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Course Design

Table of Contents

1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................22. Background Theory…………………………………………………………………………3

2.1 Student Learning...............................................................................................................32.2 Fundamental Concepts in Course Design.........................................................................4

2.2.1 Constructive alignment of teaching...........................................................................62.2.2 Teaching-research links.............................................................................................7

2.3 Summary...........................................................................................................................82.4 Further Reading................................................................................................................8

3. Course Objectives and Learning Outcomes………………………………………………..103.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................103.2 Getting started.................................................................................................................10

3.2.1 Steps in defining objectives.....................................................................................123.3 Guidelines for Writing Learning Outcomes or Course Objectives.................................133.4 Learning Outcomes for a Selection of Courses..............................................................163.5 Further Reading..............................................................................................................18

4. Developing the Assessment Framework...............................................................................194.1 Principles of Assessment................................................................................................194.2 Method for Developing the Assessment Framework.....................................................224.3 Some Guidelines for Assessing Student Performance....................................................24

4.3.1 Preparing individual assessment tasks.....................................................................244.4. Some Examples of Assessment.....................................................................................264.5 Different Assessment Strategies.....................................................................................304.6 Further Reading..............................................................................................................31

5. Content and Sequence...........................................................................................................326. Teaching and Learning Process............................................................................................35

6.1 Use of Course Evaluations..............................................................................................356.2 Your Role in Student Learning.......................................................................................356.3 Teaching and Learning Activities...................................................................................356.4 Resourcing the Course....................................................................................................366.5 Workload........................................................................................................................366.6 Course Timetable............................................................................................................366.7 Course Evaluation...........................................................................................................386.8 Further Reading..............................................................................................................38

Appendix A: Course Outline Template....................................................................................41Appendix B: Checklist of Resources........................................................................................46Appendix C: Chapter 9 “Assessing for learning quality II: practice”......................................47

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1. Introduction

For this workshop you are expected to have in mind a particular course, or part of a course, on which you are working. Key ideas will be introduced and you will be given the opportunity to apply them to your own context. The workshop will cover aspects of course design such as learning outcomes and course objectives, developing the assessment framework, content and sequence of the course and finally the teaching and learning process.

The aims of this workshop are to:

- understand the principles underlying course design- apply the principles in developing a course.

More specifically, after the workshop you should be able to:o appreciate contemporary theory on student learning and course designo construct appropriate learning objectives and outcomes for your courseo understand the principles of designing assessment o consider different types of assessmento appreciate the different ways of structuring your courseo consider appropriate teaching and learning activities for your courseo appreciate the other factors that impact on how you teach your course.

The intention of this workshop is not to comprehensively cover all these aspects. Rather it is to give you an overview of how to design a course and equip you with the necessary resources to explore aspects in more detail.

The teaching and learning activities for the workshop include:- informing (drawing on resource book and other research)- sharing ideas – in groups, plenary- reflecting – on own practice.

This resource book provides more detail on the topics discussed as well as some suggestions for future reading. The book has five sections that are related to the workshop objectives. Section 2 discusses background theory for student learning and the main concepts underlying course design. Section 3 concerns course objectives and learning outcomes. Developing an assessment framework is the focus of Section 4 and Section 5 considers the content and sequence of a course. Section 6 discusses aspects of the teaching and learning process.

This workshop draws strongly on earlier course design workshops given by Cedric Hall at Victoria University, and Margaret Harrison at the University of Canterbury.

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2. Background Theory

This module will introduce key ideas pertaining to student learning and fundamental concepts in course design.

2.1 Student Learning

Biggs (2003) suggests that learning is a way of interacting with the world.

“As we learn, our conceptions of phenomena change, and we see the world differently. The acquisition of information itself does not bring about such a change, but the way we structure that information and think with it does. Thus education is about conceptual change, not just the acquisition of information” (Biggs, 2003:13).

Several researchers have tried to tease out how students learn. A Swedish researcher Saljo (1979, reported in Ramsden, 2003), interviewed adults to find out about their conceptions of learning. He identified five categories:

1. Learning as a quantitative increase in knowledge. Learning is acquiring information or ‘knowing a lot.’

2. Learning as memorising. Learning is storing information that can be reproduced.3. Learning as acquiring facts, skills, and methods that can be retained and used as

necessary.4. Learning as making sense or abstracting meaning. Learning involves relating parts of

the subject matter to each other and to the real world.5. Learning as interpreting and understanding reality in a different way. Learning

involves comprehending the world by reinterpreting knowledge. (Saljo, 1979 cited in Ramsden, 2003:27-28)

The categories are hierarchical so that a student who sees learning as understanding reality, should also be able to see it as increasing their knowledge. Further, the higher order conceptions should be gained by university students. Conceptions 4 and 5 imply a more relativisitic, complex and systematic view of knowledge and how it is achieved and used (Ramsden, 2003). They imply a ‘deep approach’ to learning in which the intention is to understand. Characteristics of a deep approach are for students to focus on underlying meaning; the main ideas, principles or successful applications. Teachers can encourage students to take a deep approach to learning by:

