Course Manualfor

Chemistry, Grade 12, University Preparation(SCH4U)

Davidson2019-2020

Semester II

Table of Contents

Course Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Structure and Properties Supplemental Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

Organic Chemistry Terminology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Organic Chemistry Review and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Catalytic Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Equilibrium Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Acidity of Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Titration Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

Equilibrium Review and Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Answers to Supplemental Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Graphing Conventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Molecular Shapes Predicted by VSEPR Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Things You Should Know. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

Chemistry Constants and Data Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Course InformationThis course enables students to deepen their understanding of chemistry through the study of organic chemistry, thestructure and properties of matter, energy changes and rates of reaction, equilibrium and chemical systems, andelectrochemistry. Students will further develop problem-solving and investigation skills as they investigate chemicalprocesses, and will refine their ability to communicate scientific information.

Prerequisite: Chemistry, Grade 11, University Preparation (SCH3U)

Teacher: Mr. Davidson Email: douglas_davidson@lakeheadschools.ca Voice mail: 767-1631 Mailbox #1066

Course Website: my.tbaytel.net/dvchemistry/sch4u.htm

Textbook: Nelson Chemistry 12 (replacement cost: $82.95)

Calculator: A non-programmable scientific calculator is required for this course.

Evaluation 50% UNIT TESTS

Each unit of study will culminate with a two-part written test (Part 1: multiple choice; Part 2: free response).

A student who is absent on a test date must submit a completed and signed “Missed Test Form,” and arrangeto complete the missed test at an acceptable time.

UNIT TEST DATES

Structure and Properties (chapters 3 & 4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multiple Choice: Tuesday, 25 February 2020Free Response: Wednesday, 26 February 2020

Organic Chemistry (chapters 1 & 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multiple Choice: Monday, 30 March 2020Free Response: Tuesday, 31 March 2020

Energy Changes and Rates of Reaction (chapters 5 & 6) . . Multiple Choice: Thursday, 23 April 2020Free Response: Friday, 24 April 2020

Chemical Systems and Equilibrium (chapters 7 & 8) . . . . . . Multiple Choice: Thursday, 21 May 2020Free Response: Friday, 22 May 2020

Electrochemistry (chapters 9 & 10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Multiple Choice: Thursday, 11 June 2020Free Response: Friday, 12 June 2020

20% LABORATORY WORK

Students are responsible for completing all laboratory activities. Missed laboratory work must be made upoutside of class time.

30% FINAL EXAMINATION

The final written examination, covering the entire course, will take place on Wednesday, 24 June 2020. Allrules and regulations for final examinations apply.

2

Structure and Properties Supplemental Questions

1. (a) Draw the energy-level diagram, write the full electron configuration, and write the shorthand electronconfigurations for the atom of each of the following elements: P Ga Ru Al Cd S Se

(b) Repeat (a) for the common ion of each element listed.

2. Oxygen ions, fluoride ions, neon atoms, sodium ions, and magnesium ions are isoelectronic. Write the fullelectron configuration for each, and explain what is meant by isoelectronic.

3. The actual shorthand electron configuration for palladium is Pd:[Kr]4d10.(a) Give the predicted shorthand electron configuration for palladium based on the rules.(b) Explain this anomaly.

4. Copper is paramagnetic but zinc is not paramagnetic. Explain this observation using electronconfigurations.

5. Which groups of elements listed below would you expect are not paramagnetic. Explain why. alkali metals, alkaline earth metals, halogens, noble gases

6. Use electron configurations to explain the following ionic charges.(a) Na+ (b) S2– (c) Ga3+ (d) Ru3+ (e) Ag+ (f) Sc3+ (g) Zn2+

7. Carbon, the basis of organic chemistry (our next unit of study), always forms four covalent bonds.Illustrate using energy-level diagrams how electron promotion allows carbon to form four bonds.

8. Oxygen can only form two covalent bonds (e.g., OF2) yet sulfur, which is in the same group as oxygen,can also form four or six covalent bonds (e.g., SF2, SF4, SF6). Explain/illustrate this difference betweenoxygen and sulfur based on electron configurations.

9. For each molecule, draw the Lewis structure, and name and draw the shape.(a) BeH2

(b) NCl3(c) CH4

(d) SO2

(e) BH3

(f) SF4

(g) PF5

(h) ClF3

(i) SF6

(j) XeF2

(k) SeCl2(l) XeF4

(m) IF5

(n) ClO2

(o) PO43–

(p) NO3 –

(q) BrO3 –

(r) AsOF3

3

Organic Chemistry Terminology

Organic Familiesalkanesalkenesalkynesaromaticsalkyl halidesalcohols (1E, 2E, 3E)ethersaldehydesketonescarboxylic acidsestersaminesamides

Functional Groupscarbon-carbon double bondcarbon-carbon triple bondhydroxyl groupalkoxy groupcarbonyl groupcarboxyl groupamino group

Nonsystematic Namesethylenepropyleneacetyleneisopropyl alcoholglyceroldiethyl etherformaldehydeacetaldehydeacetoneformic acidacetic acidbenzoic acid

