group (s) i.e. students/ female....Social identification: adopt the norms of a group (in-group). This leads to see people who do not belong to the same group to being seen as the out group.Social comparison: in group favouritism and over accentuation of similarities. It can lead to rivalry/competition and hostility

EvaluationThere is empirical support for the theory: Tajfel and Sherif (Robber’s Cave, 1961) (seen for AS unit 1)It can be applied: when conflicts stem out of grouping then we can change the grouping to diffuse the conflicts.It does not take into account the history of conflicts i.e. long-standing feuds. It does not take into account the competition for scarce resources(real conflict theory).

Explaining destructive obedience:

The agency theory was put forward by MilgramWhen we obey we are in an agentic state: we become the agent of a person in authority, we obey their order even if they go against our values, we might feel moral strain when we do so. We do not feel responsible for our actions. The rest of the time we use our free will and feel responsible for our actions. This is called autonomous state.

EvaluationIt has empirical support: Milgram (1963) and Hofling (1966).It helps explain real-life situations such as the Holocaust however other factors were involved i.e. deindividuation of the Jews, possibility of promotion, effect of propaganda and Hitler’s charismatic personality.It does not explain why some participants disobeyed and stopped before reaching 450v.Other factors influence obedience: buffers, social support, personal characteristics and moral values.It is a circular argument, if you obey you are in an agentic state if you do not obey you are in an autonomous state but it does not explain what these states consist of.

1

1 Psychology makes contributions to societya Describe and evaluate (including strengths and weaknesses) two contributions to society within each approach from Units 1 and 2.b Describe and evaluate one contribution to society from two of the Unit 3 applications (Criminological, andHealth) and one contribution from Clinical Psychology.

Cognitive approach

Understanding the problems with EWT: Reconstructive memory: there will be distortion in recall but this cannot be helped as it is subconscious Cue dependent forgetting: witnesses recall better when state and contextual cues are present therefore police should use reconstruction and cognitive interviewTrace decay: if the information is not rehearsed the new engrams formed when learning takes place decay and the information is no longer available for recall therefore the police should interview witnesses as soon as possible after the event.Weapon focus: when a weapon is used during the event the witnesses are likely to focus their attention on the weapon and be unable to recall details concerning other aspect of the event therefore they might not identify the perpetrator reliably (Loftus et al (1987) Leading questions: a leading question is a question which contains information which in turn influences the witness’s answer. (Loftus and Palmer, 1974) therefore the police should be trained in interview techniques to avoid leading questions.

Evaluation:The studies of EWT are mainly lab. Experiments so they might not reflect the way people would behave in normal environment for example the Ps know that what they say will have no consequences so they might not put as much effort in the degree of accuracy, also they have not witnessed a real crime so they are not put under the level of stress that such event tend to create. It is impossible for ethical reasons to create real situations and study the EWT of those present however there have been a few such studies (Yuille and Cutshall, 1986) but they lack control as they are natural studies.The findings have been widely applied in real life and police and court practices have been changed as a result.

The use of cognitive interviewThe cognitive interview technique was proposed by Geiselman (1985) to assist the police in obtaining accurate information from eyewitnesses using the information from psychological research.Four stages:1. Reinstate feelings and context at the time of the event.2. Tell the story with maximum details even it they seem irrelevant.3. Recall the event in different order. 4. Tell the story from the pint of view off another witness.

Evaluation:Fisher et al. (1990) found recall increased by 46% with 90% accuracy (research done in real life situations.It is used widely by the police in the US but also in some other European countries although in altered form.It cannot help overcome problems such as reconstructive memory as this is a subconscious process or weapon focus as the encoding has already taken place during the event and cannot be altered afterwards.

Psychodynamic approach The use of psychoanalysis as a therapy

According to the psychodynamic approach mental disorders are caused by unconscious conflicts originating in early childhood therefore the aim of psychoanalysis is access the unconscious mind and deal with the conflicts (catharsis) which are causing the mental disorders.To access the unconscious, Freud proposes the use of four main techniques:Dream analysis: “the royal road to the unconscious”Manifest content: the content the dreamer is aware of it hides the latent content, the underlying wish present in the unconscious.Freudian slip: the unconscious lead us to substitute an unintended action (or word) for intended one.Free association: words or use of inkblotsTransference: the way analysands recreate the conflicts and feelings from their life (i.e. relationships with parents) and transfer them tot he therapist.Evaluation

2

It was the first talking cure, before this mental patients were treated in a very inhuman way.There is evidence that psychoanalysis works for some people (Bachrach) however people who cannot express themselves and have little or no insight (schizophrenics for example) do not benefit from the therapy.It is an expensive and time consuming therapy rarely financed by the NHS in its original form so it is mostly accessible to people who can afford it.The therapy rests on a theory which is not scientifically testable.