- Teaching in such a way as to bring out the structure of the topic or subject explicitly- Teaching to elicit a positive response from students, e.g. by questioning or giving

problems rather than teaching to expound information- Teaching by building on what students already know- Confronting and eradicating students’ misconceptions- Assessing for structure rather than for independent facts- Teaching and assessing in a way that encourages a positive working atmosphere, so

students can make mistakes and learn from them- Emphasising depth of learning, rather than breadth of coverage- Using teaching and assessment methods that support the explicit aims and objectives

of the course (Biggs, 2003: 17).3

Conversely and less desirably, students may take a surface approach to learning. This is when they want to get a task out of the way with minimum trouble, while appearing to meet requirements. Such an approach might involve memorising information for assessment, focusing on unrelated parts of the task, associating facts and concepts unreflectively, quoting secondary references as if they were primary ones, listing points instead of addressing an argument, and failing to distinguish principles from examples. Teaching that encourages this surface approach includes:

- Teaching in a piecemeal fashion: providing ‘lists’, not bringing out the intrinsic structure of the topic or subject

- Assessing for independent facts e.g. often done in short answer and multiple choice tests

- Teaching and assessing, in a way that encourages cynicism: for example, ‘I hate teaching this section, and you’re going to hate learning it, but we’ve got to cover it’

- Providing insufficient time to engage the tasks, emphasising coverage at the expense of depth

- Creating undue anxiety or low expectations of success e.g. ‘Anyone who can’t understand this isn’t fit to be at university’ (Biggs, 2003:15).

Good university teaching therefore, should aim to help students change their understanding of reality so that students understand phenomena in the way subject experts do. As teachers we should be pushing students beyond surface learning to take a deep approach. Keep this in mind as you design your course. Your learning outcomes, teaching and learning activities, and assessment tasks should all endeavour to encourage students to take a deep approach to learning.

2.2 Fundamental Concepts in Course Design

Hopefully we have common agreement that we should be striving to encourage our students to take a deep approach to learning. There are four main questions that need to be addressed in designing a course for learning:

1) What is most important for these students to know and how can I express my goals to them? This is the problem of goals and structure.

2) What might be the best ways for them to learn it? This is the problem of the teaching-learning process.

3) How can I find out whether they have learned it? This is the problem of assessment.4) How can I estimate the effectiveness of my teaching and use the information I gather

to improve it? This is the problem of evaluation.

These questions should be kept in mind throughout the design process and will be addressed in sections 3-6 of this resource folder. There are of course many more questions that must be addressed in the course design process (Figure 1). This section continues by exploring three fundamental issues in course design. These are the the notion of constructive alignment as a model for obtaining coherence, and how to establish strong links to research in teaching.

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Figure 1: Central questions in the course design process

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2.2.1 Constructive alignment of teaching

Tyler (1949:63 cited in Biggs, 2003) suggested that:

Learning takes place through the active behaviour of the student: it is what he does that he learns, not what the teacher does.

Drawing upon Tyler’s ideas, Shuell (1986: 429) stated that:

“If students are to learn desired outcomes in a reasonably effective manner, then the teacher’s fundamental task is to get students to engage in learning activities that are likely to result in their achieving those outcomes.”

Biggs (2003) extended Shuell’s ideas to include assessment in an aligned system of teaching (Figure 2). This alignment of objectives, teaching methods and assessment is central to facilitating successful outcomes for students. However, Biggs (1999, 2003) also suggested teaching should be based on a constructivist theory of learning. Most of the current ideas about student learning, including experiential learning and the use of reflection, are based in constructivism (Fry et al., 2003). This theory has the premise that meaning is not imposed or transmitted by direct instruction, but that meaning is created by the students’ learning activities. Constructivism suggests that we learn by fitting new understanding and knowledge into, with, extending and supplanting, old understanding and knowledge. What students will construct from a learning encounter depends on ‘student factors’ such as prior knowledge, ability and motivation, the ‘teaching context’ such as objectives, assessment, ethos, teaching, institutional procedures, and the teaching/learning activities. Additions to knowledge, in the sense of accumulated ‘facts’, may sometimes be possible without any substantial transformation, but higher order learning involving understanding, can usually only happen when there is conceptual change to incorporate new understanding (Fry et al., 2003). Thus Biggs (1999) embraced the notion of ‘constructive alignment’ in course design, which he conceived as a “marriage between a constructivist understanding of the nature of learning, and an aligned design for teaching (Biggs, 1999:26).”

In an aligned system of teaching there are:

- clear objectives which state the level of understanding required (rather than a list of topics)

- teaching and learning activities that are chosen to realise those objectives- assessment tasks to address the objectives.

In a constructively aligned course, the students themselves do the real work while the teacher simply arranges things so that it is more likely they will.

Not only should a course be internally coherent and aligned, but the objectives and content of a course should be consistent with the purpose and objectives of the programme to which it belongs.