Chemical Reactionscombustionsubstitutionaddition

halogenationhydrogenationhydrohalogenationhydration

eliminationdehydration

condensationesterification

hydrolysisoxidationpolymerization

additioncondensation

Generalorganic compoundhydrocarbonaliphatic compoundaromatic compoundsigma bondpi bondsp3 hybridizationsp2 hybridizationsp hybridizationalkyl groupsaturatedunsaturatedcyclicstructural isomerstereoisomersynthesiscatalystoxidizing agentIUPACMarkovnikov’s ruleCFChomopolymercopolymer

Prefixesmeth- ( 1 C)eth- ( 2 C)prop- ( 3 C)but- ( 4 C)pent- ( 5 C)hex- ( 6 C)hept- ( 7 C)oct- ( 8 C)non- ( 9 C)dec- (10 C)

di- (2)tri- (3)tetra- (4)penta- (5)hexa- (6)

fluoro- (–F)chloro- (–Cl)bromo- (–Br)iodo- (–I)hydroxy- (–OH)

cis-trans-

Organic Chemistry Review and Practice

1. Copy and complete the following table for the 13 organic families that you have studied. Not all cells in thetable will have entries.

ORGANIC

FAMILY

STRUCTURE NOMENCLATURE SYNTHESIS

FUNCTIONAL

GROUP

NAME OF

FUNCTIONAL GROUP

PREFIX USED FOR

BRANCH

SUFFIX USED FOR

PARENT CHAIN

alcohols !OH hydroxyl hydroxy- -ol hydration of an

alkene (or alkyne)

4

2. For each compound listed below, name the organic family (or families) to which it belongs and draw itsstructure.(a) 1,1-dichloro-1,2-difluoroethane(b) 3-isopropylpentane(c) pentan-2-one(d) 3,4-dibromobut-1-yne(e) cyclohexa-1,4-diene(f) 1-ethoxypropane

(g) 3-ethylnonanal(h) 2-methylhex-2-ene(i) propanoic acid(j) methyl ethanoate(k) 5-phenylheptan-2-ol(l) 1,3-dichlorobenzene

3. Draw the structure and give the systematic name for each compound listed under NonsystematicNames on page 4 (Terminology: Organic Compounds).

4. Do the self-quiz on pages 118-119 in Nelson Chemistry 12.

5. Do the review questions on pages 120-121 in Nelson Chemistry 12.

6. For each of the following, (i) write the complete chemical reaction, (ii) name all organic reactants andproducts, and state the family to which each belongs, and (iii) name the type of reaction.

5

Catalytic Converters

Read the article then answer the questions that follow.

1. Briefly describe the purpose of catalytic converters.

2. Explain why unleaded gasoline is necessary for cars using catalytic converters.

3. What other concern contributed to the phase out of leaded gasoline?

4. From its name, give the chemical formula for TEL.

GM's Decision for the Catalytic Converter(From: Kovarik, W. and Hermes M. E., Fuels and Society: C. How Lead was Finally Removed from Gasoline,http://www.chemcases.com)

People have been concerned about air pollution for a long time. Even nonindustrial cities like ancientRome had pollution from wood smoke, and coal smoke has been a well-known part of the famousLondon fogs. The switch away from coal to relatively cleaner oil and gas in the 1940s and 50s helpedwith stationary sources like big power plants in the US and Europe.

But mobile sources –– automobiles –– were also creating smog problems that were noticeable afterWWII. The concerns led to the Clean Air Act of 1970 which required 90 percent reductions in autoexhaust. The mandatory reduction was controversial, and had not yet been approved by Congress,when on January 14, 1970, GM president Ed Cole told a Society of Automotive Engineers conferencethat the “pollution free” car was possible if two conditions were met:

• Cars used a new device called a catalytic converter; and

• Lead was taken out of gasoline.

Catalytic converters would greatly reduce carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons(unburned fuel). The converters would do nothing to lower lead emissions, but their use made leadedgasoline impossible since lead would deactivate the main catalytic element, platinum. Unleadedgasoline would be necessary.

There was an irony in Cole’s speech that was widely acknowledged at the time. After all, the companythat had created leaded gasoline was now announcing its demise. [Leaded gasoline contained anadditive, tetraethyl lead, that improved fuel performance.] Aware that this moment might come, GM hadpulled out of the leaded gasoline business only a few years before, in 1962, when it sold its interests inEthyl Corp. to a small paper company in Richmond, VA.

GM’s proactive position on lead and catalytic converters should be seen in the context of the manypressures on the auto industry in the 1960s and 70s. Biting critiques by consumer advocates like RalphNader, antitrust lawsuits by the federal government, Congressional investigations, and a growingenvironmental movement all combined to convince GM that the time had come for change.

Catalytic converters were not introduced to reduce lead, as is sometimes suggested. It was the drive toreduce nitrogen oxides and carbon monoxide that forced the converter –– and ended TEL [tetraethyllead] in US gasoline. Even if there had been no public health issue with lead, the converters would stillhave needed unleaded gasoline. But new public health research did indicate serious problems, and thiswas used as an added justification for eliminating leaded gasoline.

In 1973, Ethyl Corp. sued the EPA [Environmental Protection Agency] and won a temporary victorywhen a federal court set aside the leaded gasoline phase-out regulations, saying EPA hadn’tdemonstrated that lead was a public health hazard. This ruling was overturned in favour of the EPA in1976 when a federal appeals court said while lead was not a certain danger, “awaiting certainty willoften allow for only reactive not preventive regulation.”