Explanations of the significance of dreaming.

Freud argued that dreams are “the royal road to the unconscious”. Manifest content: the content the dreamer is aware of it hides the latent content, the underlying wish present in the unconscious. Furthermore Freud proposed that once unconscious thoughts and desires are made conscious they lose their power to influence a person’s behaviour. It is a useful contribution as it offers an alternative explanation to the biological approach which states that dreams have no meaning and that dreams are the products of the active brain trying to make sense of random thoughts while we are sleeping. This approach also contributes to the treatment of mental health problems.

Evaluation:This explanation is based on in-depth analysis of a lot of quantitative data and takes a holistic view of the person so is more likely to be found helpful by individuals.This theory can help recurring and upsetting dreams which the biological explanation cannot explain so it can contribute to the treatment of sleep disorders.The biological explanation of dreams has more scientific support i.e. scans and EEG done on sleeping people.Freud’s explanation is based on a theory which cannot be scientifically tested.

Biological approach

Understanding sex assignment and gender behaviour

All foetuses have the same undeveloped sex organs. The original system can develop into both male and female sex organs. It is the presence or absence of a single gene (SRY gene) which will dictate the future development of the foetus as a male or a female.Females: The ovum (egg) is fertilised by a sperm containing a X chromosome. The absence of male hormone will result in the development of female sex organsMales: The ovum (egg) is fertilised by a sperm containing a Y chromosome containing the SRY gene. SRY gene produces a protein: Testis Determining Factor (TDF).TDF influences the development of the gonads; they become testis The testis produce

testosterone. Testosterone triggers the development of external male organs i.e. penis. It also affects brain lateralisation.Differences can also occur when hormones are not released “normally” during gestation.

It helps to understand why people might feel wrongly sexed and provide them with help and treatment.

Evaluation:It is an explanation scientifically tested using research methods which are reliable and objective i.e. scans and genetic studiesIt offers an explanation which can lead to treatment for people who have difficulties with gender assignment.By showing how brain development is influenced by hormones it explains some of the differences between males and females It is reductionist as it does not take into account the influence of social factors.Much of the research has been done on animals so it is difficult to extrapolate the results to humans as although there are significant similarities there are also considerable differences i.e. cognition, moral an social values.

Explaining criminal behaviour

Eysenck argues that a person’s position on the personality dimension on the introversion-extroversion dimension is caused by the level of arousal in the brain and that their position on

3

the neuroticism- stability dimension is caused by the stability or instability of the autonomic nervous system. Eysenck has proposed that there are genetically determined individual differences in the ARAS which affect the usual levels of arousal that we experience. Through their behaviour, people tend to adjust these levels to a comfortable optimum. He proposes that high E, N and P can lead to criminal behaviour.

EvaluationFarrington et al. ( 1982) reviewed a number of studies and concluded that officially defined offenders (e.g. prisoners) generally scored higher than controls on P and N but not E. In contrast, a number of studies which have correlated E with self-report measures of delinquency have found that they do appear to be related (e.g. Rushton and Christjohn, 1981). However this theory could explain Ishikawa and Raine's (2002) who found a higher concordance rate in MZ twins than DZ twins for criminality and Mednick et al.'s (1984) who found a higher concordance rate for criminal behaviour in adopted children with their biological parents than with their adoptive parents.It explains why when social factors seem to be the same for several individuals only some become criminals. It can lead to prevention by treating the people who are most likely to become criminal thus making a more peaceful society.However it could lead to discrimination against people who are shown to be high on PEN dimensions thus creating a situation of self-fulfilling prophecy.It is reductionist as it does not take into account the influence of social factors like poverty and lack of education