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Curriculum objectives expressed as verbs students have to enact----------------------------------------------

AThe very best understanding

Teaching/learning that could reasonably be expected: Assessment tasks activities might contain verbs such as

hypothesize, apply to ‘far’domains etc----------------------------------------------

designed to Bgenerate/ elicit Highly satisfactory understanding: Evaluate how well thedesired verbs might contain verbs such as explain, target verbs are deployed

solve, analyse, compare etc. in contextMay be: ----------------------------------------------

Cteacher-controlled Quite satisfactory learning, with

understanding at a declarative level: The highest level to bepeer-controlled verbs such as elaborate, classify, clearly manifested

cover topics a to n. becomes the final self-controlled ---------------------------------------------- grade (A, B, C etc.)

Das best suits Understanding at a level that wouldcontext warrant a pass: low level verbs, also

inadequate but salvageable higher level attempts.

Figure 2: An aligned system of teaching whereby teaching and learning activities and assessment tasks are directly aligned with curriculum objectives (Biggs, 2003:28).

2.2.2 Teaching-research links

In the University of Otago Charter (2003:1) there is reference to the special character of this institution with its “excellence in research and research-led teaching together with a tradition of innovation.”

TASK 1: How is teaching and research related in your teaching? Jot down a few examples of the teaching-research links you make.

Research reported by Jenkins et al. (2003) shows that for many academics there is a strong belief that quality teaching is functionally dependent on the lecturer being directly involved in research. Elton (2001: 43) suggests that “a positive research and teaching link primarily depends on the nature of the students’ learning experiences, resulting from appropriate teaching and learning processes, rather than on particular inputs or outcomes.” Thus as Jenkins et al. (2003) suggest, we need to design courses that explicitly link teaching and research. They go on to suggest four strategies for course design:

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Strategy 1. Develop students’ understanding of research- Develop the curriculum to bring out current and/or previous research developments in

the discipline.- Develop student awareness of learning from staff involvement in research (and

perhaps research-based consultancy and professional practice).- Develop student understanding of how research is organised and funded in the

discipline, institution and profession.

Strategy 2. Develop students’ abilities to carry out research- Students learn in ways that ‘mirror’ research processes.- Assess students in ways that mirror research processes.- Provide training in relevant research skills and knowledge.- Ensure students experience courses that require them to do research projects, and that

there is a progressive move to projects of greater complexity.- Develop student involvement in staff research.

Strategy 3. Progressively develop students’ understanding- Ensure that introductory courses induct students into the role of research in their

discipline and present knowledge as created, uncertain and contested.- Ensure that advanced courses develop students’ understanding of research, and

progressively develop their capacities to do research.- Ensure that graduating year courses require students to carry out a major research

study and help them to integrate their understanding of (the role of) research in their discipline or interdisciplines.

Strategy 4. Manage student experience of research- Limit the negative consequences for students of staff involvement in research and

consultancy.- Evaluate and research student experience of research and consultancy and feed that

back into the curriculum.- Support students in making clear to them the employability elements of research and

consultancy. (Jenkins et al., 2003:63-64)

2.3 Summary

As we design courses we must have clear ideas about what is most important for our students to know and what might be the best ways for them to learn it. What we think is important will be strongly influenced by the nature of the discipline and how knowledge is constructed in that discipline. We should be designing courses that encourage a deep approach to learning as well as courses that strengthen teaching-research links.

2.4 Further Reading

Biggs, J (2003) Teaching for Quality Learning at University: Second Edition, Buckingham, The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.

- a key text for academics – it is very readable and contains a wealth of information on all aspects of university teaching. Full of useful practical advice.

- available in HEDC resource library LB 2331 B526 2003

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Fry, H., Ketteridge, S. and Marshall, S. (2003) A Handbook for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Second Edition. London, Kogan Page.

- an excellent text that discusses theories of student learning and teaching, and considers all aspects of curriculum design. Part 3 takes a more in-depth at teaching in various disciplines.

- available in HEDC resource library LB 2331 H6863 2003

Jenkins, A., Breen, R. and Lindsay, R. (2003) Reshaping Teaching in Higher Education: Linking Teaching with Research. London, Staff and Educational Development Series.

- another excellent text that tackles how to strengthen teaching–research links at all levels from the individual, to course and institutional levels.

- It draws on contemporary research and offers practical advice and strategies for linking research and teaching.

- available in HEDC resource library LB 2326.3 JH2

Ramsden, P (1992) Learning to Teach in Higher Education. London, Routledge.- another key text for academics - Part 2 concerns course design for learning- available in HEDC resource library LB 2331.R519

Toohey, S (1999) Designing Courses for Higher Education, Buckingham, The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.

- a classic and highly recommended text for course designers- available in HEDC resource library LB 2361.TN27

NB: Other cited references are given in a reference section at the end of this book.

