cp biology final exam review - warren hills regional ... · web viewmesoderm - which forms between...

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What are the steps in the scientific method? (also - define hypothesis) 1- Define a problem . 2- Research the problem . 3- Formulate a hypothesis (a testable prediction – is may be thought of as a possible explanation for a set of observations, or an answer to a scientific questions.) 4- Design an experiment to test the hypothesis . 5- Make observations and record data. (If observations involve numbers, they are quantitative, otherwise they are qualitative.) 6- Analyze data and draw conclusion . 7- Publish the results . TheoryA broad and comprehensive statement of what is believed to be true, that may tie together several related hypotheses. It is supported by a large body of scientific evidence It can involve facts, scientific laws, and tested hypotheses. It may result from continual verification and refinement of a hypothesis. As more information is gained, and new facts cannot be explained by present theories, those theories may be changed or replaced by new theories. Many people use the word theory in their everyday language to mean a “guess.” When the word theory is used in science, it represents much more that just a guess. Define experimental variables: Variable – something that changes Independent Variable – changed by the experimenter. An experiment can have only one. (manipulated) Dependent Variable – it changes in response to the independent variable (responsive)-It changes because of what the experimenter changed while conducting the experiment ) Basic Biochemistry hydrocarbons - are organic compounds of hydrogen and carbon such as carbohydrates. carbohydrates Carbo = carbon Hydrate = water organic. compounds in which the ratio of H to C is 2:1.(sugars, starches and cellulose) They are a primary energy source. lipids- large, non polar, organic molecules that do not dissolve in H 2 O.(They have a higher ratio of C & H to O than carbohydrates.)

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Page 1: CP Biology Final Exam Review - Warren Hills Regional ... · Web viewmesoderm - which forms between the other layers, forms skeleton, muscles, inner layer of skin, circulatory system,

What are the steps in the scientific method?(also - define hypothesis)1- Define a problem.2- Research the problem.3- Formulate a hypothesis (a testable prediction – is may be thought of as a possible explanation for a set of observations, or an answer to a scientific questions.)4- Design an experiment to test the hypothesis.

5- Make observations and record data. (If observations involve numbers, they are quantitative, otherwise they are qualitative.)6- Analyze data and draw conclusion.7- Publish the results.

Theory– A broad and comprehensive statement of what is believed to be true, that may tie together several related hypotheses.It is supported by a large body of scientific evidence It can involve facts, scientific laws, and tested hypotheses. It may result from continual verification and refinement of a hypothesis. As more information is gained, and new facts cannot be explained by present theories, those theories may be changed or replaced by new theories.Many people use the word theory in their everyday language to mean a “guess.” When the word theory is used in science, it represents much more that just a guess.

Define experimental variables:Variable – something that changesIndependent Variable – changed by the experimenter. An experiment can have only one.(manipulated)Dependent Variable – it changes in response to the independent variable (responsive)-It changes because of what the experimenter changed while conducting the experiment

) Basic Biochemistry

hydrocarbons - are organic compounds of hydrogen and carbon such as carbohydrates.

carbohydrates – Carbo = carbon Hydrate = waterorganic. compounds in which the ratio of H to C is 2:1.(sugars, starches and cellulose) They are a primary energy source.

lipids- large, non polar, organic molecules that do not dissolve in H2O.(They have a higher ratio of C & H to O than carbohydrates.) Lipid molecules (phospholipids) make up a large part of the cell membrane. Oils and fats are known as triglycerides. They store a lot of energy –more than bonds carbohydrates or protein.saturated and unsaturated fats - fats with only single bonds between carbon atoms are saturated, while unsaturated fats have double and triple bonds, sometimes more than one.proteins - composed mainly of C,H,O & N. Made up of building blocks called amino acids. They make up most structural components of cells and tissues. Enzymes are proteins. They differ in the kinds and amount of amino acids.

nucleic acids – (DNA & RNA) very large complex organic molecules that store genetic information. They are made up of nucleotides.

amino acids building blocks of protein (20 kinds,

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those needed in the diet are called essential. They are the protein monomers(“building-blocks”).

enzyme/substrate/lock & key – enzymes are organic, biological catalysts, that act on substrate molecules. There is a specific molecular fit between the enzyme and the substrate molecule – this is known as lock and key.

glucose/sucrose/fructose - glucose and fructose are monosaccharides also called simple sugars. They are building blocks of carbohydrates. Glucose is an important energy source of cells. Sucrose, table sugar, is a disaccharide made up of glucose chemically bonded to fructose.