Learning approach

Systematic desensitisationA therapy to improve phobias, its aim is to break the association between an stimulus (the phobic object) with a response (exaggerated fear) and to replace it by a relaxed response using the principles of classical conditioning. The client learns relaxations techniquesThe client works out a hierarchy of fear from the least frightening to the most frighteningThe client works through the hierarchy learning to use relaxation techniques in the presence of the feared object

EvaluationIt is ethical because the client gives consent to the treatment and has control of how fast the treatment proceed however the client can experience considerable of stress during the treatment.It is an effective treatment and allows people to lead a more normal life i.e. agoraphobics might be able to get back to work or use public transports ...It does not take into account the psychological causes of phobias (remember Little Hans)It can be fairly time consuming as the treatment can take a number of treatment can require a number of sessionsIt can be quite expensive as it requires a qualified psychologist to run the treatment.

Token economy

Token economy programmes use operant conditioning to replace aggression or other undesirable behaviours with more appropriate behaviours. Required behaviour is rewarded. Individuals are given tokens (secondary reinforcers) for approved behaviour and the tokens can be exchanged for something desirable, such as visits or watching TV(primary reinforcers). It is possible that as part of the programme, maladaptive behaviour is punished too.

EvaluationUnlike drugs this treatment has no physical side-effects and is accessible to people with little insights (i.e. schizophrenics)Token economies are effective in institutions such as mental health units or prisons but results do not readily transfer to the outside world. In token economy, changes in behaviour may be temporary to gain rewards but with no underlying shift in behaviour. Once reinforcement of appropriate behaviours stops, extinction may occur. It is fairly cheap to implement as it requires only a short training of the staff, however it requires consistency in the way rewards and punishments are applied and this might be difficult to achieve in a large establishment. Few long-term studies have been done to see if the effects of the programme last once the individual is released from prison. The tokens have to be something that the people value of they will be ineffective. There could be human rights issues for example sleep, food and drink should not be used as tokens. Token economy has ethical problems of changing people’s behaviour against their will. Furthermore violent behaviour might be a survival

4

strategy in some environments (i.e. prison) and before this programme is run some thought should be given on how to make the environment safe.

Criminological psychology Criminological psychology has helped society to understand the problems with the reliability of eyewitness testimony, it is also part of the cognitive approach and can be used in both cases.Child psychology

Clinical psychology

We have written essays about all these topics and they are collated in the booklet “contributions to society-Approaches”

Summary of ethical guidelines for human participants: five ethical guidelines

Competence: the researcher should have the qualifications and the ability to carry out the research. This is now checked by the ethical committees before agreeing to a study to be carried out.Milgram was had the necessary qualifications and he had done research before carrying out the study i.e. he had asked people including psychiatrists what they thought would happen.

Consent: the participants have to agree to take part in the study and should be informed as far as possible of the aim of the study (informed consent). However this is not always possible as telling them the aim of the study could change their behaviour thus making the results less useful. Children and people with some degree of learning difficulties require consent from adults or guardians.Milgram got consent from his participants but it was not informed consent as the participants were not told what the real aim of the study was.

Debrief: after the study the participants should be given information about the study, this should include information about the results. This is not always possible i.e. in a naturalistic observation where participants might not be aware that they part of the study. In all other research methods debrief is usually possible.Milgram debriefed his participants thoroughly and introduced them to Mr Wallace (the stooge who played the student in the study ) to reassure them that he was in good health.

5

2 Psychology involves ethical issues in the treatment of participants (both humans and animals)a Describe five ethical guidelines (such as British Psychological Society (BPS) ethical guidelines) in psychological research, which relate to human participants.b Describe five ethical principles that relate to the use of animals (non-human) in research in psychology.c Describe and evaluate ethical issues in research in psychology, both regarding humans and regarding animals (non-human).d Describe and evaluate (including strengths and weaknesses) two studies in terms of ethical considerations.

Deceit: should be kept to a minimum and when it is absolutely necessary. The information should be given to the participants during the debrief, they can then chose to withdraw their results. Milgram deceived his participants in many ways: he did not tell them that the electric shocks were not real, he told them that the aim of the study was to find out if punishment helps learning when it was in fact to find out if they would obey.

