course overview
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Part I: Introduce you to what’s happening in Artificial Intelligence. Course Overview. What is AI? What are the Major Challenges ? What are the Main Techniques ? Where are we failing , and why? Step back and look at the Science Step back and look at the History of AI - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Course Overview What is AI?
What are the Major Challenges?
What are the Main Techniques?
Where are we failing, and why?
Step back and look at the Science
Step back and look at the History of AI
What are the Major Schools of Thought?
What of the Future?
Part I:Introduce you to
what’s happening in Artificial Intelligence
Part II:Give you an
appreciation for the big picture
Why it is a grand challenge
Done
Build a Real Universal Turing Machine By now had all necessary ideas… 1946 Turing’s plans got approval
Automatic Computing Engine (ACE) Progress was slow – lack of cooperation Turing without influence, disillusioned (…full ACE was not actually complete until 1957 (obsolete))
1947 Turing back to Cambridge Interest in Neurology Wrote early paper on Neural Nets Believed complex mechanical system could exhibit learning ability
1948 Turing and Champernowne wrote a chess program (for a computer that did not yet exist.)
1948 Manchester Computer completed Turing accepted post as deputy director Worked on software for Manchester Mark I 1950 “Computing Machinery and Intelligence” published … but became more interested in biology - morphogenesis
Alan Turing
““The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also helpful. helpful.
In considering the functions of the mind or In considering the functions of the mind or the brain we find certain operations which the brain we find certain operations which we can explain in purely mechanical terms. we can explain in purely mechanical terms. This we say does not correspond to the real This we say does not correspond to the real mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip off if we are to find the real mind. But then off if we are to find the real mind. But then in what remains we find a further skin to be in what remains we find a further skin to be
stripped off, and so on. stripped off, and so on. Proceeding in this way do we ever come to Proceeding in this way do we ever come to the 'real' mind, or do we eventually come to the 'real' mind, or do we eventually come to
the skin which has nothing in it? In the the skin which has nothing in it? In the latter case the whole mind is mechanical.”latter case the whole mind is mechanical.”
Alan Turing
““The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also helpful. helpful.
In considering the functions of the mind or In considering the functions of the mind or the brain we find certain operations which the brain we find certain operations which we can explain in purely mechanical terms. we can explain in purely mechanical terms. This we say does not correspond to the real This we say does not correspond to the real mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip off if we are to find the real mind. But then off if we are to find the real mind. But then in what remains we find a further skin to be in what remains we find a further skin to be
stripped off, and so on. stripped off, and so on. Proceeding in this way do we ever come to Proceeding in this way do we ever come to the 'real' mind, or do we eventually come to the 'real' mind, or do we eventually come to
the skin which has nothing in it? In the the skin which has nothing in it? In the latter case the whole mind is mechanical.”latter case the whole mind is mechanical.”
Alan Turing
““The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also helpful. helpful.
In considering the functions of the mind or In considering the functions of the mind or the brain we find certain operations which the brain we find certain operations which we can explain in purely mechanical terms.we can explain in purely mechanical terms. This we say does not correspond to the real This we say does not correspond to the real mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip off if we are to find the real mind. But then off if we are to find the real mind. But then in what remains we find a further skin to be in what remains we find a further skin to be
stripped off, and so on. stripped off, and so on. Proceeding in this way do we ever come to Proceeding in this way do we ever come to the 'real' mind, or do we eventually come to the 'real' mind, or do we eventually come to
the skin which has nothing in it? In the the skin which has nothing in it? In the latter case the whole mind is mechanical.”latter case the whole mind is mechanical.”
Alan Turing
““The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also The 'skin of an onion' analogy is also helpful. helpful.
In considering the functions of the mind or In considering the functions of the mind or the brain we find certain operations which the brain we find certain operations which we can explain in purely mechanical terms. we can explain in purely mechanical terms. This we say does not correspond to the real This we say does not correspond to the real mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip mind: it is a sort of skin which we must strip off if we are to find the real mind. But then off if we are to find the real mind. But then in what remains we find a further skin to be in what remains we find a further skin to be
stripped off, and so on. stripped off, and so on. Proceeding in this way do we ever come to Proceeding in this way do we ever come to the 'real' mind, or do we eventually come to the 'real' mind, or do we eventually come to
the skin which has nothing in it? In the the skin which has nothing in it? In the latter case the whole mind is mechanical.”latter case the whole mind is mechanical.”
Turing’s End March 1952 Arrested for “Gross Indecency”
No denial - Saw no wrong with his actions
Convicted – given choice Prison Oestrogen injections
Lost security clearance for GCHQ June 1954
Why apple?
