About two million years ago, lava dammed up a river in western Asia and caused a small lake to form. The lake existed for about half a million years. Bones of an early human ancestor were recently found in the ancient lake bottom sediments on top of the layer of lava. Therefore, ancestors of modern humans lived in Western Asia between 2 million and 1.5 million years ago. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?(A) There were not other lakes in the immediate area before the lava dammed up the river.(B) The lake contained fish that the human ancestors could have used for food.(C) The lava under the lake-bottom sediments did not contain any human fossil remains.(D) The lake was deep enough that a person could drown in it.(E) The bones were already in the sediments by the time the lake disappeared.

In North America there has been an explosion of public interest in, and enjoyment of, opera over the last three decades. The evidence of this explosion is that of the 70 or so professional opera companies currently active in North America, 45 were founded over the course of the last 30 years. The reasoning above assumes which one of the following?(A) All of the 70 professional opera companies are commercially viable options.(B) There were fewer than 45 professional opera companies that had been active 30 years ago and that ceased operations during the last 30 years.(C) There has not been a corresponding increase in the number of professional companies devoted to other performing arts.(D) The size of the average audience at performances by professional opera companies has increased over the past three decades.(E) The 45 most recently founded opera companies were all established as a result of enthusiasm on the part of a potential audience.

In the early 20th century, ivory poaching led to the near extinction of the black rhino and the African elephant. As a result, numerous African nations supported a complete ban on all ivory sales. This ban has been in effect since 1989. The governments of South Africa, Botswana, and Namibia have recently put up for auction thousands of tons of confiscated ivory horns and tusks, in spite of the continued moratorium. However, the three governments have the full support of the same conservationists who helped impose the 1989 international ban on ivory sales.Which of the following, if true, contributes most to an explanation of why conservationists support South Africa’s, Botswana’s, and Namibia’s auction of ivory?(A) The international demand for ivory has decreased significantly since1989.(B) Most wild black rhinos and African elephants live outside of South Africa, Botswana, and Namibia.(C) Once the tons of confiscated ivory are auctioned, the market will be flooded with ivory, making poaching economically impractical.(D) If it were not for the auction, the confiscated ivory could never be used and would have to remain in government warehouses.(E) Due to major conservation efforts, black rhino and African elephant populations have slowly but steadily increased in the last few years.

The administrative budget in the Central Valley school district is proportional to the value of the valley’s property tax base, the chief source of funding for the school district. As revenue from property taxes increases, each budget segment of the school district is increased proportionately. Which of the following statements, if true, is the best basis for a criticism of the Central Valley’s budgeting policy as an economically sound budgeting method for school districts?(A) The school district might continue to pay for past inefficient allocation of funds.(B) The revenue from property taxes has remained relatively unchanged for the last decade.(C) Student performance is affected by fluctuations in the overall school district budget.(D) Many Central Valley taxpayers have complained about the high property tax rates in the area.(E) The current budgeting system has little impact on whether parents decide to take their children to non-district funded classes.

When Germany was asked to pay 132 billion gold marks in war reparations following World War I, the German government had to print money to pay its bills, drastically devaluing the currency. In response to this anticipated devaluation, Germans began spending their money while it still had purchasing power, almost completely depleting the monetary stores of domestic banks.Which of the following, if true and taken together with the information above, best supports the conclusion that the devaluation of the German mark was likely to continue?(A) The recipient governments of the war reparations began to demand that the reparations be paid in goods and commodities, such as coal.(B) The amount of 132 billion gold marks was the largest war reparations amount ever levied to that point.(C) In the post-World War I period, the German government had only two options for preventing complete economic collapse: print money or take out loans from domestic banks.(D) Printing currency causes inflation when the money is not based on hard assets such as gold or land.(E) The more consumers make purchases, the more money is returned into a country’s economy.

Sam: During recessions, unemployment typically rises. Thus, air pollution due to automobile exhaust decreases during a recession, since fewer people commute in cars to jobs and so cars emitting pollutants into the air are used less.Felipe: Why would you think that air pollution would decrease? During a recession, fewer people can afford to buy new cars, and cars tend to emit more pollutants as they get older. Which of the following most accurately describes how Felipe’s response is related to Sam’s argument?(A) It calls into question the truth of the premises that Sam uses to support his conclusion.(B) It makes an additional claim that can only be true if Sam’s conclusion is false.(C) It presents an additional consideration that weakens the support given to Sam’s conclusion by his evidence.(D) It argues that Sam’s conclusion is true, although not for the reasons Sam gives to support that conclusion.(E) It presents an argument showing that the premises in Sam’s argument support an absurd conclusion that Sam has overlooked.