Right to withdraw: participants should be informed and reminded of their right to withdraw at any stage of the study. They must also be informed of their right to withdraw their results. However this is not practical in the case of naturalistic observation. Milgram did not sop his participants from leaving and 35% of them did as they stopped before reaching the highest voltage in the original study but he put pressure on them to remain by verbal prompts i.e. “the experiment requires that you continue”

Remember Milgram took place before the ethical guidelines were even thought of!!!

You need two studies, your first one is Milgram and you could chose the second study from Hofling (1966) or Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment.

When commenting on the ethical issues of a study you should end by weighing up the cost to the participants versus the benefits to society (cost benefit analysis or ethical dilemma)

Summary of ethical guidelines for non-human (animals) participants: five ethical guidelines

Care over caging and social environment: any caging and social environment must be suitable for the species i.e. avoid isolation for social animals and overcrowding.In Harlow’s experiments (1957-1963) to baby monkeys were kept in isolation and never developed the social skills necessary to fit in a social group.

When arranging schedules of deprivation, the experimenter should consider the animal’s normal eating and drinking habits and its metabolic requirements. In Harlow’s experiment the monkeys were appropriately fed.

Avoiding discomfort and stress: any discomfort and stress should be kept to a minimum. In Harlow’s experiment the monkeys were frightened by a “robot monster” to see which wire mother they would run to.

Number of animals used: should be kept to a minimum Look for alternatives: Alternatives to animal experiments should be considered wherever possible i.e.

humans or computer modelling. It would have been unethical to use humans instead of animals to find out how they would react to maternal deprivation and isolation.

Cost benefit analysis in animal research

Bateson suggested that we should use the decision cube when deciding whether a study involving animals should be carried out. Learn this cube and make sure you can use it to comment on the ethics of anima research.

6

Reasons for and against animal research in psychology

Animals have a similar brain structure than humans so what we find out about animals can be applied to humans however animals have different cognitive abilities, social and moral values than human therefore the findings on animals cannot be extrapolated to humans.

We can carry out studies on animals that we could not do on humans for ethical reasons i.e. brain lesions however human cognition is very different so the findings on animals might not apply to humans in the same way.

We can try drugs (i.e. antipsychotic drugs) on animals to see if they are safe and effective then test them on humans. But animals have a different metabolism and immune system so the drugs might be safe for them but not for humans and animals cannot report internal states because of the lack of common language so they cannot say if they have nightmares, are feeling depressed or have hallucinations so we cannot judge the effectiveness of a drug on the symptoms of mental disorders from studies on animals.

Animals are less complex than humans, so are more straightforward to study. However human behaviour is more complex and mostly involved choices based on cognition, social and moral values which are different from animals so the results of animal experiment cannot be extrapolated to humans.

Animals have a shorter lifespan than humans, so it is easier to use animals to study changes across the lifespan. However this does not tell us if the changes would carry on in humans and what would be the end point for us.

It is easier to study instinctive behaviour in animals. However if the animals are studied in captivity their behaviour is affected by their surroundings and we are not studying their real instinctive behaviour further more instincts are the product of evolution and we have different evolutionary paths therefore their instincts are not necessarily similar to humans’ instincts.

7

3 Psychology involves using different research methodsa Describe and evaluate the following research methods and describe and evaluate one study for each research method:i laboratory, field and natural experimentsii observationsiii questionnairesiv interviewsv content analysesvi correlations as designsvii case studies.b Plan a study of their own when given a context, giving aim, hypotheses, design, procedure, ethical considerations, and how results would be analysed (including choice of statistical test asappropriate), and be able to evaluate the study.c Evaluate psychological studies with reference to the research methods used, including making suggestions for improvements (eg improving controls, changing the chosen method, improving reliability or validity). Note: a study may be given as stimulus material for evaluation.

Description When is the method used?

Strengths Weaknesses

Laboratory experiment

Loftus & Palmer (1974)(Cognitive approach AS)

A true experiment, conducted in an artificial environment, in which the experimenter manipulates an

IV and measures the consequent changes in a DV whilst carefully controlling extraneous variables. Participants are allocated randomly to the conditions by the experimenter.

When looking for differences, comparisons or cause and effect relationships. It must be possible to

actively change the levels of the IV and record the DV accurately. It is important that the behaviour is likely to be relatively unaffected by a contrived environment.

.