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3. Course Objectives and Learning Outcomes

3.1 Introduction

Much contemporary research on course design (e.g. Biggs, 2003; Fry et al., 2003; Ramsden, 2003) advocates an outcomes-based approach whereby the first step of the course design process is to consider what the students will be able to do at the end of the course. This stance stems from a learner-centred pedagogy whereby the focus is on students, rather than a teacher-centred stance, which is more concerned with what the teacher wants to teach. Those who are teacher-centred will probably prescribe more to defining learning objectives, which requires teachers to make conscious choices about a wide range of teaching and learning activities. Ramsden (2003: 130) suggests that aims are general statements of educational intent, seen from the student’s point of view, while objectives are more specific and concrete statements of what students are expected to learn. Learning outcomes are what the students should be able to do at the end of your course. However, the use of outcomes has been rather fraught in higher education as some proponents believe that outcomes should be observable and measurable. While this may be the case for some courses (particularly clinical courses), there may be a range of outcomes that cannot be predicted or measured. So you should be aware of the subtle difference between objectives and outcomes. What is even more confusing is that often the terms are used interchangeably (Fry et al., 2003). In practice, the important thing is to start by considering and elucidating, what it is you want students to be able to do at the end of your course. We continue this section by going through the process of developing course aims and learning outcomes.

Note that course outlines should be written with the student in mind and give explicit details about learning outcomes as well as how the course is taught and assessed (see course outline template in Appendix A).

3.2 Getting started

One starting point which has worked successfully with academic staff, is to consider the broader goals of a university education and then use these to guide the course design process within a particular paper.

You should first address the questions:

1. What are the goals of university education?2. Why should students study this course?3. What should they be able to do at the end of your course?

as a lead in to your course aims and learning outcomes. We consider each question briefly here but it is for you to answer these questions in a way that provides direction and purpose to the course(s) that you teach.

1. What are the goals of a university education?

One reason for asking this question is that you need to know how your course fits into the overall scheme of things: how it relates to the traditions of university education and how it meets the needs of students and society. You also need to think about your obligations under

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the University’s charter. Are there requirements that you haven’t thought about? Are there goals which you have lost sight of? All too often the broader goals of university education become lost in the day-to-day grind of lectures, tutorials, assignments etc. Courses may become bogged down in the transmission of information from teacher to student, omitting the opportunities that students need if they are to develop intellectual independence.

Some extracts from the University’s Charter and Teaching and Learning Plan follow. See how they relate to your own context. Note that it will not be possible for you to embody all the statements in the wording of the learning outcomes that you specify for your course; some may relate to the way you organise and manage your course, to the way you run classes and encourage participation. Content and process both need to be considered.

The University of Otago’s mission aims to:

“advance, preserve and promote knowledge, critical thinking and intellectual independence to enhance the understanding, development and well-being of individuals and society.”

(University of Otago Charter, 2003:1)

Further, the University of Otago Teaching and Learning Plan (2005-2010) lists the attributes of a graduate:

- Communication – the ability to communicate information, arguments and analyses effectively

- Critical thinking – the ability to analyse issues logically, consider different options and viewpoints, and make informed decisions

- Cultural understanding – an understanding of cultural diversity within the framework of the Treaty of Waitangi, and biculturalism and multiculturalism in New Zealand

- Ethics – a knowledge of ethics, ethical standards and social responsibility- Global perspective – an appreciation of the global perspective in their chosen

discipline(s), and an informed sense of the impact of the international environment on New Zealand and New Zealand’s contribution to the international environment

- In-depth knowledge – a deep, coherent and extensive knowledge of at least one discipline coupled with an understanding of the fundamental contribution of research

- Information literacy – a basic understanding of information literacy and specific skills in acquiring, organising and presenting information, in particular through computer-based activity

- Interdisciplinary perspective – intellectual openness and curiosity, and the awareness of the limits of current knowledge and of the links between disciplines

- Lifelong learning – a commitment to lifelong learning, with the ability to apply knowledge, develop existing skills, adapt to a changing environment, and acquire new skills

- Research – the ability to conduct research by recognising when information is needed, and locating, retrieving, evaluating and using it effectively

- Scholarship – a commitment to the fundamental importance of the acquisition and development of knowledge and understanding

- Self-motivation – the capacity for self-directed activity and the ability to work independently

- Teamwork – the ability to work effectively as both a team leader and a team member

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- Workplace-related skills – enterprise, self-confidence and a sense of personal responsibility within the workplace and community.

2. Why should students study your course?

Again, there are several reasons for asking this question. As above, it may provoke you into thinking more closely about the learning outcomes or objectives of your course and how they relate to the goals of university education. You may also think about the way your course fits with the objectives or outcomes of other courses in your department or, more generally, the place of your course in the broader discipline of your department. More importantly, you may focus on the needs of your students: where they come from; the expectations they have; the skills they bring with them; the content you should therefore cover; and the learning experiences you should provide.

3. What should students be able to do at the end of your course?

This is another critical question. Try to determine the key outcomes for students. There are five domains of intended learning outcomes:

- knowledge and understanding- keys skills: communication, numeracy, IT, learning to learn- cognitive skills (e.g. ability in critical analysis)- subject-specific skills (e.g. laboratory skills)- values and attitudes.