Before 1986 physicists believed they could describe the universe in terms of four universal forces. Experiments then suggested, however, a fifth universal force of mutual repulsion between particles of matter. This fifth force would explain the occurrence in the experiments of a smaller measurement of the gravitational attraction between bodies than the established theory predicted. Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument that there is a fifth universal force?(A) The extremely sophisticated equipment used for the experiments was not available to physicists before the 1970’s.(B) No previously established scientific results are incompatible with the notion of a fifth universal force.(C) Some scientists have suggested that the alleged fifth universal force is an aspect of gravity rather than being fundamental in itself.(D) The experiments were conducted by physicists in remote geological settings in which factors affecting the force of gravity could not be measured with any degree of precision.(E) The fifth universal force was postulated at a time during which many other exciting and productive ideas in theoretical physics were developed.

When investigators discovered that the director of a local charity had repeatedly overstated the number of people his charity had helped, the director accepted responsibility for the deception. However, the investigators claimed that journalists were as much to blame as the director was for inflating the charity’s reputation, since they had naively accepted what the director told them and simply reported as fact the numbers he gave them. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the investigators’ claim?

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(A) Anyone who works for a charitable organization is obliged to be completely honest about the activities of that organization.(B) Anyone who knowingly aids a liar by trying to conceal the truth from others is also a liar.(C) Anyone who presents as factual a story that turns out to be untrue without first attempting to verify that story is no less responsible for the consequences of that story than anyone else is.(D) Anyone who lies to advance his or her own career is more deserving of blame than someone who lies in order to promote a good cause.(E) Anyone who accepts responsibility for a wrongful act that he or she committed is less deserving of blame than someone who tries to conceal his or her own wrongdoing.

It is proposed to introduce mosquitoes into the wild with genetic alterations that destroy their disease-carrying capacity. In this way, the dangerous wild population could eventually be replaced with a harmless one without leaving room for another disease-transmitting type to flourish. One candidate gene would interfere with the mosquito’s finding mates; another would cause destruction of a disease parasite before the stage at which it could be transmitted; another would disable the mosquito’s own resistance to disease, so that it would die before transmitting the disease.Which of the following identifies a discrepancy in the proposal above?(A) It is presupposed that the three genes would prove equally easy to isolate and insert into the cells of the mosquitoes.(B) Two of the ways of destroying disease carrying capacity in the wild would jeopardize the goal of the proposal.(C) It does not take into account positive roles that mosquitoes play in the environment, such as serving, in the larval stage, as food for fish.(D) None of the proposed alternatives would ensure that there would be fewer mosquitoes in any given area.(E) Evidence is not presented to show that each alternative method has been successfully tested on a wide scale.

Maas is, at best, able to write magazine articles of average quality. The most compelling pieces of evidence for this are those few of the numerous articles submitted by Maas that are superior, since Maas, who is incapable of writing an article that is better than average, obviously must have plagiarized the superior ones. The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on which of the following grounds?(A) It simply ignores the existence of potential counterevidence.(B) It generalizes from atypical occurrences.(C) It presupposes what it seeks to establish.(D) It relies on the judgment of experts in a matter where their expertise is irrelevant.(E) It infers limits on ability from a few isolated lapses in performance.

Despite the fact that antilock brakes are designed to make driving safer, research suggests that people who drive cars equipped with antilock brakes have more accidents than those who drive cars not equipped with antilock brakes.Each of the following, if true, would help resolve the apparent discrepancy described above EXCEPT:(A) Most cars equipped with antilock brakes, are, on average, driven more carelessly than cars not equipped with antilock brakes.(B) Antilock brakes malfunction more often than regular brakes.(C) Antilock brakes require expensive specialized maintenance to be even as effective as regular brakes that have not been maintained.(D) Most people who drive cars equipped with antilock brakes do not know how to use those brakes properly.(E) Antilock brakes were designed for safety in congested urban driving, but accidents of the most serious nature take place on highways.