Good control of extraneous variables. Causal relationships can be determined Strict procedures allow them to be replicated so the results are more reliable Collects quantitative data which can be analysed using statistical tests

The artificial situation may make the participants’ behaviour unrepresentative Participants may respond to demand characteristics and alter their behaviour Investigator effect may lead to biased research. Lab experiments focus on one behaviour only, taking it out of the context in which it usually occurs and has meaning so it is reductionist

Field experiment

Hofling et al. (1966)(Social approach AS)

A true experiment in which the researcher manipulates an IV and measures a DV in the natural setting of the participants. Participants are allocated randomly to conditions by

the experimenter.

When looking for differences, comparisons or cause and effect relationships. It must be possible to

actively change the levels of the IV and record the DV accurately. It is preferable when it is likely that

behaviour could be affected by a contrived environment.

As participants are in their natural environment their behaviour is likely to be representative Participants may be unaware that they are in the study so demand characteristics are less of a problem As the IV is controlled by the experimenter a causal relationship between the IV and the DV can be established. Usually collects quantitative data which can be analysed using statistical tests.

Control over extraneous variables is more difficult than in lab experiments so the results are less reliable As the extraneous variables are less controlled it is more difficult to replicate than lab experiments As the participants might not be aware that they are taking part in the study, this raises ethical issues.

Natural experiment

Charlton et al. (2000)(Criminological psychology)

A study in which an experimenter makes use of an existing change or difference in situations to provide levels of an IV and then measures the DV in each condition. Participants cannot be allocated to conditions so it is not a true experiment.

When looking for differences or comparisons between variables that cannot be artificially controlled ormanipulated

They can be used to study real-world issues If the participants are in their natural environment their behaviour is more likely to be representative Participants may be unaware that they are in the study so demand characteristics are less of a problem Enables researchers to investigate variables that could not practically or ethically be manipulated.

They are only possible when naturally occurring differences arise Control over variables are more difficult than in lab experiments As the researcher is not manipulating the IV they can be less sure of the causes of the changes in the DV are caused by the DV They generally cannot be replicated As the participants might not be aware that they are taking part in the study, this raises ethical issues

Correlational A technique used to investigate a link between two measured variables.

When looking for relationships between variables. Can be used

Can show a relationship and the strength of this

Does not show cause and effect

8

analysis

Madon et al. (2003)(Criminological psychology)

when it is unethical or impractical to artificially control or manipulate variables. There must be twovariables that can be measured.

relationship between two factors which was unknown before so can act at a starting point for further research. Can usually be replicated No manipulation of behavior is required

Observation

Rosenhan

A technique in which the researcher watches and records the behaviour of participants. This can be either

in a situation that has been set up by the researcher (controlled observation) or in their own environment, for example, in the normal place for the activity being

observed (naturalistic observation). The participants may or may not be aware of the presence of the observer (and the observer may or may not be a member of the group or activity being observed).

Controlled observations are used to record behaviours that require an artificial situation, eg when they are

unlikely to arise spontaneously. If behaviours are unlikely to be observable in an artificial situation, for example, are only likely to arise in real-life settings and/ or social situations, naturalistic observations are used.

The recording units must be observable behaviours rather than inferred states but may be variables that cannot be measured by asking questions.

Naturalistic observations take place in natural settings therefore the participants are more likely to display a natural behaviour. Observations are used to collect data when manipulation of variables would be unethical or impractical. Inter observer reliability can be established through training

Participants might change their behaviour if they realise that they are being observed. It is difficult to record data promptly and objectively Observer’s behaviour may influence the participants Ethical problems if the participants do not know that they are being observed. No causal relationship can be established

Questionnaire

Boyd and Munroe (2003)

A self-report method used to obtain data by asking participants to provide information about themselves using written questions.

When aiming to collect data about opinions or attitudes from a large sample and when the questions to be

asked are largely straightforward and the same for every participant. Also if face-to-face contact might reduce the response rate or honesty.

Relatively easy to administer Can be sent through post or email making them time and cost efficient Respondents might be more truthful in a questionnaire than in a face-to-face interview Data relatively easy to analyse if closed questions are used as it is quantitative data. Easy to replicate Open questions enable to researcher to gather qualitative data which is more likely to represent the participants’ opinions.