Condensation reaction – loss of H2O Hydrolysis – add H2O to breakdown

mono/disaccharide/polysaccharides – polysaccharide are made up of many simple sugar units (monosaccharides). Examples are cellulose and starch. They may be complex with branching chains. (A disaccharide is made up of two simple sugars. Ex: sucrose)

starch - storage form of glucose in plants (& algae). – make up the complex carbohydrates.

glycogen –“animal starch” glucose storage(produced by liver, stored by liver & muscles)

cellulose - carbohydrate forms the cell wall of plant cells. – provides a support structure and protection. It forms complex carbohydrates. Not digestible in humans.

nucleotide – Pentose sugar + phosphate group + nitrogenous base = building block of DNA or RNA . Classified by the type of nitrogenous base (Adenine A,Guanine G, Cytosine C, Thymine T, and Uracil U)

enzyme– enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts.

ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) is the energy molecule of the cell. It is used by cells for all energy requiring activities.

Know your cellular organelles: What do they do?

nucleus -control centermitochondrion - site of aerobic cell respiration(Most ATP production)nucleolus - aids in ribosome productionribosome - protein production lysosome - digestive enzymescell membrane - controls passage of materials in & out of the cell chloroplast - site of photosynthesis

endoplasmic reticulum (rough & smooth) –movement of materials through the cell, it helps process proteins

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centrioles – aids formation of the spindle during cell division (not found in plant cells)

Golgi apparatus – packages materials to be secreted from the cell

Cell wall – protects and supports the plant cell Distinguish between prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells: Prokaryotic - No nucleus or organelles except ribosomes. Bacterial cells are prokaryotic. All other cells are eukaryotic.

Define the following terms related to movement of cellular materials:

passive transport - movement of material by that requires no energy from the cell. (diffusion, or osmosis) (Occurs with the concentration gradient)

active transport - movement of materials by the cell that requires cell energy (Often against the concentration gradient).

diffusion - random movement of materials from an area of greater to lesser concentration

osmosis - diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane

hypertonic – has more solutes that in the cell, and therefore it has less water (water moves out of the cell)

hypotonic solution - has less solutes than in the cell, and therefore it has more water (water moves into the cell)

isotonic solution – - has the same solutes as inside the cell and therefore the same amount of water. (No net movement of water)

plasmolysis - plant cells in hypertonic solution (content shrivel)

concentration gradient – unequal amounts of a substance across a given area. It must be present for diffusion to occur.

Know your energy transfer in the biosphere: Define & give examples of energy pyramid & trophic levels.

Trophic level = how an organismobtains its nutrition

Distinguish between food chains, & food webs. (Be able to identify producers, 1st order (primary) consumers, 2nd order consumers, etc.) Food Chain – a series of steps in an ecosystem, through which organisms transfer energy by eating or being eaten.

Food Web – interconnected food chains in an ecosystem (it demonstrates more complex feeding relationships).

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An autotrophic organism that captures energy to make organic molecules(examples: plants, algae, some bacteria)

heterotroph – an organism that obtains organic food molecules by eating other organisms or their byproducts.

decomposer – an organism that obtains organic nutrients from dead organic matter

How much energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next? only 10% - 90% not captured!

biosphere – the area on, or around earth where all life exists (land, water, air)

biome – a group of ecosystems that have the same climate and dominant communities (has specific vegetation and other characteristics

biomass – the dry weight of organic material in an ecosystem.

biotic factor – the living component of the ecosystem

abiotic factor – a nonliving component of an ecosystem (such as: climate, rainfall, soil composition, temperature etc.)

Distinguish between the carbon and water cycles

Carbon Cycle: Cycling between organic and inorganic forms of carbon – such as between CO2 and glucose (C6H12O6) Atmosphere – Inorganic Carbon. (Nitrogen cycle – between inorganic nitrogengas in the atmosphere and organic nitrogen needed by plants)

THE WATER CYCLE Water moves between the ocean atmosphere, and land. Water molecules enter the atmosphere as water vapor, a gas that from bodies of water. The process of water changing from liquid to atmospheric gas is called evaporation. It can also enter the atmosphere from the leaves of plants in aprocess called transpiration.Eventually, the water vapor forms tiny droplets that form clouds. This is known as condensation.precipitation–rain, snow, sleet, or hail.