(Fry et al., 2003)

Biggs (2003) describes four type of knowledge:

Declarative: or propositional knowledge, which refers to knowing about things or knowing what. For example, knowing what the terms of an equation refer to, knowing what kinds of cloud formations can be distinguished, knowing what were the important events in Shakespeare’s life.

Procedural: skill-based, which is a matter of getting the sequences and actions right, knowing what to do when a given situation arises, having the right competencies.

Conditional: subsumes both declarative and procedural so that one knows when and why and under what conditions, one should do this, as opposed to that.

Functioning knowledge: subsumes the three above knowledges, and involves a solid foundation of academic knowledge (declarative knowledge), as well as knowing how to do things such as carrying out procedures (procedural knowledge), knowing when to do these things, and why (conditional knowledge). It is putting declarative knowledge to work. Graduates should be educated so that they attain functioning knowledge. The reality is often that they only attain declarative knowledge and some procedural knowledge.

3.2.1 Steps in defining objectives

1. Decide what kind of knowledge is to be involved2. Select the topics to teach – remember the greatest enemy of understanding is coverage.3. Determine the purpose of teaching the topic, and hence the level of knowledge

desirable for students to acquire. 14

4. Put the package of objectives together and relate them to assessment tasks so that the results can be reported as a final grade.

TASK 2: Take some time to answer questions (2) and (3).

3.3 Guidelines for Writing Learning Outcomes or Course Objectives

Remember that learning outcomes focus on what students should be able to do after completing their study. But also recall that in the literature these are often also called objectives. The guidelines given here are drawn from Biggs (2003), chapter 3.

Goals and aims are more general, such as ‘to teach for understanding’, while objectives or outcomes are much more specific. An objective or outcome not only refers to content but should also contain a criterion for the level of learning required, and that the assessment tasks can address (i.e. criterion-referenced assessment). With constructive alignment, the focus is not just on what the students know, but also on how well they know it. The curriculum outcomes are central to the course or unit. They express what we want the students to understand after we have taught the unit, in a range of acceptability that is reflected in the grading system. The aim is to specify levels of understanding in advance and embody them in the outcomes. To illustrate the difference in language between aims and outcomes consider the following:

Aims Outcomes Know Distinguish betweenUnderstand ChooseDetermine AssembleAppreciate AdjustGrasp IdentifyBecome familiar Solve, apply, list

Biggs and Collis (1982) developed the Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) taxonomy to describe how a learner’s performance grows in complexity when mastering many academic tasks. It can be used to define course objectives, which describe where students should be operating, and for evaluating learning outcomes so that we know at what level individual students actually are operating. At the lower end of the SOLO taxonomy are uni- and multi-structural levels, which see understanding as a quantitative increase in what is grasped. At the higher levels student learning changes qualitatively as they deepen their knowledge and increase understanding. Thus the relational level involves explaining and demonstrates understanding, while the extended abstract goes beyond what was asked to apply to new and broader domains. Two major course aims are often to increase knowledge (quantitative: uni-structural becoming increasingly multi-structural); and to deepen understanding (qualitative: relational, then extended abstract).

Once you have decided on what level of learning outcome is required (e.g. uni-structural, relational etc.), then you must clearly state the objectives using the appropriate verbs (Table 1) and giving the context. The verb describes the kind of action students should take (e.g. describe, list, explain, reflect), while the context states what the action is to be. Verbs are

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concrete, easy for you to handle and for students to understand, and they can be related to all stages of teaching objectives, teaching/learning activities and assessment tasks.

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Table 1: A hierarchy of verbs to use when forming course objectives or outcomes (from Biggs 2003).

Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) Levels

Prestructural Unistructural Multistructural Relational Extended abstract

Misses point Identify Enumerate Compare/contrast TheoriseDo simple procedure

Describe Explain causes Generalise

List Analyse HypothesiseCombine Relate ReflectDo algorithms Apply

Examples:Verb Context

1. Describe methods of random sampling2. Adopt safe practices in the laboratory3. List days of the week in Maori4. Compare and contrast braided and meandering rivers5. Evaluate different solutions to a problem6. Hypothesise why urban areas are generally warmer than rural

surrounds

Most tertiary courses have between 3 and 6 general objectives or outcomes. Some courses may have knowledge-related objectives as well as skill-related objectives. These objectives give students a broad view of what they have to achieve. Examples of general outcomes include:

1. Apply correlational techniques to medical and social data.2. Prepare a valid and reliable assessment programme.3. Explain basic concepts and theories in… (your subject or discipline).4. Write a coherent argument.

All of the above outcomes need elaboration for students to have a more precise idea of what is wanted. Greater precision is also needed if the teacher is to assess (observe or measure) a student’s achievement of a general objective. Depending on how the course is designed and presented, the refinement of a general objective can be done with the presentation of each topic or with the specification of each assessment task.

Hints about writing objectives or outcomes:

1. Write objectives which state what the students should be able to do, not what you are going to do.

Good Construct different kinds of graphsBad Show students how to construct different kinds of graphs

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2. Begin each objective with a verb.