Closed questions might limit the validity as the respondents have a limited choice of answers therefore might not be able to express their opinion Answers might be influenced by social desirability and by leading questions. The analysis of answers to open questions can be biased and subjective. As only some people are willing to respond, the sample might not be representative of the target population

Interview Brown et al. (1986)(Clinical psychology)

A self-report method used to obtain data by asking participants to provide information about themselves by replying verbally to questions asked by an interviewer.

When aiming to collect data from individuals using questions which may require explanation or when thequestions may need to vary between participants

Structured interview are relatively easy to analyse Semi-structured or unstructured interviews enable the researcher to gain detailed information from respondent.

Semi-structured or unstructured interviews cannot be replicated The analysis of semi-structured or unstructured interviews can be biased and

9

Structured interviews can be replicated They can be used to gather quantitative or qualitative data

subjective. Respondents can be affected by social desirability As only some people are willing to respond, the sample might not be representative of the target population

Case study

Curtiss (1977)(Child psychology)

A method which focuses on a single instance - eg one person or one family or institution - which is explored in detail. Other methods are used to gain a range of information, for example, observations, questionnaires and interviews. A history of the participant is obtained and this is related to their subsequent development.

When varied, detailed data is required from one participant, especially if they are a rare or particularly interesting case. The aim of a case study may be to report on, investigate or help someone so the outcomesare also varied

Provide more rich and detailed data than experimental method Rare cases offer the opportunity to study situations that could not be produced by any other way due to ethical and practical constraints The use of triangulation makes the data more reliable

Each case study is unique therefore the results cannot be generalised The evidence might relate to the past so might be difficult to verify Variables cannot be controlled so a cause and effect relationship cannot be established The theoretical perspective of the researchers may cause them to interpret the findings to be interpreted in a biased way.

Content analysis

Cumberbatch and Gauntlett (2005)

A method of indirect observation which assesses the themes and concepts expressed in communication media such as transcribed speech or the printed word. It can produce qualitative or quantitative data.

When researchers are interested in the overt and hidden meanings and messages present in communication.It can provide a way to compare historical and current trends, eg in gender stereotypes

Gathers quantitative data which can be analysed using statistical tests. Ethical as it uses secondary sources such as articles in newspapers and magazines Reliable as another researcher can go through the same material

The categories are decided by the researcher so are subjective

10

co

Key issues for the different approaches

Cognitive approach: Eyewitness testimony (seen in contributions to society)

Social approach: Abu Ghraib or football hooliganism

Psychodynamic approach: Psychoanalysis as a treatment for mental disorders (seen also in clinical psychology)

Biological approach: drug therapy (seen also in clinical psychology)

Learning approach: systematic desensitisation (seen in contributions to society)

Criminological psychology: The accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Child psychology:

Clinical psychology:

5 Psychology involves different debates

Ethnocentrism: use of one’s own ethnic or cultural group as a basis for judgement of other groups. We tend to view the beliefs, customs ad behaviours of our own group as “normal” and even superior, those of other group as strange or even deviant.The opposite of ethnocentrism is cultural relativismCultural bias occurs when people from one culture make assumptions about the behaviour of those from another culture based on their own cultural norms and practices. Traditional psychology is characterized by theoretical and research biases reflecting the culture of Europe and the US.Researchers tend to be biased in their research. Bartlett showed how we tend to interpret information by using our schemas which are formed by our experience in our own culture so this bias is unavoidable. However attempts have been made in ethnography to avoid this bias by immersing the researcher in the culture he/she studies over a long period of time however this is only partially successful because the bias occurs in the translation and also when trying to make the report understandable to others from a different culture the researcher has to use frames of reference that the reader will understand thus reintroducing the cultural bias. When trying to establish universal laws cross-cultural research is important if the same or similar behaviour is observed in all cultures then we can assume that the characteristic is universal however there are problems with this too. For example in the Strange Situation Ainsworth showed that the patterns of attachment seem to be found in every culture therefore are universal but the meaning of the task might be very different in other cultures for example Japanese mothers do not leave their child alone until they are about 2 years old whereas other cultures might encourage more independence.

The cultural bias can also b found in systems like the DSM where the classification of mental disorders might be very biased against some populations i.e. this might explain why seven times more black people are diagnosed with schizophrenia than white people and also that foreigners are also more likely to be diagnosed with schizophrenia that the indigenous population.