) In the carbon cycle, what organelle “makes food” out of CO2 and H20. – Photosynthesis (Chloroplast – fixes carbon in the Calvin cycle) CO2 given off from animals during cell respiration.

What is global warming? What may cause it? Greenhouse gases trap heat (such as man made CO2 emissions from fossil fuels.)

Distinguish between a habitat & niche. habitat -It is the physical area orthe place, in which an organism lives. (a forest, a pond, a lake etc.)

niche It is the organism’s way of life, or the role the species plays in its environment. (all its interactions in the environment.)

What are the products and reactants in photosynthesis and cell respiration:

Photosynthesis: (in chloroplast of plant cells)6CO2+ 6 H2O Light C6H12O6 + 6O2carbon water glucose oxygendioxide ----reactants---- --- products---

Cell respiration: (in cytoplasm & mitochondrion of plant & animal cells)

C6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6 H2O

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glucose oxygen carbon dioxide water ----reactants---- --- products---

Distinguish between light reactions, Calvin cycle, C-4 photosynthesis: What are some C-4 plants? Light reations occur in the stroma of the chloroplast. Photosystem I & II absorb light energy, electrons move through electron transport proteins, water splits, O2 is given off, ATP and NADPH is produced for the Calvin cycle. In the Calvin cycle –which occurs in the stroma, inorgnaic carbon is converted to organic carbon in the form of PGAL. (Glucose is produced)

Some plants, adapted to hot, dry environments, use a specialprocess called C4 photosynthesis. Examples of these plants are : Corn, Sugar CaneCrabgrass and most tropical grasses are C4 plants. Plants that only use the Calvin cycle for lightindependent reactions may be referred to as C3 because the 6-C sugar splits to two 3-carbon sugars. In C-4 photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide is first incorporated into a C-4 (four carbon) acid in the mesophyll cells.CAM Photosynthesis Crassulacean Acid Metabolism (an organic acid) It is a specialization discovered in desert plants such as cactus and pineapple. CAM evolved in plants that grow in extreme heat & little rain. (It is not very efficient, and plants grow slowly.) CAM plants can open their stomata at night. They incorporate CO2 into organic acids within cell vacuoles.

Label the stages of mitosis & briefly describe what happen in each.

Define the concepts of cell division:

mitosis - cell division produces diploid cells (two daughter cells)

meiosis (reduction division) cell divisionproduces haploid gametes (crossing-over inprophase I increases genetic variation)

haploid - N chromosomes # (humans = 23) diploid – 2N chromosome # (humans = 46)

gamete - sex cell (sperm, pollen grain or egg cell

pollen – a plant’s male gametezygote – sperm and egg cells fuse to form a zygote during fertilizationcell plate – divides plant cells during cytokinesis

cleavage furrow –divides animal cells during cytokinesis

Know your DNA & Protein Synthesis:

DNA/tRNA, mRNA, rRNA, codon, anticodon.DNA – nucleic acid – genes, chromosomes are composed of DNA - carries the hereditary information. It is located in the nucleus. Transciption of DNA produces RNA. mRNA (messenger RNA) which leaves the nucleus with the DNA code for protein construction. mRNA travels to the ribosome which contains rRNA (ribosomal RNA). The tRNA (transfer RNA) brings the amino acids to the proper place in the growing protein. The “codon” of mRNA bonds to the “anticodon” of tRNA. Replication, transcription, translation – Replication is the process of duplicating DNA (during S phase of cell cycle.) transcription is the process of producing RNA,while translation is the process of producing a protein which involves all forms of RNA as mentioned above.

helicases, polymerases - helicases are enzymes that break the H bonds between the bases of

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DNA to “unzip” the two DNA strands. Polymerases are enzymes that bond the DNA or RNA nucleotides and take part in the corrective editing process.