Catalytic converters are now a standard part of a car’s exhaust system. They reduce three main typesof emissions: hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides. The converter reduces thenitrogen oxides back to nitrogen and oxygen, and oxidizes [reaction with oxygen] carbon monoxide andhydrocarbon emissions.

6

5. Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuel (gasoline) in car engines results in unburned hydrocarbons inthe exhaust. The heat and catalysts in a catalytic converter increase the rate of oxidation (reaction withoxygen) of hydrocarbons producing carbon dioxide and water. Write a balanced chemical equation for theoxidation of the hydrocarbon octane (C8H18).

6. Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons also produces carbon monoxide, a poisonous gas. Platinum,found in catalytic converters, catalyses the oxidation of carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide. Write abalanced chemical equation for the catalysed oxidation of carbon monoxide that occurs in the catalyticconverter (write the symbol for the catalyst above the arrow).

7. The high temperature and pressure in engine cylinders cause atmospheric nitrogen to react with oxygento produce nitrogen oxides (NO, NO2, etc.). Nitrogen oxides contribute to the production of acid rain andground-level ozone. Rhodium, found in catalytic converters, catalyses the decomposition of nitrogenoxides back to nitrogen and oxygen. Write a balanced chemical equation for the catalysed decompositionof nitrogen monoxide that occurs in the catalytic converter (write the symbol for the catalyst above thearrow).

8. In a “dual-bed” converter, the engine exhaust passes by the rhodium first, then the platinum. What is theadvantage of this order?

9. Catalytic converters contain very small amounts of platinum and rhodium. Explain why it is not necessaryfor car owners to periodically replace or replenish their catalytic converters.

Equilibrium Problems (answers on page 11)

1. Find the equilibrium concentrations that result when 0.66 mol of iodine gas and 0.66 mol of chlorine gasare placed in a 10.0-L container at 25EC.

I2(g) + Cl2(g) º 2 ICl(g) K25EC = 82

2. When phosphorus trichloride reacts with nitrogen dioxide in a closed vessel, the following equilibrium isestablished.

PCl3(g) + NO2(g) º POCl3(g) + NO(g) K = 3.77

Initially, 1.8 mol of each reactant is placed into a 1.5 L container. Find the concentration of each reactantand product at equilibrium.

3. At high temperatures, hydrogen iodide gas reversibly decomposes to hydrogen gas and iodine gas. At730 K, an equilibrium is established with K = 0.020. Initially, 0.30 mol of each of the three gases is put intoa closed 2.0 L vessel. The system is then heated to 730K and allowed to reach equilibrium. Find theequilibrium concentration of each gas.

4. A 5.00 L container, initially containing 2.60 mol of bromine and 2.60 mol of chlorine, is heated to 450 K.Find the mass of bromine monochloride present in the container when equilibrium is established.

Br2(g) + Cl2(g) º 2 BrCl(g) K450 K = 28.8

5. At 100EC, phosgene gas, COCl2(g), reversibly decomposes to carbon monoxide gas and chlorine gas withK = 2.2×10–8. If the initial concentration of phosgene in a sealed vessel is 1.5 mol/L, then what is theequilibrium concentration of chlorine gas at 100EC?

6. Nitrogen gas and oxygen gas can react to produce nitrogen monoxide gas. At 1500 K the equilibriumconstant for the reaction is 1.0×10–5. A 15-L sample of air contains 0.52 mol of nitrogen gas and 0.14 molof oxygen gas. Find the concentration of nitrogen monoxide at equilibrium when 15 L of air is compressedto 5.0 L and heated to 1500 K?

7. Consider the chemical system below. Find the equilibrium concentration of each gas when 0.34 mol ofdinitrogen tetroxide gas is put into a 1.0-L closed vessel and heated to 325 K.

N2O4(g) º 2 NO2(g) K325 K = 0.91

7

8. At high temperatures, solid carbon reacts with water vapour to produce hydrogen gas and carbonmonoxide gas. Find the equilibrium concentrations that result when 3.5 mol of water vapour is put in a2.0-L container with solid carbon and heated to a temperature at which K=2.8.

9. Phosphorus trichloride and phosphorus pentachloride coexist in equilibrium through the reaction

PCl3(g) + Cl2(g) º PCl5(g)

At 250EC, an equilibrium mixture in a 2.50-L flask contains 0.105 g PCl5, 0.220 g PCl3, and 2.12 g Cl2.What is the value of the equilibrium constant for this reaction at 250EC?

10. A 0.682-g sample of ICl(g) is placed in a 625-mL reaction vessel at 682 K. When equilibrium is reachedbetween the ICl(g) and the I2(g) and Cl2(g) formed by its dissociation, 0.0383 g I2 is present. What is thevalue of the equilibrium constant for this reaction?

11. Consider the following equilibrium.

2 SO2(g) + O2(g) º 2 SO3(g) K1000 K = 98

If 0.26 mol SO2, 0.18 mol O2, and 0.58 mol SO3 are introduced simultaneously into a 5.0-L vessel at1000 K will the mixture be at equilibrium? If not, in which direction will a net change occur?

12. Solid silver is added to a solution that was prepared by combining 50.0 mL of 1.00 mol/L AgNO3(aq),25.0 mL of 1.00 mol/L Fe(NO3)2(aq), and 75.0 mL of 1.00 mol/L Fe(NO3)3(aq), and diluting to 250.0 mLwith distilled water. What are the concentrations of Ag+, Fe2+, and Fe3+ when the following equilibrium isestablished?