Although many seventeenth-century broadsides, popular ballads printed on a single sheet of paper and widely sold by street peddlers, were moralizing in nature, this is not evidence that most seventeenth-century people were serious about moral values. While over half of surviving broadsides contain moralizing statements, and it is known that many people purchased such compositions, it is not known why they did so, nor is it known how their own beliefs related to what they read. Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?(A) Like other forms of cheap seventeenth-century popular literature, surviving broadsides seem mostly to have been of rather low literary quality and to have been written by hack writers.(B) In many moralizing ballads, the moral content was confined to a single stanza expressing a pious sentiment tacked onto a sensationalized account of the crime and adultery.(C) Some seventeenth-century ballad sellers also sold some sermons printed in pamphlet form.(D) The clergy occasionally stuck broadsides warning about the danger of strong drink on the doors of seventeenth-century alehouses.(E) E) Well-educated people of the seventeenth-century held broadsides in contempt and considered broadside peddlers to be disreputable vagrants.

When a group of people starts a company, the founders usually serve as sources both of funding and of skills in marketing, management, and technical matters. It is unlikely that a single individual can both provide adequate funding and be skilled in marketing, management, and technical matters. Therefore, companies founded by groups are more likely to succeed than companies founded by individuals. Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?(A) A new company is more likely to succeed if every founding member contributes equally to the company’s initial funding than if some members contribute more funds than others.(B) Some founding members of successful companies can provide both funding and skills in marketing, management, or technical matters.(C) New companies are more likely to succeed when their founders can provide adequate funding and skills in marketing, management, and technical abilities than when they must secure funding or skills from non founders.(D) Founders of a new company can more easily acquire marketing and management abilities than technical abilities.(E) A new company is more likely to succeed if its technical experts are also skilled in management and marketing than if they lack management or marketing skills.

The retail price of decaffeinated coffee is considerably higher than that of regular coffee. However, the process by which coffee beans are decaffeinated is fairly simple and not very costly. Therefore, the price difference cannot be accounted for by the greater cost of providing decaffeinated coffee to the consumer. The argument relies on assuming which one of the following?(A) Processing regular coffee costs more than does processing decaffeinated coffee.(B) Price differences between products can generally be accounted for by such factors as supply and demand, not by differences in production costs.(C) There is little competition among companies that process decaffeinated coffee.(D) Retail coffee-sellers do not believe that consumers are content to pay more for decaffeinated coffee than for regular coffee.(E) The beans used for producing decaffeinated coffee do not cost much more before processing than the beans used for producing regular coffee.

Raymond: Although some people claim it is inconsistent to support both freedom of speech and legislation limiting the amount of violence in TV programs, it is not. We can limit TV program content because the damage done by violent programs is more harmful than the decrease in freedom of speech that would result from the limitations enacted by the legislation. Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify Raymond’s reasoning?(A) In evaluating legislation that would impinge on a basic freedom, we should consider the consequences of not passing the legislation.(B) One can support freedom of speech while at the same time recognizing that other interests can sometimes override it.

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(C) When facing a choice regarding the restriction of freedom of speech, we must decide based on what would make the greatest number of people the happiest.(D) If the exercise of a basic freedom leads to some harm, then the exercise of that freedom should be restricted.(E) In some circumstances, we should tolerate regulations that impinge on a basic freedom.

People who have political power tend to see new technologies as a means of extending or protecting their power, whereas they generally see new ethical arguments and ideas as a threat to it. Therefore, technical ingenuity usually brings benefits to those who have this ingenuity, whereas ethical inventiveness brings only pain to those who have this inventiveness.Which one of the following statements, if true, most strengthens the argument?(A) Those who offer new ways of justifying current political power often reap the benefits of their own inventions.(B) Politically powerful people tend to reward those whom they believe are useful to them and to punish those whom they believe are threats.(C) Ethical inventiveness and technical ingenuity are never possessed by the same individuals.(D) New technologies are often used by people who strive to defeat those who currently have political power.(E) Many people who possess ethical inventiveness conceal their novel ethical arguments for fear of retribution by the politically powerful.

During the recent economic downturn, banks contributed to the decline by loaning less money. Prior to the downturn, regulatory standards for making bank loans were tightened. Clearly, therefore, banks will lend more money if those standards are relaxed. The argument assumes that…(A) the downturn did not cause a significant decrease in the total amount of money on deposit with banks, which is the source of funds for banks to lend.(B) the imposition of tighter regulatory standards was not a cause of the economic downturn.(C) the reason for tightening the regulatory standards was not arbitrary.(D) no economic downturn is accompanied by a significant decrease in the amount of money loaned out by banks to individual borrowers and businesses.(E) no relaxation of standards for bank loans would compensate for the effects of the downturn.

