crime risk models: specifying boundaries and environmental backcloths kate bowers
DESCRIPTION
Crime Risk Models: Specifying Boundaries and Environmental Backcloths Kate Bowers. Introduction. Crime Risk Model specification Boundaries Units of Analysis Environmental backcloth Land use Housing Accessibility Crime Risk Model Accuracy Determining map accuracy and utility - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Crime Risk Models: Specifying Boundaries and Environmental
Backcloths
Kate Bowers
Introduction• Crime Risk Model specification
– Boundaries• Units of Analysis
– Environmental backcloth• Land use• Housing• Accessibility
– Crime Risk Model Accuracy• Determining map accuracy and utility• Testing against chance models
– Future Projects• CA modelling of risk• Area linking models• Multi-level models
MAUP- The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem
• 'the areal units (zonal objects) used in many geographical studies are arbitrary, modifiable, and subject to the whims and fancies of whoever is doing, or did, the aggregating.' (Openshaw, 1984 p.3).
• Staggering number of different options for aggregating data– Administrative boundaries– Automatic non-overlapping boundaries
• Grids and polygons
• Two problems exist– Scale- variation which occurs when data from one scale of areal unit is
aggregated into more or less areal units.
– Aggregation- wide variety of different possible areal units
Burglaries per 100 households
Burglaries per 100 households
Hot beats
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0.9 0 0.9 1.8 Miles
Hotspot00 - 1.5641.564 - 3.0933.093 - 5.7215.721 - 33.094
# Next week# next 2 days
N
EW
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Yellow= burglaries within two days
Green= burglaries within 7 days
Traditional Hotspot Map
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0.9 0 0.9 1.8 Miles
12prosp501270.231 - 1270.9421270.942 - 1274.8171274.817 - 1282.9211282.921 - 1298.2931298.293 - 1479.488
# Next week# next 2 days
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EW
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Yellow= burglaries within two days
Green= burglaries within 7 days
Prospective Map
Map Evaluation
• Map accuracy:– Number of “hits”– Search efficiency (hits per unit area)
• Map practicality:– Number of hot areas– Size of hot areas
Map Evaluation: accuracy
2 days (26) 1 week (70) Area covered Search efficiency (2 day per km2)
Prospective Map
62% 64% 5.4km2 2.96
Traditional Hotspot Map
46% 56% 5.4km2 2.22
Beat Map 12% 24% 5.1km2 0.59
Map evaluation: practicality
Prospective Map Traditional Hotspot Map
Mean area 12778m2 56502m2
Mean perimeter 377 m 925 m
No. of hotspots 79 19
Mean AP ratio 10 51
Friction surfaces/opportunity structure
• Opportunity structure (Flow enablers)– Land use, distribution of houses, house type and tenure (see Groff & La
Vigne, 2001)
• Friction– distance, topology (water, railways etc), crime prevention activity, social
factors (affluence and cohesion)
• Facilitators– Proximity to bus stops and roads (see Brantinghams)
Accounting for Background: Method• GIS- vector grid mapping- 50 metre grid squares
• Housing- OS Land Line– Number of houses in each square– Average area of houses– Physical area of square used covered by housing
• Roads– Number of sections of roads running through grid square– Length of road running through square– Classification of road (Major, Minor)
• Weighting squares– Housing alone– Roads alone– Combinations
Mapping Layers: Land Use and Crime Risk
Accuracy concentration curve for the promap algorithm and chance expectation
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Percentage of area
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Accuracy concentration curve for the KDE algorithm and chance expectation
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Retrospective KDE
Simulation 95th percentile
Chance simulation mean (N=99)
Accuracy concentration curve for the Beat map generated for the rate of burglary per 1000 households
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Beats by rate per HHSimulation 95th PercentileSimulation Mean (N=99)