Ag+(aq) + Fe2+(aq) º Ag(s) + Fe3+(aq) K = 2.98

13. A mixture of 0.80 mol hydrogen sulfide and 0.60 mol methane is put into a 2.0-L reaction vessel andheated to 973 K. Find the concentration of each gas when the following equilibrium is reached.

2 H2S(g) + CH4(g) º 4 H2(g) + CS2(g) K973 K = 5.27×10–8

14. Methanol is manufactured by reacting carbon monoxide with hydrogen gas.

CO(g) + 2 H2(g) º CH3OH(g) K210EC = 14.5

The concentrations in a gaseous mixture at 210EC are [CO] = 0.25 mol L–1, [H2] = 0.15 mol L–1, and[CH3OH] = 0.36 mol L–1. Which direction does the system shift to reach equilibrium?

15. Nitrogen and oxygen gases react in the cylinders of car engines to produce nitrogen monoxide.

N2(g) + O2(g) º 2 NO(g)

A chemist studying this reaction puts 0.17 mol of nitrogen gas and 0.076 mol of oxygen gas in a 2.0-Lvessel. The mixture is heated to a temperature at which K = 4.2×10–8. Find the concentration of nitrogenmonoxide in the vessel when the mixture reaches equilibrium.

16. Consider the following chemical system at equilibrium in a cylinder with a movable piston.

2 NO2(g) º N2O4(g)

At 25EC the concentrations in the cylinder are [NO2] = 0.0206 mol L–1 and [N2O4] = 0.0724 mol L–1.(a) Calculate the equilibrium constant for this system at 25EC.(b) Calculate the new equilibrium concentrations that would result if the volume of the cylinder was

reduced to half its original volume.(c) Does the shift in the equilibrium agree with what you would predict based on Le Châtelier’s principle?

17. The thermal decomposition of water produces hydrogen gas.

2 H2O(g) º 2 H2(g) + O2(g) K1000EC = 7.3×10–18

(a) Find the equilibrium concentration of hydrogen gas that results when 1.00 g of water is put into a1.00-L vessel and heated to 1000EC.

(b) Comment on the practicality of using thermal decomposition of water to obtain hydrogen gas as a fuelsource.

8

Acidity of Solutions (answers on page 11)

1. For each compound, predict whether it produces a neutral, basic, or acidic solution when put in water.(a) NH4CN(b) Li2O(c) FeBr3

(d) KClO4

(e) NaC2H3O2

(f) SO3

(g) AlF3

(h) C5H5N

2. Calculate the pH of a 0.30 mol/L ammonium nitrate solution.

3. Calculate the pH of each of the following solutions.(a) 0.10 mol/L HCl(aq)(b) 0.10 mol/L N2H4(aq)

(c) 0.10 mol/L Ba(OH)2(aq)(d) 0.10 mol/L FeBr3(aq)

(e) 0.10 mol/L NaCN(aq)(f) 0.10 mol/L HC2H3O2(aq)

4. Determine the percent ionization for 3(a) and 3(f).

5. Find the pH of each of the following solutions.(a) 0.050 mol/L HClO4(aq)(b) 0.050 mol/L C6H5NH2(aq)(c) 0.050 mol/L Cr(NO3)3(aq)(d) 0.050 mol/L LiOH(aq)

(e) 0.050 mol/L KOCN(aq)(f) 0.050 mol/L HCN(aq)(g) 0.050 mol/L NH4Br(aq)(h) 0.050 mol/L MgF2(aq)

(i) 0.050 mol/L CaCl2(aq)(j) 0.050 mol/L HNO2(aq)(k) 0.050 mol/L NH3(aq)

Titration Problems (answers on page 11)

1. A 25.00-mL sample of a hydrocyanic acid solution, HCN(aq), is titrated with KOH(aq) solution and thefollowing data are recorded.

(a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the neutralization reaction.(b) Predict whether the pH at the equivalence point will be acidic, basic, or neutral.(c) Calculate the concentration of the hydrocyanic acid solution.(d) Calculate the pH of the hydrocyanic acid solution.(e) Calculate the pH at the equivalence point.(f) Draw a titration curve for the titration.(g) Select an appropriate indicator for this titration.

2. A 10.00-mL sample of a trimethylamine solution, (CH3)3N(aq), is titrated with HCl(aq) solution and thefollowing data are recorded.

(a) Write a balanced chemical equation for the neutralization reaction.(b) Predict whether the pH at the equivalence point will be acidic, basic, or neutral.(c) Calculate the concentration of the trimethylamine solution.(d) Calculate the pH of the trimethylamine solution.(e) Calculate the pH at the equivalence point.(f) Draw a titration curve for the titration.(g) Select an appropriate indicator for this titration.

concentration of KOH(aq) solution = 0.050 mol/L

initial burette reading = 7.44 mL

final burette reading = 19.73 mL

concentration of HCl(aq) solution = 0.150 mol/L

initial burette reading = 26.80 mL

final burette reading = 39.22 mL

9

Equilibrium Review and Practice

• TBp479 Self-Quiz • TBp480-484 #1 to 49 • TBp471 #5, 6, 8, 9 • TBp591 #103 • TBp575 Self-Quiz (omit #7, 9, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21) • TBp576-577 #1 to 7, 9, 14 to 18 • acid-base practice below

Acid-Base Practice (answers on page 11)

1. Calculate the pH, pOH, [H+], and [OH–] for each solution.(a) 0.10 mol/L HClO(aq)(b) 0.10 mol/L Mg(OH)2(aq)

(c) 0.10 mol/L C5H5N(aq)(d) 0.10 mol/L NaC2H3O2(aq)

(e) 0.10 mol/L HBr(aq)(f) 0.10 mol/L Fe(NO3)3(aq)

2. A 0.25 mol/L solution of HA has a pH of 3.82.(a) Calculate the percent ionization.(b) Calculate the ionization constant.