Samuel is obviously a bad fisherman. During the past season, in which he and the five members of his team spent four months on a boat together off Dutch Harbor, AK, he caught fewer fish than any of his teammates.Which of the following, if true, most weakens the argument above?A) Two seasons ago, Samuel fished on another boat off Dutch Harbor and caught more fish than any other member of that boat.B) Before becoming a fisherman, Samuel piloted a fishing boat whose members regularly caught record numbers of fish.C) While fishing this past season, Samuel fell sick for a week and did not catch any fish during this time.D) Unlike the other fishermen on his boat, at the order of the captain, Samuel fished this past season with experimental bait.E) Amongst the fishing community in Dutch Harbor, Samuel has a reputation for being an especially bad fisherman.

Virtually all health experts agree that second-hand smoke poses a serious health risk. After the publication of yet another research paper explicating the link between exposure to second-hand smoke and a shorter life span, some members of the State House of Representatives proposed a ban on smoking in most public places in an attempt to promote quality of life and length of lifespan.A) The amount of damaging chemicals and fumes released into the air by cigarette smoke is far less than the amount released from automobiles, especially from older models.B) Banning smoking in most public places will not considerably reduce the percent of the population in the state in question that smokes.C) The state whose legislators are proposing the tough smoking legislation has a relatively high percent of its population that smoke.D) Another state that enacted a similar law a decade ago saw a statistically significant drop in lung-cancer rates among non-smokers.E) A nearby state up-wind has the highest number of smokers in the country.

At a certain college, graduate teaching assistants conduct discussion sections but have no input into grading. It has been suggested that graduate assistants be given some grading responsibility, but many undergraduates oppose that proposal. They argue that if grades are assigned by graduate assistants, regular fulltime faculty will devote less time and attention to undergraduate work. The information in the passage above answers which one of the following questions?(A) Are grades assigned by graduate teaching assistants inherently as fair as those given by regular faculty?(B) Are some undergraduates in favor of maintaining the full-time faculty’s interest in their schoolwork?(C) May regular full-time faculty conduct discussion sections at the college?(D) Does graduate student contact with undergraduates’ work make the grades assigned by regular faculty less valid?(E) Are regular faculty members in favor of giving graduate assistants some teaching responsibility?

Air travel is becoming increasingly more dangerous. In the last year there have been seven major collisions resulting in over 700 deaths, more deaths than in any previous year. Which statement, if true, would most weaken the argument above?(A) Since the volume of air traffic has been increasing all the time, an increase in the number of deaths due to collisions does not necessarily mean greater danger. (B) The increase in collisions can be explained by statistical coincidence, hijackings, and unusual weather.(C) Mortality per passenger mile is lower for air travel than for any kind of surface transportation.(D) The increase in deaths due to collision in air travel has proceeded at a rate identical to that for deaths in all other major forms of transportation.(E) Last year the average number of passengers per flown plane was significantly lower than that of previous years.

Ernesto: Sales of VCRs—videocassette recorders—will decline in the next few years because the saturation level among U.S. households has virtually been reached.Milton: Every year a greater number of popular feature films is released on cassette—at least 6 per month. Clearly VCR sales will remain constant, if not rise. Which of the following is the best logical evaluation of Milton’s response to Ernesto’s argument?(A) He cites evidence that, if true, disproves the evidence cited by Ernesto in drawing his conclusion.(B) He points out a gap in the logic followed by Ernesto in drawing his conclusion. (C) He cites an issue ignored by Ernesto and which outweighs the issues raised by Ernesto.(D) He does not speak to Ernesto’s point because he fails to raise the issue of whether VCR sales may be linked to sales of other leisure-related products.(E) He fails to respond to Ernesto’s argument because he assumes that nothing will significantly retard the sale of VCR’s, which was the issue that Ernesto raised.

A confidential survey revealed that 75 percent of the employees of Company P are dissatisfied with their jobs. However, an investigation into working conditions at the company showed nothing uncommonly bad. Therefore, Company P’s consulting firm concluded that the employees’ dissatisfaction must result from an unusually high incidence of psychological problems on their part. Each of the following, if true, casts doubt on the consulting firm’s conclusion EXCEPT:(A) In the investigation of working conditions, no account was taken of the fact that for the past year many Company P employees worked on a joint venture with Company O, at Company O’s facilities.(B) Workers in many companies are dissatisfied although there are no apparent problems with their working conditions.(C) The consulting firm’s conception of what constitutes uncommonly bad working conditions is not identical to that of Company P’s employees.