Good Analyse two erosional landformsBad An analysis of two erosional landforms

3. Write objectives that are an outcome of learning, not a step on the way.

Good Explain the technical terms used in Chapter 3Bad Read chapter 3

A common mistake in writing objectives is to use phrases such as “gain experience in…” or “acquire skills in…”. Compare the following versions of the same objective:

Good Apply theory to real life situationsBad Gain experience in applying theory to real life situations

Gaining experience is a step on the way to being able to apply theory to real situations. Remember your objectives should state clearly what students should be able to do when they have finished their study.

4. Do not confuse subject matter with objectives.

Good 1. Explain the mechanisms of information processing:1.1 Explain:

PerceptionSensory perceptionsSensory storeEncoding

1.2 Distinguish between short-term and long-term memory

Bad During the course students will be introduced to theory and research on:1. Information processing

1.1 What is memory?1.2 Perception and encoding1.3 Short-term memory1.4 Long-term memory

The second example gives a topic breakdown only. No indication is given of what students should be able to do as a result of their study.

5. Preferably, have only one outcome in an objective.

Good Explain random samplingBad Explain random sampling and apply it to the design of an experiment

Try to present each outcome as a separate statement because students may be able to do one much better than the other. With separate statements, you are better able to analyse how well students meet each objective and adjust your teaching accordingly.

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6. Keep your objectives concise. If a special condition or requirement is needed, state it separately.

Good Construct a histogramBad Construct a histogram, applying common sense rules for identifying interval

size and choosing an appropriate scaled factor to represent frequencies; the histogram should be properly titled and labeled.

It is not clear whether the second example specifies one or more outcomes. Students are likely to be confused because too much information is given, masking exactly what has to be done. If conditions are needed, write them below the objective as an explanatory note.

7. When a specific objective includes several items, give each item a new line.

Good Describe the gross structure of wood in terms of:a. growth incrementsb. growth related defectsc. heartwood and sapwoodd. wood rays

Bad Describe the growth structure of wood in terms of growth increments, growth related defects, heartwood and sapwood, and wood rays.

When items are listed separately, students are less likely to overlook them.

8. Don’t omit complex objectives just because they are hard to write.

As a guide, first write brief topic notes of what you want the students to cover. Then see how the general objectives for the course relate to the notes you have written. For each general objective that relates to the topics, work out the important specific outcomes. Write specific objectives on these. If necessary, refine further your specific objectives.

9. Set objectives that your students really can achieve.

10. Have a colleague check your objectives.

3.4 Learning Outcomes for a Selection of Courses

The following learning outcomes have been taken from course outlines. Note that most of the outcomes relate to the broad goals of a course rather than the specific objectives that one might associate with a particular topic or assignment. This is not a strict behaviourist approach to the writing of objectives; for example, in a university context there is nothing wrong with ‘understanding’ as a learning outcome even though many behaviourists would argue that ‘understanding’ is not directly observable or measurable. The critical point is that the broad outcomes for a course give the general direction that learning should take while the particular assignments undertaken by students identify the specific qualities (skills, knowledge, values etc.) that students are expected to demonstrate. The qualities being assessed in an assignment should therefore derive from the broad outcomes of the course (remember Bigg’s notion of alignment) and should be capable of being measured or judged in some way.

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Learning Outcomes of the First Year Health Science Programme

On completion of your study of the HSFY Programme you are expected to have:

developed an understanding of how the normal healthy body functions at various levels from the physical, chemical, biochemical, molecular, cellular, through to functional organ systems, along with factors affecting health and disease in human populations.

developed a sense of the interconnectedness between different fields of knowledge in the health sciences.

developed a sound understanding of broader principles and concepts underpinning all of the biomedical and life sciences.

developed a strengthened understanding, commitment, excitement, and enthusiasm for science and the scientific method.

developed an awareness of why this knowledge is relevant to the study of ill-health. integrated and synthesised perspectives from the HSFY suite of papers. acquired a love of learning, and good learning practices leading to the development of

lifelong learning skills, including the ability to search for information, communicate effectively orally and in writing, and adopt a critical stance to knowledge.

developed an understanding of the importance of intellectual independence and its role in effective learning.

developed some understanding of what is involved in undertaking professional courses in the health sciences, where these qualifications can lead to, and the sort of career opportunities available.

developed the basic learning skills to enable you to advance to your second year of study.

Learning Outcomes of a 300 Level Social Policy Course

By the end of the course students should be able to:

1. understand the system of income acquisition and income distribution in NZ and the part played by government in influencing this system;

2. understand the patterns of participation in paid and unpaid work and how these relate to social and economic trends, and to social policy;

In addition students will be expected to:

3a. apply their understanding of 1 and 2 in the preparation of an individual research paper; 3b. demonstrate the findings of their research paper in a short presentation to the rest of the class.

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Learning Outcomes for a 300 Level Mathematics Course


- demonstrate understanding of the mathematical concepts and theories involved in the course

- relate appropriate mathematical techniques to applications- use MAPLE symbolic algebra package to solve mathematical problems- write a mathematical report- constructively read mathematical articles and papers- appreciate uses of mathematics in understanding the environment, with particular

reference to NZ values.