3. Predict whether an aqueous solution of the compound is acidic, basic, or neutral.(a) KCN(b) NH4Br(c) P2O5

(d) FeF3

(e) Mg(NO3)2

(f) NH4CN(g) Li2O

10

Answers to Supplemental Problems

Equilibrium Problems

1. [I2] = 0.012 mol/L[Cl2] = 0.012 mol/L[ICl] = 0.11 mol/L

2. [PCl3] = 0.4 mol/L[NO2] = 0.4 mol/L[POCl3] = 0.79 mol/L[NO] = 0.79 mol/L

3. [HI] = 0.35 mol/L[H2] = 0.05 mol/L[I2] = 0.05 mol/L

4. 437 g

5. [Cl2] = 1.8×10–4 mol/L

6. [NO] = 1.7×10–4 mol/L

7. [N2O4] = 0.15 mol/L[NO2] = 0.37 mol/L

8. [H2O] = 0.5 mol/L[H2] = 1.2 mol/L[CO] = 1.2 mol/L

9. K250EC = 26.3

10. K682 K = 1.50×10–3

11. Q = 138, the net change is toward the left

12. [Ag+] = 0.308 mol/L[Fe2+] = 0.208 mol/L[Fe3+] = 0.192 mol/L

13. [H2S] = 0.39 mol/L[CH4] = 0.29 mol/L[H2] = 0.025 mol/L[CS2] = 0.0063 mol/L

14. Q = 64 > K �system shifts left

15. [NO] = 1.2×10–5 mol L–1

16. (a) K = 171(b) [NO2] = 0.0297 mol L–1

[N2O4] = 0.151 mol L–1

(c) yes(the higher pressure caused by the reduction involume will shift the equilibrium to the side with fewergas molecules – to the right in this case)

17. (a) [H2] = 3.6×10–7 mol L–1

Acidity of Solutions

1. (a) basic(b) basic(c) acidic(d) neutral(e) basic(f) acidic(g) acidic(h) basic

2. 4.89

3. (a) 1.00(b) 10.49(c) 13.30(d) 1.94(e) 11.10(f) 2.87

4. (a) 100 %(f) 1.3 %

5. (a) 1.30(b) 8.66(c) 2.65(d) 12.70(e) 8.08(f) 5.25(g) 5.28(h) 8.09(i) 7.00(j) 2.25(k) 10.98

Titration Problems

1. (a) HCN(aq) + KOH(aq) ÿ H2O(l) + KCN(aq)(b) basic(c) 0.025 mol/L(d) [H+] = 3.90379...×10–6 mol/L

pH = 5.41(e) [CN–] = 0.0164789... mol/L

Kb = 1.6129...×10–5

[OH–] = 5.15547...×10–4 mol/LpOH = 3.2877...pH = 10.71

(g) alizarin yellow R

2. (a) (CH3)3N(aq) + HCl(aq) ÿ (CH3)3NH+(aq) + Cl–(aq)(b) acidic(c) 0.186 mol/L(d) [OH–] = 3.71297...×10–3 mol/L

pOH = 2.43027...pH = 11.57

(e) [(CH3)3NH+] = 0.083095... mol/LKa = 1.3513...×10–10

[H+] = 3.35098...×10–6 mol/LpH = 5.47

(g) methyl red

Equilibrium Review and Practice (Acid-Base Practice)

1. (a) 4.27, 9.73, 5.4×10–5 mol/L, 1.9×10–10 mol/L(b) 13.30, 0.70, 5.0×10–14 mol/L, 0.20 mol/L(c) 9.09, 4.91, 8.2×10–10 mol/L, 1.2×10–5 mol/L(d) 8.87, 5.13, 1.3×10–9 mol/L, 7.5×10–6 mol/L(e) 1.00, 13.00, 0.10 mol/L, 1.0×10–13 mol/L(f) 1.94, 12.06, 0.012 mol/L, 8.7×10–13 mol/L

2. (a) 0.061%(b) 9.2×10–8

3. (a) basic(b) acidic(c) acidic(d) acidic(e) neutral(f) basic(g) basic

11

Graphing Conventions

Follow proper conventions when constructing line graphs. Refer to the example below.

• Construct the graph on grid paper using a sharp pencil and a ruler.

• Centre the graph on the paper.

• Plot the independent variable on the x-axis and the dependent variable on the y-axis.

• Title each axis including the name of the quantity and the units of measure.

• Choose a scale that allows the graph to fill a large portion of the paper.

• Ensure the scale is uniform along each axis.