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(D) The reasons given by Company P’s employees for their dissatisfaction varied greatly from employee to employee.(E) A battery of sets performed on Company P’s employees one month ago revealed no significant psychological stresses or problems.

Although air pollution was previously thought to exist almost exclusively in our nation’s cities, the recent increase in the number of persons suffering from illnesses attributed to excessive air pollution leaves us no choice but to conclude that other, nonurban areas are now affected. Which of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the conclusion of the argument above?(A) The nation’s cities have seen a marked decrease in levels of air pollution.(B) The nation has experienced a sharp decrease in the number of people moving out of its cities.(C) Illnesses due to air pollution are among the least common causes of death to urban dwellers.(D) Many illnesses previously thought unrelated to air pollution are now considered to be caused by it.(E) As a result of the problems in urban areas, nonurban areas have passed strict pollution control measures.

Statistics show that although consumption of low-calorie, alternative sweeteners has gone up in each of the past five years, so has the percentage of the population that is obese. According to sugar manufacturers, this shows that the low-calorie, alternative sweeteners are not effective weight loss aids. Which of the following assertions, if true, would most weaken the sugar manufacturers’ conclusion?(A) Many people who use low-calorie, alternative sweeteners eat some foods that are not low-calorie.(B) Some low-calorie, alternative sweeteners can increase the appetite, making a person eat more than he or she normally would.(C) Many people use low-calorie, alternative sweeteners to accompany a well balanced, low-calorie diet.(D) Obesity has declined among people who have consistently used low-calorie, alternative sweeteners.(E) The rise in the consumption of low-calorie, alternative sweeteners is primarily due to an increase in the number of users rather than an increase in the amount

each user consumes. c is out of scope, so D is correct

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A team has different skills than the team. So consider limitless skilled people.

To improve the physical fitness of its students, School District 4 instituted a policy whereby students would be given extra credit in physical education for extracurricular athletic activities. School officials call the program a success, since participation in after school sports has doubled since the program was instituted.Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the claim of the school officials?(A) Most students who joined after school sports did so only to get extra credit.(B) Most children who are in poor physical condition cannot be persuaded to join after school sports by such an incentive program.(C) Few students who joined after school sports during the extra credit program will continue to play the sport after the school year ends.(D) Most of the new athletes are students who had never before participated in after school sports.(E) Fitness set show no significant improvement in the physical condition of students after they join after school sports.

Truck driver: The gasoline tax is too high and it must be lowered. It has been raised every year for the last five years, while other sales taxes have not. If the government persists in unfairly penalizing truck drivers, our increased operating costs will either hurt consumers or put us out of business.State official: But your gasoline tax dollars maintain and improve the very roads you depend on. Without those additional revenues, road conditions would deteriorate, costing you and consumers much more in maintenance and repairs.If the statements made above are true, the best characterization of the logical relationship between the two arguments is that the state official’s response(A) points out that the truck driver’s proposal will actually worsen the problem it is intended to solve (B) is circular, assuming the truth of its conclusion in order to justify its conclusion(C) points out that the truck driver is selfish because more people are aided by the gasoline tax than are penalized (D) is merely an attempt to excuse the government’s policies without providing any justification for those policies(E) points to an inherent contradiction between the cause the truck driver cites and the effects the truck driver thinks willfollow from the cause

The World Automobile Association (WAA) publishes a list of the “Best and Worst Drivers of the World,” ranking the drivers of every nation according to the number of traffic deaths per mile driven in that country. Each of the following, if true, would by itself provide a logical objection to using the WAA’s ranking as a representation of the quality of drivers in each nation EXCEPT:(A) The roads in some countries are in bad repair and are therefore more dangerous than roads in other countries.(B) The average driver in industrialized countries can afford to maintain his or her car in better condition than can the average driver in less developed countries.(C) Some countries contain hundreds of thousands of miles of road while other countries contain relatively few miles of road.(D) Minor accidents that would cause little injury in many countries are often fatal when they occur in extremely mountainous countries.(E) Because of differences in national economies, the average car in some countries contains many more passengers than does the average car in other countries.