11

4 Psychology involves issues of relevance to today’s society (key issues)a Describe and explain using concepts, theories and research (as appropriate) the key issues studied for each of the approaches in Units 1 and 2, for their two chosen applications in Unit 3, and for clinical psychology in Unit 4.Note: students should use their knowledge of the approaches, applications, research method issues, and ethical issues when commenting on these key issues as appropriate.

Cultural differencesa Describe and evaluate issues of ethnocentrism in psychological research, including the potential effect of cultural bias in the interpretation and application of cross-cultural studies.

However it is tempting to assume that this does not apply to the more scientific approach like the biological approach but this is not the case, Although we might believe that brain structure and function are universal, our understanding of cultural differences in neuropsychology is extremely limited, and the universality in neuropsychology has been questioned. Matthews (1992) observed that “a very limited neuropsychology, appropriate to only a fraction of the world’s population, is presented to the rest of the world as there could be no other kind of neuropsychology'. We cannot rule out the possibility that different patterns of brain organization may appear over time owing to different ecological demands faced by members of different cultures.

Furthermore the bias is also in the samples used in the research with a large portion of Psychology based on middle-class, academic, young adults, often male. According to Sears (1986) — 82% of studies used undergraduates as participants and 51 % were Psychology students. It is also in the books provided for students Smith and Bond (1993) — found that 94% of studies cited in US textbooks were from the US, and 68% were from the US in one UK textbook.

However bias in psychology can also occur because researchers from other cultures are not appointed to, or promoted in, academic positions in universities. 'Token' black psychologists in a predominantly white department, for example, may find themselves marginalised into areas outside mainstream psychology. And also because culturally biased or racist researchers are likely to propose hypotheses that:

a. investigate stereotypical differences between 'races' (arbitrary and over-simplified categories based on skin colour) which may ignore cultural influences and perpetuate the stereotypes.

b. do not investigate important cross-cultural differences or similarities.

According to Khun a science should have a shared set of :1. Assumptions2. Scientific methods3. Terminology

Assumptions:

cognitive approach: like a computer we are influenced by the ways in which our brains are “hard wired” and by the way in which we have been programmed by experience.

social approach:Our thoughts, feelings and behaviour are strongly influenced by the nature of the social environment in which we live.

biological approach: our genetic make-up has a significant influence on our individual characterisitcs, abilities and behaviourour thinking, behaviour and feelings are strongly affected by the ways in which the brain works.

psychodynamic approach:Our behaviour and feelings are strongy influenced by our unconscious mind. These unconscious influences come from past experiences and instincts, with which we are born.

Learning approach:We are born with a few rudimentary abilities and reflexes we learn everything else from the environmentAnimals differ from humans only in the complexity of their behaviour.

Psychology has not got a unified paradigm (a set of beliefs and assumptions). Instead of ungoing a paradigm shift like physics for example it adds approaches to pre-existing ones.

12

How far psychology is a scienceb Describe the debate over what science is and how far psychology fits the definition. Evaluate whether psychology should be called a ‘science’.c Compare the five approaches from Units 1 and 2 according to how scientific their content and methods are.

Research methods

A research method is called scientific if it follows the hypothetico-deductive model i.e. knowledge builds on existing theories. A researcher generates an hypothesis from an existing theory and test this hypothesis by gathering data from his senses (things you can see, hear) if the results confirm the hypothesis the theory has gained support, but if the results do not support the theory might be refined or falsified.Gerally we can say that the biological, cognitive and learning approaches use a scientific methodology however the social approach with its use of interviews, questionnaires and observations and the psychodynamic approach with its use of case studies do not use a scientific methodology. However is it always appropriate to use a scientifc methodology to study humans? It could be argued that less scientific methods are more appropriate when studying humans e.g. depression should be studied using interviews and observations. It is not possible for one human to study another in an objective, value-free way e.g. psychiatrists are more likely to label black people as mentally ill because of social distance. It is not possible to directly observe and operationalise behaviour e.g. one cannot directly see the emotions and feelings of anorexics or thehallucinations of schizophrenics. Less scientific methods can draw out emotions which are an essential part of human behaviour that should not be ignored e.g. Hart’s autobiographical case study reveals the emotional side of schizophrenia. This means that from this point of view validity is more important than reliability. However it also means that some theories cannot be falsified as they are not tested using the scientifc method.