• Label the scale clearly on each axis. Use no more than six labels on each axis (including 0).

• Plot the data accurately as small points. Circle each data point for clarity.

• Draw a line of best fit (straight or smooth simple curve) through the data points.

• Below the graph, add a figure number and caption that briefly summarizes what the graph shows.

12

Molecular Shapes Predicted by VSEPR Theory

Number ofelectrongroupsaround centralatom

Arrangementof electrongroups

Number ofatoms bondedto the centralatom

Number oflone pairs oncentral atom

VSEPRnotation

Moleculargeometry

Shapediagram

Shape name

2180E

2 0 AX2linear

3

120E

3 0 AX3trigonalplanar

2 1 AX2E bent

4

4 0 AX4 tetrahedral

3 1 AX3Etrigonal

pyramidal

109.5E

2 2 AX2E2 bent

5

5 0 AX5

trigonalbipyramidal

4 1 AX4E seesaw

90E, 120E3 2 AX3E2 T-shaped

2 3 AX2E3 linear

13

Number ofelectrongroupsaround centralatom

Arrangementof electrongroups

Number ofatoms bondedto the centralatom

Number oflone pairs oncentral atom

VSEPRnotation

Moleculargeometry

Shapediagram

Shape name

6

6 0 AX6 octahedral

5 1 AX5Esquare

pyramidal

4 2 AX4E2squareplanar

90E

3 3 AX3E3 T-shaped

2 4 AX2E4 linear

14

Things You Should Know

NOTE: You must know this information. This information is NOT provided for tests or the final examination.

COMMONLY USED NUMERICAL PREFIXES

Prefix Symbol Value

giga G 109

mega M 106

kilo k 103

centi c 10–2

milli m 10–3

micro µ 10–6

nano n 10–9

COMMON POLYATOMIC IONS

Along with the polyatomic ions listed in this table, you must know the ionic charges for the main-groupelements. The ionic charges for the transition element are given in the periodic table. See page 731 in NelsonChemistry 12 for other polyatomic ions that you might encounter.

ammonium NH4 +

hydroxide OH–

carbonate CO3 2–

hydrogen carbonate HCO3 –

phosphate PO4 3–

hydrogen phosphate HPO4 2–

dihydrogen phosphate H2PO4 –

nitrate NO3 –

nitrite NO2 –

sulfate SO4 2–

hydrogen sulfate HSO4 –

sulfite SO3 2–

hydrogen sulfite HSO3 –

perchlorate ClO4 –

chlorate ClO3 –

chlorite ClO2 –

hypochlorite ClO–

perbromate BrO4 –

bromate BrO3 –

bromite BrO2 –

hypobromite BrO–

periodate IO4 –

iodate IO3 –

iodite IO2 –

hypoiodite IO–

SOLUBILITY GUIDELINES FOR COMMON IONIC COMPOUNDS

HIGH

SOLUBILITY (>0.1 mol@L–1)

All group 1 and ammonium compounds [some exceptions for lithium]

All nitrates

Most chlorides, bromides, and iodides [exceptions: silver, lead]

Most sulfates [exceptions: silver, lead, calcium, strontium, barium]

LOW

SOLUBILITY (<0.1 mol@L–1)

Most carbonates, phosphates, oxides, sulfides and hydroxides [exceptions: group 1, ammonium]

15

QUANTITIES USED IN THIS COURSE

Quantity Symbol forQuantity

Unit Symbolfor Unit

Notes

amount of substance n mole mol Yes, ‘mol’ is the symbol for ‘mole’ . . . doNOT pluralize it (i.e., do NOT write ‘mols’).

mass m gram g Kilogram (kg) is the SI base unit for massbut gram is still commonly used inchemistry.

volume V litre L Cubic metre (m3) is the SI base unit forvolume but litre is still commonly used inchemistry.

time t second s Do NOT use ‘sec’ as the symbol forseconds. Also, the proper symbol forhours is ‘h’ NOT ‘hr’ and the propersymbol for minutes is ‘min’ NOT ‘m’.

temperature T

t

kelvin

degree Celsius

K

EC

Kelvin must be used when calculating withabsolute temperatures. In this course,however, calculations are mostly done withtemperature changes. Temperaturechange is the same in both units (EC andK).

molar mass M grams per mole g@mol–1 The mass per mole of substance.

molar concentration c moles per litreormolar

mol@L–1

M

Some textbooks use a single uppercase Mas the symbol for molar concentration(molarity) to distinguish molarity from othermeasures of concentration.

energy, enthalpy, heat E, H, q joule J Enthalpy changes are usually reported inkilojoules (kJ).

electric charge Q coulomb C The charge on an electron is –1.6×10–19 C.

electric current I ampere A One ampere is a charge flow of onecoulomb per second.

cell potential ∆E volt V Commonly called voltage.

frequency ν hertz Hz or s–1The symbol for frequency (ν) is the Greekletter nu. Some textbooks use f as thesymbol for frequency.

One hertz is one cycle per second.

absorbance A Absorbance is a measure of the proportionof light absorbed by a substance.Absorbance has no units.

wavelength λ nanometre(for visible light)

nm The symbol for wavelength (λ) is theGreek letter lambda.

1 nm = 10–9 m

specific heat capacity c joule per gramper degreeCelsius

J@g–1@EC–1 Specific heat capacity is the amount ofenergy required to raise the temperatureof one gram of a substance by one degreeCelsius.