Accuracy concentration curve for the promap algorithm (including both opportunity surfaces) and chance expectation
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Promap*Rds*HousesSimulation 95th percentileChance simulation mean (N=99)
Median mapping algorithm accuracy
Percentage of burglaries identified
10 25 50 75 90
Prospective: Promap 1.39 5.09 14.39 30.89 55.36
Percen
tage of cells searched
Promap*Houses 1.59 5.09 14.39 28.39 48.88
Promap*RDs 1.39 4.89 13.39 29.09 52.57
Promap*Houses*RDs 1.59 4.59 12.59 29.39 56.35
Chance: Simulation 95th Percentile 3.8 11.5 27.3 44.8 56.8Simulation Mean 7.0 17.0 34.3 51.3 61.3
Retrospective: KDE 2.09 6.59 16.89 34.87 59.04
Choropleth (concentration) 4.03 15.50 35.40 49.12 63.02
Choropleth (rate per area) 3.34 10.85 23.47 42.55 58.82
Choropleth (rate per homes) 6.41 17.62 31.70 50.02 69.11
Relative vulnerability of different housing types
April 1995-2000
Hou
sehold
s bu
rgled
Total n
um
ber of h
ouses of typ
e
Prevalen
ce rate
Total n
um
ber of in
ciden
ts
Incid
ence rate
Semi-detached 24915 201918 24.68 26689 26.44Detached 4122 53364 15.45 4428 16.60Terraced 23824 214023 22.26 26490 24.75
Flats 12184 103199 23.61 13515 26.19
April 95-00 Housing Type
Prevalence rate Semi Detached Terraced Flat
Quintile 1 16.37(6176)
10.32(1793)
18.87(498)
12.29(318)
Quintile 2 20.39(6179)
17.85(1038)
18.44(2485)
15.87(1018)
Quintile 3 29.56(5206)
27.46(579)
21.31(6150)
20.26(1838)
Quintile 4 44.16(3965)
57.83(336)
21.95(7751)
25.69(2701)
Quintile 5 53.21(3377)
71.29(391)
25.91(6924)
27.31(6285)
Prevalence rates for different types of housing in each quintile
Where next?- Modelling Street Network
• Examples of the accessibility measure used by Beavon et al. (1994)
• Quickest path analysis (connectivity of grid squares)
Where next?- Multi-level models
• Individuals: Victims vs repeat victims– Housing type
– MO of offence
– Victim characteristics
• Small area: Cell or neighbourhood– Accessibility
– Housing details
– Crime risk levels
• Larger area: Census tract– Social and demographic information
Possible outcomes:
• Pathogen extinction (short infectious period)
Susceptible Infected
Immune Unoccupied
Where Next?- FCA: Local density-dependent transmission
prev
alen
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time
prev
alen
ce
time
• Host-pathogen coexistence (long infectious period)
Slide by Joanne Turner (University of Liverpool)
Where Next?- CA Model Parameters
• Re-infection rates– Different levels and lengths of immunity possible
• Target hardening/ Police patrolling
• Greater susceptibility in some than others– Random short lived susceptibility
• ‘Infection’ beginning from and re-occurring in different areas– Random sparks
• Weak infectious models are possible
• Non-uniformity of contiguous cells
References
Johnson, S.D., and Bowers, K.J. (forthcoming 2007). Burglary Prediction: Theory, Flow and Friction. In Graham Farrell, Kate Bowers, Shane Johnson and Michael Townsley (Eds.), Crime Prevention studies Volume 21, Monsey NY: Criminal Justice Press
Johnson, S.D., Bowers, K.J., Birks, D.J. & Pease, K. (forthcoming 2007). Micro-Level Forecasting of Burglary: The Role of Environmental Factors. In W. Bernasco and D. Weisburd (Eds) Crime and Place, in preparation.
Johnson, S.D., McLaughlin, L., Birks, D.J., Bowers, K.J. & Pease, K. (forthcoming 2007) Prospective crime mapping in operational context. Home Office On-Line Report
Bowers, K.J., Johnson, S.D., & Pease, K. (2005). (Re)Victimisation risk, housing type and area: a study of interactions Crime Prevention and Community Safety: An International Journal 7(1), 7-17
Bowers, K.J., Johnson, S. and Pease, K. (2004) Prospective Hotspotting: The Future of Crime Mapping? British Journal of Criminology 44 (5), 641-658.
Hirschfield, A.F.G., Yarwood, D. & Bowers, K.(2001) Spatial Targeting and GIS: The Development of New Approaches for Use in Evaluating Community Safety Initiatives in M. Madden and G. Clarke, (eds) Regional Science in Business, Springer-Verlag.
Nearest Neighbour Index: Retrospective and Prospective Methods
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