Learning Outcomes for a 300 Level Social Science Research Methods Course


- explain the relative strengths and limitations of different research paradigms- critically evaluate the quality of a given research study- construct questionnaires, scales and other survey instruments- conduct an interview for a survey- analyse data using both quantitative and qualitative methods- design a research study on a topic of their own choice.

TASK 3: Try to generate some learning outcomes for your course. Think about knowledge-related outcomes as well as skill-oriented outcomes.

3.5 Further Reading


- chapter 3 addresses curriculum objectives.


- chapter 3 discusses outcomes-based planning.


- chapters 4 and 7 address developing goals and outcomes.

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4. Developing the Assessment Framework

4.1 Principles of Assessment

What and how students learn will depend on how they think they will be assessed. For students, assessment always defines the actual curriculum. Consider Figure 3 from Biggs (2003).

Teacher perspective: objectives teaching activities assessment

Student perspective: assessment learning activities outcomes

Figure 3: Teacher’s and student’s perspectives on assessment (Biggs, 2003)

Thus students will learn what they think they will be tested on. In a poorly aligned system, where the assessment does not reflect the objectives, students will adopt a surface approach to learning.

There are two main reasons for assessment:

1. To give feedback so that teachers and students know how learning is proceeding. This is the basis of formative assessment. It can improve both teaching and learning.

2. To grade students at the end of a unit or to accredit at the end of a programme. This is summative assessment.

“When the chef tastes the sauce it is formative assessment; when the customer tastes, it is summative” (anon).

Within summative assessment there are two main types:

1. Norm-referenced assessment focuses on the relative standing of students, that is, how well each person compares with others in the course.

2. Criterion-referenced assessment focuses on how well each person has mastered or developed the knowledge and skills of the course, not on how she or he compares with other students. As Biggs (1999:147) comments: “CRA is stunningly obvious: say what you want the students to be able to do, teach them to do it and then see if they can in fact do it; if they cannot, try again until they can.”

The differences between these two types are given in Table 2 over the page.

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Table 2: Differences between norm-referenced assessment and criterion-referenced assessment (from Biggs, 2003: 146).

Norm-referenced assessment Criterion-referenced assessment

Mark, percentage, decile, rank order, summative assessment Exam, multiple-choice test, short-answer

Assess, authentic/performance assessment, contextualised standards, formative assessment, summative assessment, criteria

Decontextualised assessment, standardisation, ‘fairness’

Portfolio, concept map, reflective journal, individualisation, optimal performance, student-centred

Quantitative, average, grade-point average, normal/bell curve, normal distribution

Qualitative, grading categories, curriculum objectives, alignment, judgment, distribution-free, non-parametric statistics

Grading on a curve, a good spread of scores

Effort, skill, learning, competency, expertise, mastery

Parametric statistics, test-retest reliability, internal consistency, discriminationSelection, competition, high-flier, ability

Remember that the key to good course design is to have alignment between the objectives, teaching methods and assessment. The Structure of the Observed Learning Outcome (SOLO) taxonomy described on page 15 gives a framework for developing objectives that can be evaluated. The choice of objectives is closely related to the type of understanding required which in turn leads to different assessment tasks. Table 3 suggests some of the levels of understanding that we might want from our students, and what kinds of assessment tasks might be used.

Table 3: Required levels and kinds of understanding, and suitable assessment tasks (Biggs, 1999:196). To find out more detail about the assessment tasks see Appendix C.

Objectives Kinds and levels of understanding

Suitable assessment tasks

1. Basic facts, terminology Recall, recognition MC or short answer2. Topic knowledge Individual topics,

relational, some multi-structural relations between topics

Gobbets, critical incidents

3. Discipline knowledge Conception of unit as a whole

Letter to a friend, concept map

4. Functioning knowledge Topic or discipline knowledge put to work

Problem-solving, research project

5. Laboratory skills Procedural knowledge Laboratory behaviour, lab reports

6. Monitoring and evaluation skills

Metacognitive knowledge, self-directed learning

Self- and peer-assessment

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There are three core principles of effective assessment:

1. Assessment that guides and encourages effective approaches to learning;2. Assessment that validly and reliably measures expected learning outcomes, in particular

the higher-order learning that characterises higher education; and3. Assessment and grading that define and protect academic standards (James et al.

2002:7).

You will note that these core principles point towards criterion-referenced assessment. Well-designed assessment includes clear expectations, reasonable workloads and provides opportunities for students to self-monitor, rehearse, practise and receive feedback. From a student’s perspective the key ingredients of assessment are:

- Unambiguous expectations – students want transparency in the way their knowledge and skills are assessed;

- Authentic tasks – students value assessment tasks they perceive to be ‘real’;- Choice and flexibility – students prefer ‘negotiated’ assessment and encouraging

students to engage with the curriculum expectations should assist them to become more autonomous and independent learners (James et al., 2002).