16

Chemistry Constants and Data Tables

NOTE: A copy of this section is provided for tests and the final examination.

CONSTANTS

Name Symbol Value

Avogadro constant NA 6.02×1023 mol–1

gas constant R 8.31 kPa@L@mol–1@K–1

molar volume of gas at STP VSTP 22.4 L@mol–1

Planck constant h 6.63×10–34 J@s

specific heat capacity of water cw 4.18 J@g–1@EC–1

Faraday constant F 9.65×104 C@mol–1

ion product constant for water Kw 1.0×10–14

absolute zero 0 K –273.15 EC

QUADRATIC FORMULA

AVERAGE BOND ENERGIES (kJ@mol–1)

H&H 432 C&C 347 C&F 485 N&F 272 S&Br 218

H&C 413 C'C 614 C&Cl 339 N&Cl 200 F&F 154

H&Si 393 C/C 839 C&Br 276 N&Br 243 F&Cl 253

H&N 391 C&N 305 C&I 240 O&O 146 F&Br 237

H&O 467 C'N 615 Si&Si 340 O'O 495 Cl&Cl 239

H&S 347 C/N 891 Si&O 452 O&F 190 Cl&Br 218

H&F 565 C&O 358 N&N 160 O&Cl 203 Cl&I 208

H&Cl 427 C'O * 745 N'N 418 O&I 234 Br&Br 193

H&Br 363 C/O 1072 N/N 941 S&S 266 Br&I 175

H&I 295 C&S 259 N&O 201 S&F 327 I&I 149

C&Si 360 N'O 607 S&Cl 253

* bond energy for C'O in CO2(g) is 799 kJ@mol–1

17

STANDARD MOLAR ENTHALPIES OF FORMATION

Compound ∆Hf (kJ@mol–1)

aluminum oxide –1675.7

ammonia –45.9

ammonium chloride –314.4

ammonium nitrate –365.6

barium carbonate –1216.3

barium hydroxide –944.7

barium oxide –553.5

barium sulfate –1473.2

benzene +49.0

butane –125.6

calcium carbonate –1206.9

calcium chloride –795.8

calcium hydroxide –986.1

calcium oxide –634.9

calcium sulfate –1434.1

carbon dioxide –393.5

carbon disulfide +89.0

carbon monoxide –110.5

copper(II) oxide –157.3

copper(II) sulfide –53.1

ethane –83.8

ethanoic acid –484.3

ethanol –277.6

ethene +52.5

ethyne +228.2

glucose –1273.1

hexane –198.7

hydrazine +50.6

hydrogen bromide –36.3

hydrogen chloride –92.3

hydrogen cyanide +135.1

hydrogen iodide +26.5

hydrogen peroxide –187.8

hydrogen sulfide –20.6

iron(III) oxide –824.2

lead(II) oxide –219.0

Compound ∆Hf (kJ@mol–1)