Solve the following Punnett square crosses (include genotypic and phenotypic ratios in your examples): Monohybrid pea plant – complete dominance 18) TT x tt (P1) Mendel crossed tall & short pure bred plants

19) Tt x Tt (F1)

Mendel’s Principles: Dominance, Segregation, Independent Assortment

Know your genetics terms:

dominant - allele that masks the recessive & expressed its phenotyperecessive - allele that is masked by the dominant alleles Gregor Mendel and is only expressed in the homozygous genotype(tt)phenotype -physical expression of the genes(short pea plant)genotype - alleles that are present (Tt, TT or tt)homozygous - two of the same alleles(TT or tt)heterozygous - two different alleles (Tt)sex-linked – genes for the trait are located on a sex chromosome

Sex-influenced – alleles on the autosomes, but phenotype is influenced by person’s gender (male pattern baldness)

Incomplete dominance – in the heterozygous genotype, both alleles cause a “blending” of phenotypes to create a third phenotype (White and red = pink flowers)

Codominance – two phenotypes expressed at the same time(white hairs & red hairs= roan cattle)

Chromosome disorders: CAUSED BY NONDISJUNCTION

Down’s syndrome (“trisomy 21” an autosomal chromosome disorder) - There is an extra chromosome at pair 21 (trisomy) This results in characteristic facial features, mental retardation, possible respiratory or heart problems, small stature etc.-

XO – Turner’s Syndrome (sex chromosome disorder) It is a form of monosomy. A women missing an X chromosome.

XXY – Klinefelter’s Syndrome (sex chromosome disorder) – It is a form of trisomy A male with an extra X chromosome.

SCIENTISTS: ARISTOTLE- Classification system of Plants and animalsDARWIN – Evolution by means of natural selectionFLEMING – Penicillin FRANKLIN – X-ray diffraction image if DNAHOOKE – Named unit of organisms – cells JENNER – smallpox vaccine developed from cowpox virusLAMARCK – Evolution by acquired inheritanceLINNEAUS – Classification system of 7 levels of taxa, as well as binomial nomenclatureMENDEL – Basics of genetic inheritance and probability (pea plant experiments)MILLER – Developed apparatus to test Oparin’s hypothesis

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MORGAN – Discovered sex-linked traits in fruit fliesOPARIN – Hypothesized the development of organic macromolecules on primitive earthPASTEUR – Rabies vaccine, Anthrax Vaccine, S-Neck Flask experiment REDI – Jars of meat experiment to disprove spontaneous generation (abiogenesis)SPALLANZANI – flask experiment to disprove spontaneous generation STANLEY – crystallized Tobacco Mosaic VirusVAN LEEUWENHOEK – developed many microscopes. He viewed microbes and named some animicules.VIRCHOW – cell theoryWATSON & CRICK – scientists who discovered DNA’s structure

Also Oparin’s hypothesis1) Elements found in organic compounds were present at Earth & Solar system’sformation.2) NH3 – ammonia, CH4 – methane,H2O water vapor,H2 gas. primitive atmosphere. 3)Spontaneous interactions of these simpler molecules formed more complex organic molecules The energy needed for these interactions came from :lightning, heat from the earth’s crust, the sun’s radiation ,volcanic activity, radioactive isotopes etc.4) The earth cooled over many years and the water vapor condensed into shallow pools, lakes and then seas. Concentrations of the organic compounds increased to form the “primordial soup.” ((And the MILLER –UREY Experiment Support for Oparin’s Hypothesis))

Endosymbiosis – formation of eukaryotic cells, as smaller prokaryotes live inside larger one

Know your evolution terminology:acquired inheritance - Lamarck’s evolution theory that characteristics acquired in life could be inherited. (example: Giraffes stretch their necks to reach higher leaves. Their offspring develop the stretched neck.)

natural selection – adaptations or traits that lead to a survival advantage. These are selected by environmental pressures. Organisms with a survival advantage are able to produce more offspring which inherit the adaptations.

Homologous structures are features that originated in a shared ancestor. They have different mature forms, but develop from the same embryonic tissue. They are inherited from a common ancestor.Example – animal forelimbs have adapted to different environments but share the same basic pattern of development.

vestigial structures - A seemingly functionless structure in a modern organism that was useful to an ancestral form. They are usually small and imperfectly developed, such as human appendix, and pelvic bones in a snakeDescent with Modification – living things descended from ancestors with changes Phylogenic tree – demonstrates evolutionary relationships between organisms (phylogeny looks at evolutionary history when classifying organisms. Primate adaptations: Primates have many adaptations to life in the trees such as two front-facing eyes for depth perception, good color vision, and prehensile hands for grasping.

What is binomial nomenclature?Binomial Nomenclature - the species name (scientific name) of an organism is made up oftwo parts: the genus name & the species identifier.