Inorganic pesticides remain active on the surfaces of fruits and vegetables for several days after spraying, whileorganic pesticides dissipate within a few hours after application, leaving the surface of the sprayed producefree of pesticide residue. When purchasing from a farm that uses inorganic pesticides, consumers must becareful to wash the produce thoroughly before eating in order to minimize the ingestion of toxins. Clearly,though, consumers can be assured that they are not ingesting pesticides when eating produce from farms thatuse only organic pesticides.The argument above assumes that _________________.(A) careful washing of produce that has been sprayed with inorganic pesticides is sufficient to preventthe ingestion of toxins(B) produce from farms that use organic pesticides reaches the consumer within hours after it is pickedor harvested(C) no farm uses both organic and inorganic pesticides(D) organic pesticides are not capable of penetrating the skin of a fruit or vegetable(E) the use of either type of pesticide does not increase the cost of produce

Which of the following best completes the passage below?In testing for food allergies, a false positive result occurs when a person is said to be allergic to a particular food when, in fact, he is not allergic to that food. A false negative result indicates that a person is not allergic to the food when, in fact, he is. To most accurately determine food allergies, a physician should use the test that gives the smallest percentage of false negative results because(A) some food allergies cause reactions severe enough to be life-threatening(B) none of the tests for food allergies have lasting side effects(C) in diagnosing food allergies it is important to be as thorough as possible, since most people with one known food allergy have other undiscovered food allergies(D) the proportion of tests that do not provide a clear result is the same for all tests of food allergies(E) all tests for food allergies have the same proportion of false positive results

Survivors of a horrific motor accident were immediately examined by a team of doctors. When asked whether they could talk, all of them replied ‘No’. The doctors have attributed this phenomenon to post-traumatic stress, arguing that stress causes the subject to disassociate into separate parts, and the part that listens to the question is disassociated from the part that replies. Which of the following challenges would most weaken the attempted explanation described above?

Why does the part that replies not answer anything other than ‘No’? Only a small percentage of accident victims suffer from post-traumatic stress. Why are separate parts of the self same for all subjects? Does post-traumatic stress lead to disassociation of the self into several parts? Why does the observed phenomenon need any explanation?

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The reasoning here is that the selves of the survivors are dissociated into separate parts, and that the part that is listening is dissociated from the part that replies. Now, if this true then the survivor need not always answer 'No'. They can utter any random answer. Therefore, option A is the right answer.

A recent report declaim that 80 percent of the people in this country now report that they know someone who is divorced. But the average divorce rate in this country is 4 percent, which means one out of 25 people should be divorced. So at any specific time if a person knows approximately 50 persons, two or more will very likely be divorced. The conclusion drawn above depends on which of the following assumptions?  Normal levels of divorce rate are rarely exceeded. Divorce is not normally concentrated in geographically isolated segments of the population. People don’t tell a lie when they report the number of the divorced people they know. The statistics listed in the report is not consciously distorted. There is an area where the divorce rate is much higher than the normal rate.

In The Shveta-chattra or the "White Umbrella" was a symbol of sovereign political authority placed over the monarchy's head at the time of coronation. The ruler so inaugurated was regarded not as a temporal autocrat but as the instrument of protective and sheltering firmament of supreme law. The while umbrella symbol is of great antiquity and its varied use illustrates the ultimate common basis of non-theocratic nature of states in Indian tradition. As such, the umbrella is found, although not necessarily white one, over the head of lord Ram, the mohammedan sultans and Chatrapati Shivaji. Which of the following summarizes the above passage? The placing of an umbrella over the rulers head was a common practice in the Indian subcontinent The white umbrella represented the instrument of firmament of the supreme law and the non-theocratic nature of Indian states The umbrella, not necessarily a white one, was a symbol of sovereign political authority The varied use of umbrella symbolized the common basis of the non-theocratic nature of states in the Indian tradition. The umbrella has spiritual importance in some parts of the world.OptionA is more like a conclusion.OptionB is true but leaves out the non white umbrella from the summary. OptionC misses out the non-theocratic part.OptionD correctly summarizes the passage.OptionE-Spritual is out of scope

Choose the option that best summarizes the passage given below. Try before you buy. We use this memorable saying to urge you to experience the consequence of an alternative before you choose it, whenever this is feasible. If you are considering, buying a van after having always owned sedans, rent one for a week or borrow a friends'. By experiencing the consequences first hand, they become more meaningful. In addition, you are likely to identify consequences you had not even thought of before. May be you will discover that it is difficult to park the van in your small parking space at work, but that, on the other hand, your elderly father has a much easier time getting in and out of it.