Conspiracy theories… Security risk
Recognition: Turing Award established (ACM, 1966)
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)
1956 Dartmouth Conference: 1956 Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIThe Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy Marvin Minsky Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy
First degree in mathematics Graduate work on finite automata Got interested in digital computers after
Summer working at IBM Was teaching at Dartmouth
Brought together the researchers
Labelled the field “Artificial Intelligence”
Later… Worked on Formal Logic side of AI Invented LISP programming language Won Turing Award in 1971
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy Marvin Minsky Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
Marvin MinskyLater… Society of Mind idea Work on artificial neural networks:
proved perceptrons can’t solve some problems Work in theoretical Computer Science:
2-pushdown-stack automaton = Turing Machine Won Turing Award in 1969 Recent book: The Emotion Machine
1951 built a neural net out of vacuum tubes,to train a simulated rat to get out of a maze
Combined learning with planning ahead in his Ph.D. thesis
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy Marvin Minsky Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
Claude Shannon
Most famous of all participants,
but not for AI….Worked on analogue computer
with cogs and wheelsShowed that electromechanical
relay switches could solve boolean algebra problems
digital instead of analogue Lead to digital calculators
1948 “A Mathematical Theory of Communication”1950 created mechanical mouse
Could find its way out of a maze Learnt from experience
1950 wrote about chess playing computer programMade a fortune in Las Vegas applying his maths to roulette etc.
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy Marvin Minsky Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
Ray Solomonoff
Algorithmic Probability probability of some string having been generated
by an algorithm
Applied to Induction Optimal Machine Learner
Theoretical idea… Not computable But can be approximated
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy Marvin Minsky Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
Herbert Simon
Originally a political scientist – how bureaucracies function Became interested in organisational decision making Around 1954 he decided…
best way to study problem-solving is to simulate on computer Developed experimental technique of verbal protocol analysis Interested in role of knowledge in expertise 1978 won Nobel Prize in Economics
““Over Christmas, Over Christmas, Allen Newell and I Allen Newell and I
created created a thinking machine.”a thinking machine.”
January 1956January 1956
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
Alan Newell
1955 designed a chess playing program
Later… 1983 Developed SOAR architecture
Attempting a unified theory of cognition
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
Alan Newell Herbert Simon
1956 Logic Theory Machine Saw that theorem proving can be reduced to search Search tree to find a proof for a theorem Considered to be first AI program
1957 General Problem Solver Heuristics Means-ends analysis
1975 won Turing Award
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy Marvin Minsky Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
Arthur Samuel
Developed a checkers playing program Developed alpha-beta tree idea Made his program learn to improve itself 1962 his program beat a state champion
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy Marvin Minsky Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)
McCarthy et al 1955
““We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence be carried out of artificial intelligence be carried out
during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. College in Hanover, New Hampshire.
The study is to proceed on the basis of the The study is to proceed on the basis of the conjecture that every aspect of learning or conjecture that every aspect of learning or
any other feature of intelligence can in any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a principle be so precisely described that a
machine can be made to simulate it. machine can be made to simulate it. An attempt will be made to find how to An attempt will be made to find how to
make machines use language, form make machines use language, form abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of problems now reserved for humans, and problems now reserved for humans, and
improve themselves. We think that a improve themselves. We think that a significant advance can be made in one or significant advance can be made in one or
more of these problems if a carefully more of these problems if a carefully selected group of scientists work on it selected group of scientists work on it
together for a summer.”together for a summer.”
McCarthy et al 1955
““We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence be carried out of artificial intelligence be carried out
during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. College in Hanover, New Hampshire.
The study is to proceed on the basis of the The study is to proceed on the basis of the conjecture that every aspect of learning or conjecture that every aspect of learning or
any other feature of intelligence can in any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a principle be so precisely described that a
machine can be made to simulate it. machine can be made to simulate it. An attempt will be made to find how to An attempt will be made to find how to
make machines use language, form make machines use language, form abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of problems now reserved for humans, and problems now reserved for humans, and
improve themselves. We think that a improve themselves. We think that a significant advance can be made in one or significant advance can be made in one or
more of these problems if a carefully more of these problems if a carefully selected group of scientists work on it selected group of scientists work on it
together for a summer.”together for a summer.”
McCarthy et al 1955
““We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence be carried out of artificial intelligence be carried out
during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. College in Hanover, New Hampshire.
The study is to proceed on the basis of the The study is to proceed on the basis of the conjecture that every aspect of learning or conjecture that every aspect of learning or
any other feature of intelligence can in any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a principle be so precisely described that a
machine can be made to simulate it. machine can be made to simulate it. An attempt will be made to find how to An attempt will be made to find how to
make machines use language, form make machines use language, form abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of problems now reserved for humans, and problems now reserved for humans, and
improve themselves. We think that a improve themselves. We think that a significant advance can be made in one or significant advance can be made in one or
more of these problems if a carefully more of these problems if a carefully selected group of scientists work on it selected group of scientists work on it
together for a summer.”together for a summer.”
McCarthy et al 1955
““We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence be carried out of artificial intelligence be carried out
during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. College in Hanover, New Hampshire.