Example: A common name = Grizzly bear According to binomial nomenclature= Ursus arctos (usually in italics, first word capiltalized.) Humans are Homo sapiens

What is a dichotomous key?A tool biologists can use to identify an organism through a series of paired choices in a flow-chart type method. Each pair of choices is a dichotomy which describes various morphological characteristics.

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List the 7 levels of classification according to Linnaeus - kingdom, phylum or division, class, order, family, genus and species. (Linnaeus based his classifications on morphology or structural comparisons)Aristotle originally classified all organisms as either plants or animals (animals: land, sea or air dwellers)

The Six Kingdom System: Archaebacteria, Eubacteria, Protists, Plantae, AnamaliaDomain System: Archaea & Bacteria, then all others are those with Eukayotic cells (Eukarya)

Draw the three basic bacterial shapes: coccus, bacillus, spirillum

What are some good things that bacteria do?Bioremediation, make some foods, produce chemicals, recycle nutrients (decomposers – saprophytes), fix nitrogen, make glue, make plastics, produce antibiotics, used in genetic engineering etc.

What is the difference between archaebacteria and eubacteria? Archaebacteria – harsher environment, no peptidoglycan, different genes, first bacteria on Earth etc. phageWhat are some bacteria diseases? various food poisonings, tetanus, leprosy, anthrax, a form of pneumonia, flesh-eating disease, etc.

What is a virus? DNA or RNA in a protein capsids. Obligate intracellular parasite.Sometimes enveloped in a membrane from the host.

Distinguish between temperate and virulent viruses. Temperate – lysogenic cycle – does not produce disease. Virulent – lytic cycle – produces disease (Bacteriophage infects a bacterial cell) What are retoviruses?Retroviruses contain RNA and reverse transcriptase (influenza and HIV)List some viral disease: cold, flu, viral pneumonia, AIDS, hepatitis, chicken pox, measles, small pox, etc.

ALSO: List & describe protozoans and how they moveamoebaamoeba

endocytosis – active transport, materials move into the cell through pinocytosis- “liquid–drinking” active transport of materials when a cell such as an amoeba engulfs fluids and forms a vacuole. phagocytosis - active transport of materials when a cell such as an amoeba, or white blood cell, engulfs food particles and forms a vacuole.

exocytosis - active transport of materials when a cell such as an amoeba rids itself of wastes, when the vacuole fuses with the cell membrane.

pseudopodia - false-foot – cytoplasm extends to engulf food in amoeba, also for movement.

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How does a paramecium & Amoeba rid themselves of excess water? CONTRACTILE VACUOLE

What are some common diseases caused by protozoans? Amebic dysentery – caused by Entamoeba histolytica- serious illness caused by ingesting contaminated food or water. It infects the large intestine and produces ulcers via digestive enzymes. Diarrhea, and intense pain, as well as damage to other organs as the amoebas may travel thought the blood to other organs.

Trypanosoma gambiense can cause African Sleeping Sickness (Trypanosomiasis) It is transmitted by the tsetse fly. It is characterized by increasing fever, lethargy, mental deterioration, and coma.

A zooflagellate called Giardia lamblia causes giardiasis – an illness that causes severediarrhea & intestinal cramps.

Plasmodium – causes malaria It is characterized by severe chills, fever,sweating, fatigue, and great thirst. Victims die of kidney failure, anemia, or brain damage.Anopheles mosquito which transmits the protozoan to humans while feeding.

ANIMALSDistinguish between protostomes & deuterostomes

Deuterostomes – “second mouth” radial cleavage of developing embryo, blastopore (indentation of the blastula) becomes the anus, second opening becomes the mouth. (examples - echinoderms – such as star fish, chordates and vertebrates as well)

Protostomes – “first mouth” spiral cleavage of developing embryo, blastopore becomes the mouth, second opening becomes the anus.(occurs in most animal phyla)

Distinguish between dioecious and monoecious, between protostomes & deuterostomes

Monoecious – (“One House”) hermaphroditic animals – both male and female sex organs

Dioecious – (“Two Houses”) separate sexes

Primary embryonic layers?

endoderm - inner layer - forms the throat passage, gills, lungs and gut and associated organs such as pancreas, and liver. (lines digestive tract & much of respiratory system.)

ectoderm – outer layer – forms skin, hair, nails, and nervous system

mesoderm - which forms between the other layers, forms skeleton, muscles, inner layer of skin, circulatory system, and lining of the body cavity. (also reproductive system & excretory system)

coelom, & pseudocoelomA coelom is a true body cavity which suspends organs within the mesoderm. A pseudocoelom is not a true coelom. It is seen in animals such as roundworms.