TerminologyDifferent approaches have different terminology for example the term “ego” has meaning only in the context of the psychodynamic approach and the term “gene” has meaning only in the biological approach.

However, all the approaches (except the psychodynamic approac) have some scientific content and methodology and in an essay on this topic you would have to describe both aspects in the approaches that you chose to illustrate your answers.

Social control: regulation of other people’s behaviour for social purposes.

Ethical issues in social control:

Social control raises a number of ethical issues and in your essays you will be expected to comment on these issues i.e. who should have control over other people? When is it appropriate to control other’s behaviour? Who should we control and why? What means of control are appropriate?

Use of drug therapy: see clinical psychology

Token economy: see page 4

Classical conditioning:

Systematic desensitisation: see page 4. The association between two stimuli is replaced by a new association through training though this is generally helpful i.e. overcoming a phobia it can also be used to control people, the therapist has the power and knowledge to change the client.

Advertising: in advertising an association is created between two stimuli .i.e. a car and scantily dressed young woman or a perfume and the attention of “hunky man” the aim is to control the buying habits of the population. This is fairly harmless when it comes to choosing perfume but the same technique could be used in more sinister end.

Aversion therapy: it is also based on the principle of classical conditioning. An association is created between two stimuli for example an alcoholic associate alcohol and pleasure but he/she is given a drug which makes him/her

13

How psychological knowledge is used in issues of social controld Describe issues related to the use of psychological knowledge as a means of social control and assess ethical and practical implications of such control. Issues should include:i use of drug therapyii token economyiii classical conditioningiv influence of the practitioner in treatment/therapy.

sick every time they ingest alcohol so the association is replaced by a new one: alcohol/sickness. They hopefully then stop drinking alcohol. This can be very useful as a treatment for such addictions but it has also been used to control the behaviour of homosexuals where association nude male/sexual arousal was replaced with nude male/ pain by giving their genitals electric shocks if they got aroused at the sight of a nude male. This case illustrates how classical conditioning principles can be used as a form of social control.

In all these cases the practitioner has a degree of power over the client and this power can be misused and has been many times.

Nature: argument which states that our behaviour and characteristics are due to genetic factorsNurture: argument which states that our behaviour and characteristics are the product of the environment in which we live.The debate is not about whether characteristics and behaviour are one or the other but rather to what extent they are influenced by both as it is now accepted that most characteristics are influenced by both nature and nurture.

Methods used to determine the influence of nature and nurture: Twin studies: the concordance rate for a characteristic in MZ twins (who have the same genetic material and the same environment) is compared to the concordance rate in DZ twins (who do not share the same genetic material but share the same environment). If the concordance rate in MZ tins is less than 100% then we can say that the environment has an influence on the development of this characteristic. If the concordance rate is higher in MZ twins than in DZ twins then we can say that there is an influence of genetic factors. Example of twin study Gottesman and Shield, 1966 which looked at the influence of genetic factors in schizophrenia.

Adoption studies: adopted children have common genetic material with their biological parents but not with their adoptive parents. If the concordance rate is higher with the biological parents then with the adoptive then we can say that there is and influence of genetic factors but if the concordance rate is higher with the adoptive parents than with the biological parents then we can say that there is an influence of the environment. Example of adoption study Kety, 1968 on schizophrenia.

Cross cultural studies: by studying populations in different cultures we can determine if a particular characteristic is due to the environment or has a genetic base. If the characteristic is found in every culture we can say that it is likely to be part of “human nature” if it is not found in every culture then we can say that it is likely that it is due to the social environment. For example the Strange Situation was repeated in a number of different cultures and although the percentage of infants in each category of attachment varied between cultures the types of attachment did not. However Margaret Mead showed in her cross cultural studies that gender development varies in different cultures thus demonstrating that gender development is strongly influenced by social factors (nurture).

For each approach and application you have to be able to give examples of each side of the debate. This work was done in lesson so get your notes out!!!

14

The issue of nature and nurturee Describe and evaluate the role of both nature and nurture in explaining human behaviour, drawing on material (including content and methods) studied in psychology.f Explain the differing emphases placed on both nature and nurture by the various approaches and/or applications studied.