The study is to proceed on the basis of the The study is to proceed on the basis of the conjecture that every aspect of learning or conjecture that every aspect of learning or
any other feature of intelligence can in any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a principle be so precisely described that a
machine can be made to simulate it. machine can be made to simulate it. An attempt will be made to find how to An attempt will be made to find how to
make machines use language, form make machines use language, form abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of problems now reserved for humans, and problems now reserved for humans, and
improve themselves. improve themselves. We think that a We think that a significant advance can be made in one or significant advance can be made in one or
more of these problems if a carefully more of these problems if a carefully selected group of scientists work on it selected group of scientists work on it
together for a summer.”together for a summer.”
McCarthy et al 1955
““We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study We propose that a 2 month, 10 man study of artificial intelligence be carried out of artificial intelligence be carried out
during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth during the summer of 1956 at Dartmouth College in Hanover, New Hampshire. College in Hanover, New Hampshire.
The study is to proceed on the basis of the The study is to proceed on the basis of the conjecture that every aspect of learning or conjecture that every aspect of learning or
any other feature of intelligence can in any other feature of intelligence can in principle be so precisely described that a principle be so precisely described that a
machine can be made to simulate it. machine can be made to simulate it. An attempt will be made to find how to An attempt will be made to find how to
make machines use language, form make machines use language, form abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of abstractions and concepts, solve kinds of problems now reserved for humans, and problems now reserved for humans, and
improve themselves.improve themselves. We think that a We think that a significant advance can be made in one or significant advance can be made in one or
more of these problems if a carefully more of these problems if a carefully selected group of scientists work on it selected group of scientists work on it
together for a summer.”together for a summer.”
Dartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AIDartmouth Conference: The Founding Fathers of AI
John McCarthy Marvin Minsky Claude Shannon
Ray Solomonoff
Alan Newell Herbert Simon
Arthur Samuel
And three others…
Oliver Selfridge (Pandemonium theory)
Nathaniel Rochester (IBM, designed 701)
Trenchard More (Natural Deduction)
1956 Dartmouth Conference: What was achieved?1956 Dartmouth Conference: What was achieved?
Not much People didn’t agree on the format and weren’t all there together Newell and Simon didn’t spend much time…
Too busy working on their logic theorist
McCarthy was disappointed
“The main reason the 1956 Dartmouth workshop didn't live up to my expectations is that AI is harder than we thought.”
(McCarthy in 2006) But got people to know each other…
AI Developments from 1956 - 1963
Main Thrusts of Work in Early Days…
1. Reduce the search tree for search programs For example, search programs for: Logic Theorems Geometry theorems Algebra
2. Make computers learn for themselves For example: Chess playing machines Checkers playing machines Pattern recognition
Newell and Simon’s progress…
Herbert Simon, 1957
““It is not my aim to surprise or shock you – It is not my aim to surprise or shock you – but the simplest way I can summarize is to but the simplest way I can summarize is to
say that there are now in the world say that there are now in the world machines that can think, that can learn and machines that can think, that can learn and
that can create. that can create. Moreover, their ability to do these things is Moreover, their ability to do these things is going to increase rapidly until – in a visible going to increase rapidly until – in a visible
future – the range of problems they can future – the range of problems they can handle will be coextensive with the range to handle will be coextensive with the range to which the human mind has been applied.”which the human mind has been applied.”
Newell and Simon’s progress…
Discovered that humans don’t really act like Logic Theorist Psychologists Moore and Anderson had pioneered “think aloud”
experiments Other AI researchers were merely concerned with programs that
performed well Newell and Simon wanted programs that solved problems in the
same ways as humans They branched off… More Cognitive Science than core AI
Developed the general problem solver (GPS) Using heuristics Using means-end analysis Solved monkey-chair-banana type problems
Work at IBM…
Minsky hired Herbert Gelernter to work on new IBM 704 Geometry Theorem Prover Gave visual input of geometry problem by coding it in (not camera) This input reduced branching factor from 1000 to 5 Took Gelernter 3 yrs to program it (much longer than expected)
Also at IBM Samuel working on his checkers program Alex Bernstein working on chess program
Trouble at IBM…
AI work noticed by popular press Publicity attracted attention of IBM shareholders Asked T. J. Watson (president of IBM)
explain why research dollars were being used for "frivolous matters"
IBM noticed that customers were frightened of idea of "electronic brains" and "thinking machines“
1960 Internal report prepared recommended IBM stop AI IBM told customers
computers will only do what they were told
Bernstein became psychiatrist Gelernter became physicist Samuel went to Europe
McCarthy’s progress…
Developed LISP programming language List Processing Makes it easy to program AI ideas Makes it easy for a program to alter its own instructions McCarthy wanted programs to add to their own
commonsense To deduce consequences
Started looking at IF-THEN rules (like later expert systems) LISP was heavy on computer power – more useful in 1970s
McCarthy also pioneered idea of time-sharing computers
Minsky’s progress at MIT…
Sputnik left US behind technologically US created DARPA 1963 MIT got over $2M for Machine Aided Cognition MAC project brought MIT about $3M a year in grants thereafter
Minsky’s student James Slagle worked on SAINT program Solved symbolic integration problems Later evolved into MACSYMA