Know your Invertebrate animal phyla:

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Phylum Porifera & Cnidaria Porifera - pore animals – sponges, filter feeders, sessile, hermaphroditic, no true tissues, no symmetry, regenerates, aquatic, gemmules

Cnidaria - stinging animals - jellyfish, hydra ,coral, anemone, aquatic, sessil – polyps, or medusa form, stinging cells in tentacles, gastrovascular cavity, soft-bodies, radial symmetry, statocyst – gravity detection, ocelli – eyespots, asexual and sexual reproduction.

Platyhelminthes - Flatworms – such as planaria (class turbellaria) - free-living, acoelomate, bilateral symmetry, Fluke (class trematoda) –parasitic, Tapeworm(class cestoda) segmented worm – parastic.

Nematoda round worms –pseudocoelomate – some are intestinal parasite such as ascaris – digestive tract , hookworms –anemia of blood, filarial worms elephantiasis, trichina worm – trichinosis Annelida - Earthworms, marine worms – Coelomate Earthworms have a true body, all organ systems, and a closed circulatory system. They are hermaphroditic & can regenerate.

Chordata All chordate animals have at one time in their live the following: Notochord, stiff rod of specialized cells along the length of the dorsal side becomes the vertebrate backbone, Gill slits or pouches: seen in embryos, develop into gills in fish_& other similar structures, Dorsal nerve cord :above the notochord, the anterior end develops into the brain, & the remaining part becomes the spinal cord (part of the Central Nervous System)Post anal tail -- propels aquatic forms

Know your Vertebrate animal phyla:

Amphibia - have metamorphosis, with an aquatic larval stage (gills), lungs and skin respiration, cold-blooded with webbed feet and no scales or claws & smooth moist skin.(Apoda = legless Urodela =salamanders, Anura = frogs and toads.)

Mammalia - warm-blooded –(endotherms –internal temperature regulation) 4 chambered heart, produce milk for their young, bodies covered with hair, specialized teeth.

Some Organ Functions: trachea – airway from throat to bronchiole tubes

capillaries – smallest blood vessels in the body, where O2 and CO2 diffuse into and out of RBCs, blood vessels that surround alveoli, blood vessels that absorb nutrients from the small intestine

small intestine – most digestion & absorption of nutrients

liver – produces bile, chemical detox., produce glycogen, produce and breakdown cholesterol, etc.

gall bladder – stores biles (to break up fat droplets)

pancreas – produces digestive enzymes,as well as insulin

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kidney – filters waste from the blood (produces urine)stomach – churns food with gastric juices (Has HCl),and enzymes to start protein digestion.

Label the parts of a flower: pollen and eggs cells? seed formed?

Non vascular plant – (no true roots, stems or leaves) They do not have a complex vascular system for moving food or water. Examples: liverworts, hornworts & mosses.

Vascular plants contain special conducting tissues known as xylem and phloem.

Xylem – moves water and mineral nutrients primarily from the roots upward through the plant. It is made up of dead cells called tracheids & vessel elements.

Phloem – moves organic compounds the products of photosynthesis (sugars etc.). It moves from the leaves, throughout the plant. Phloem is made up of sieve tube members and companion cells are alive at maturity.

SEEDLESS VASCULAR PLANTS: Ferns, Club mosses, & Horsetails

VASCULAR SEED PLANTS – Gymnosperms and Angiosperms

Gymnosperms – most are cone-bearing evergreen plants, also Cycads & Ginkgo baloba

THE FLOWERING PLANTS – ANGIOSPERMS All flowering plants are classified as monocots (monocotyledonae) or dicots (dicotyledonae). This is based on the number of seed leaves onthe plant embryo. Monocots have one seed leaf while dicots have two.

Leaf internal structures:

cuticle layer – waxy layer -prevents water loss

mesophyll – ground tissue of chlorophyll-richparenchyma cells. It consists of the palisade mesophyll and the spongy mesophyll. Spongy mesophyll has air spaces for water diffusion, and gas exchange.

stoma – opening to allow gas exchange

guard cells – control opening and closing of the stomata