If you are planning to buy a van after being used to sedans, borrow a van or rent it and try it before deciding to buy it. Then you may realize and try it before deciding to buy it. Ten you may realize that parking a van is difficult while it is easier for your elderly father to get in and out of it.

Before choosing an alternative, experience its consequences if feasible. If for example, you want to change from sedans to a van, try one before buying it. You will discover aspects you may have never thought of.

Always try before you buy anything. You are bound to discover many consequences. One of the consequences of going in for a van is that it is more difficult to park than sedans at the office car park.

It is urged by the author, to try products such as vans before buying them. Then you can experience consequences you have not thought of such as parking problems. But your father may find vans more comfortable than cars.

Exploring all possibilities, using first hand experience is usually a good thing in life. For eg. the author urges the readers to try out the use of a van, if one is used to using sedans in life. This will help avoid future problems

Option A- focuses only on the van rather than the broader idea in the passage. Option B is correct.Option C-The passage says that you might feel that van is not suitable for you. It does not say that a van is essentially a bad buy for all.Option D-Focuses on vans and the kind. Look at the language "to try products such as vans".Option E-Makes the idea too generic, and talks about life. also "Exploring all possibilities" is a little out of scope.

My grandfather says that most of the new clothes that he has purchased have fallen apart in a very short time. He also points out that most of the vintage clothes that he bought are still in excellent condition, even thought they were more than 15 yrs old when he bought them. So he concludes that clothes made today are inferior in terms of how long they last as compared to vintage clothes.Which of the following is a major weakness in his conclusion?

It does not take into account the fact that raw materials available then were of much better qualityIt does not take into account the fact that, if prices are adjusted for inflation, the vintage clothes would turn out to be much more expensive than today’s clothesIt confuses the number of clothing items sold with the ratio of items that are useless todayIt does not take into account the stitching patternIt fails to take into account clothes made over 15 years ago that are no longer fit for sale

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Everyone who has graduated from TopNotch High School has an intelligence quotient (IQ) of over 120. Most students with an IQ of over 120 and all students with an IQ of over 150 who apply to one or more Ivy League universities are accepted to at least one of them. The statements above, if true, best support which of the following conclusions?• Every graduate of TopNotch High School with an IQ of 150 has been accepted to at least one Ivy-League school.• If a person is a high-school graduate and has an IQ of less than 100, he or she could not have been a student at TopNotch High School.• If a person has an IQ of 130 and is attending an Ivy-League school, it is possible for him or her to have graduated from TopNotch High School.• At least one graduate from TopNotch high school who has applied to at least one Ivy-League university has been accepted to one of them.• If a high-school graduate has an IQ of 150 and is not attending an Ivy-League school, then he or she did not apply to one of them.

Advocates insist that health savings accounts are an efficient method to reduce medical expenses. However, widespread adoption of these accounts will soon undermine the public’s health. One reason for this is that most people will be reluctant to deplete their accounts to pay for regular preventive examinations, so that in many cases a serious illness will go undetected until it is far advanced. Another reason is that poor people, who will not be able to afford health savings accounts, will no longer receive vaccinations against infectious diseases. The statements above, if true, most support which of the following?• Wealthy individuals will not be affected negatively by health savings accounts.• Private health insurance will no longer be available.• Most diseases are detected during regular preventive examinations.• Some people without health savings accounts are likely to contract infectious diseases.• The causal relationship between an individual’s health and that person’s medical care has been adequately documented.

Celiac disease results from an inability of the digestive tract, specifically the small intestine, to absorb gluten, a protein found in wheat, barley, and certain other grains. The body’s immune system attacks the gluten as if the protein were a harmful pathogen, often resulting in serious damage to the intestinal lining. People who suffer from celiac disease must eliminate gluten from their diets. Symptoms of the disease include abdominal cramps, bloating,and anemia. If the statements above are true, which of the following assertions can be made on the basis of them?• Anyone who suffers from celiac disease will experience anemia.• Eliminating gluten from one’s diet will cure celiac disease.• People experiencing abdominal cramps, bloating, and anemia have celiac disease.• Gluten is found only in grains.• The human body cannot always recognize harmless substances.

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