lead(IV) oxide –277.4

magnesium carbonate –1095.8

magnesium chloride –641.3

magnesium hydroxide –924.5

magnesium oxide –601.6

methane –74.4

methanoic acid –425.1

methanol –239.1

nickel(II) oxide –239.7

nitric acid –174.1

nitrogen dioxide +33.2

nitrogen monoxide +90.2

octane –250.1

ozone +142.7

pentane –173.5

phosphorus pentachloride –443.5

phosphorus trichloride –287.0

potassium chlorate –397.7

potassium chloride –436.7

potassium hydroxide –424.8

propane –104.7

silver bromide –100.4

silver chloride –127.0

silver iodide –61.8

sodium bromide –361.1

sodium chloride –411.2

sodium hydroxide –425.6

sodium iodide –287.8

sucrose –2225.5

sulfur dioxide –296.8

sulfur trioxide –395.7

sulfuric acid –814.0

water (liquid) –285.8

water (vapour) –241.8

zinc oxide –350.5

zinc sulfide –206.0

18

SOLUBILITY PRODUCT CONSTANTS

Compound Ksp

barium carbonate 2.6 × 10–9

barium chromate 1.2 × 10–10

barium sulfate 1.1 × 10–10

calcium carbonate 5.0 × 10–9

calcium hydroxide 5.0 × 10–6

calcium phosphate 2.1 × 10–33

calcium sulfate 7.1 × 10–5

copper(I) chloride 1.7 × 10–7

copper(I) iodide 1.3 × 10–12

copper(II) iodate 6.9 × 10–8

copper(II) sulfide 6.0 × 10–37

iron(II) hydroxide 4.9 × 10–17

iron(II) sulfide 6.0 × 10–19

iron(III) hydroxide 2.6 × 10–39

lead(II) bromide 6.6 × 10–6

lead(II) chloride 1.2 × 10–5

lead(II) iodate 3.7 × 10–13

lead(II) iodide 8.5 × 10–9

lead(II) sulfate 1.8 × 10–8

magnesium carbonate 6.8 × 10–6

magnesium fluoride 6.4 × 10–9

magnesium hydroxide 5.6 × 10–12

silver bromate 5.3 × 10–5

silver bromide 5.4 × 10–13

silver carbonate 8.5 × 10–12

silver chloride 1.8 × 10–10

silver chromate 1.1 × 10–12

silver iodate 3.2 × 10–8

silver iodide 8.5 × 10–17

strontium carbonate 5.6 × 10–10

strontium fluoride 4.3 × 10–9

strontium sulfate 3.4 × 10–7

zinc hydroxide 7.7 × 10–17

zinc sulfide 2.0 × 10–25

IONIZATION CONSTANTS FOR ACIDS

Acid Formula Ka

perchloric acid HClO4 large

hydroiodic acid HI large

hydrobromic acid HBr large

hydrochloric acid HCl large

nitric acid HNO3 large

iron(III) ion Fe3+ 1.5 × 10–3

nitrous acid HNO2 7.2 × 10–4

hydrofluoric acid HF 6.6 × 10–4

cyanic acid HOCN 3.5 × 10–4

methanoic acid HCOOH 1.8 × 10–4

chromium(III) ion Cr3+ 1.0 × 10–4

benzoic acid C6H5COOH 6.3 × 10–5

ethanoic acid CH3COOH 1.8 × 10–5

aluminum ion Al3+ 9.8 × 10–6

hypochlorous acid HClO 2.9 × 10–8

hydrocyanic acid HCN 6.2 × 10–10

phenol C6H5OH 1.0 × 10–10

IONIZATION CONSTANTS FOR WEAK BASES

Base Formula Kb

dimethylamine (CH3)2NH 9.6 × 10–4

methylamine CH3NH2 4.4 × 10–4

ethylamine C2H5NH2 4.3 × 10–4

trimethylamine (CH3)3N 7.4 × 10–5

ammonia NH3 1.8 × 10–5

hydrazine N2H4 9.6 × 10–7

hydroxylamine NH2OH 6.6 × 10–9

pyridine C5H5N 1.5 × 10–9

aniline C6H5NH2 4.1 × 10–10

19

STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIALS

Reduction Half Reaction Er (V)

F2(g) + 2 e– º 2 F–(aq) +2.87

PbO2(s) + SO42–(aq) + 4 H+(aq) + 2 e– º PbSO4(s) + 2 H2O(l) +1.69

MnO4 –(aq) + 8 H+(aq) + 5 e– º Mn2+(aq) + 4 H2O(l) +1.51

Au3+(aq) + 3 e– º Au(s) +1.50

ClO4 –(aq) + 8 H+(aq) + 8 e– º Cl–(aq) + 4 H2O(l) +1.39

Cl2(g) + 2 e– º 2 Cl–(aq) +1.36

Cr2O72–(aq) + 14 H+(aq) + 6 e– º 2 Cr3+(aq) + 7 H2O(l) +1.23

O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4 e– º 2 H2O(l) +1.23

MnO2(s) + 4 H+(aq) + 2 e– º Mn2+(aq) + 2 H2O(l) +1.22

2 IO3 –(aq) + 12 H+(aq) + 10 e– º I2(aq) + 6 H2O(l) +1.20

Br2(l) + 2 e– º 2 Br–(aq) +1.07

Ag+(aq) + e– º Ag (s) +0.80

NO3 –(aq) + 2 H+(aq) + e– º NO2(g) + H2O(l) +0.80

Fe3+(aq) + e– º Fe2+(aq) +0.77

O2(g) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e– º H2O2(l) +0.70

MnO4 –(aq) + 2 H2O(l) + 3 e– º MnO2(s) + 4 OH–(aq) +0.60

I2(s) + 2 e– º 2 I–(aq) +0.54

Cu+(aq) + e– º Cu (s) +0.52

O2(g) + 2 H2O(l) + 4 e– º 4 OH–(aq) +0.40

Cu2+(aq) + 2 e– º Cu (s) +0.34

SO42–(aq) + 4 H+(aq) + 2 e– º H2SO3(aq) + H2O(l) +0.17

Sn4+(aq) + 2 e– º Sn2+(aq) +0.15

Cu2+(aq) + e– º Cu+(aq) +0.15

2 H+(aq) + 2 e– º H2(g) 0.00

Pb2+(aq) + 2 e– º Pb (s) –0.13

Sn2+(aq) + 2 e– º Sn (s) –0.14

Ni2+(aq) + 2 e– º Ni (s) –0.26

Co2+(aq) + 2 e– º Co (s) –0.28

PbSO4(s) + 2 e– º Pb(s) + SO42–(aq) –0.36

Cd2+(aq) + 2 e– º Cd (s) –0.40

Cr3+(aq) + e– º Cr2+(aq) –0.41

Fe2+(aq) + 2 e– º Fe (s) –0.44

Zn2+(aq) + 2 e– º Zn (s) –0.76

2 H2O(l) + 2 e– º H2(g) + 2 OH–(aq) –0.83

Cr2+(aq) + 2 e– º Cr (s) –0.91

SO42–(aq) + H2O(l) + 2 e– º SO3

2–(aq) + 2 OH–(aq) –0.93

Al3+(aq) + 3 e– º Al (s) –1.66

Mg2+(aq) + 2 e– º Mg (s) –2.37

Na+(aq) + e– º Na (s) –2.71

Ca2+(aq) + 2 e– º Ca (s) –2.87

Ba2+(aq) + 2 e– º Ba (s) –2.91

K+(aq) + e– º K (s) –2.93

Li+(aq) + e– º Li (s) –3.04

20