Ramsden (2003) suggests 14 rules for better assessment in higher education:1. Link assessment to learning.2. Never assess without giving comments to students about how they might improve.3. Learn from your students’ mistakes. Use assessment to discover their

misunderstandings and then modify your teaching to address them.4. Deploy a wide range of assessment methods.5. Try to get students participating in the assessment process through:

a. discussions of appropriate methods and how these relate to course objectivesb. joint staff-student design of assessment questions and negotiation of criteria for

success and failurec. self and peer assessment activitiesd. offering students responsible choice among different methods,

6. Give lucid and frequent messages, both in the assessment questions you set and in your course goals, that memorisation and reproduction will be penalised and that success in your course will only be achieved through decisive demonstrations of understanding.

7. Think about the relation between formative and summative assessment.8. Use multiple-choice and other ‘objective’ tests very cautiously, preferably in

combination with other methods.9. In subjects involving quantitative manipulations, always include questions requiring

explanations in prose.10. Focus on validity (is what you are measuring important?) before reliability (is your

test consistent?).11. Do everything in your power to lessen the anxiety raised by assessments.12. Never set an assignment or examination question you are not ready to answer yourself.

Practise writing model answers and use them to help students appreciate what you want.

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13. Reduce the between-student competitive aspects of assessment while simultaneously providing inducements to succeed against a standard (through using assessments of group products and deriving standards from several cohorts of students, for example).

14. Be suspicious of objectivity and accuracy of all measures of student ability and conscious that human judgement is the most important element in every indicator of achievement.

Now that we have considered the basic principles of good assessment, we will now discuss how to go about achieving these ideals!

4.2 Method for Developing the Assessment Framework

Before you devise an assessment framework for your course, you should ask yourself some basic questions:

Questions Focus of assessment1. Why do I need to assess? Purpose of assessment2. What am I going to assess? Content and objectives3. When and how often am I going to assess? Timing of assessments4. How am I going to assess? Assessment tasks5. What resources am I going to need? Resources and constraints6. How do I ensure fairness? Validity and reliability

Let's take these questions in turn: a few brief thoughts on each is provided.

1. Why assess?

to give grades and award qualifications to give feedback, motivate students to diagnose learning difficulties to improve the course for your own accountability

The reason(s) that you assess will affect the kind of assessment task you select and whether the judgments you make will be used formally (for entry into departmental records) or informally. Thus you need to consider whether you use formative or summative assessment and the mix of assessment tasks.

2. What am I going to assess?

The assessments that you make of students should be directed towards the learning outcomes that you have specified. A useful question to ask yourself is: What qualities am I looking for in the work of students, and are these qualities derivable from the learning outcomes of the course?

An essay, for example, might test qualities such as:relevance to the question coherence of arguments understanding of concepts (or theories or terms)

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structure of the answer use of resource materialwritten expression

These qualities are derivable from learning outcomes such as: "write a coherent argument""explain/apply basic concepts in the subject" "integrate different theories on ..."

Similarly, a design project might test qualities such as:functionalitypresentationcost effectivenessoriginalityresearch

These qualities are derivable from learning outcomes such as:"research the feasibility of a design proposal""create a design for... "

"apply design concepts to the marketing of a product "

You need to think carefully about the kinds of tasks you select; you need to ensure that they are well-suited to measuring the qualities you are looking for (see 4 below).

3. When and how often am I going to assess?

The first part of this question, when to assess, depends on the sequence of your course. Study the course sequence and identify points at which students should have the knowledge or have developed the necessary skills to undertake a particular task. The task itself may also be a useful learning exercise.

The second part of the question, how often to assess, relates very much to the question of workload - both yours and the students. In a 12 week course, you will find it hard to assess more than three or four times, although laboratory work might be assessed more often. From the viewpoint of validity (covering the course content and objectives fairly) you will want to assess at least twice in a course, and probably more often. From the viewpoint of reliability (the accuracy of the assessments that you make of student work), you will find that three "major" assessments are enough although a fourth assessment may improve your results slightly. Check your Division’s and Department’s guide on workloads.

4. How am I going to assess?

Make sure you understand the strengths and weaknesses of the different kinds of assessment tasks that you might want to use. For further information there are several books in HEDC's library that may be helpful (see further reading on page 27). A fundamental question you will also need to ask is whether your assessments of students are to be norm-referenced or criterion-referenced. In general you will want to focus more on the latter where each student is judged on her or his own merits. However, to some extent you will set standards based on your experience of what students are typically able to do; in other words, comparisons between students in a general way may be hard to eliminate entirely from your assessments.

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5. What resources do I need?

When planning an assessment programme, you have to know what facilities and resources are available to you for assessing student performance. This includes rooms, equipment, materials, library resources, markers, and so on. You should systematically consider the resources that you will need. You may decide that a particular assessment task will present more problems than it is worth.

6. How do I ensure fairness?

To ensure fairness, you need to provide assessment tasks that are valid and reliable. A valid task is one which properly samples the content and objectives (learning outcomes) that it is intended to assess. There should be no surprises to students!

A reliable task is one which accurately measures student performance. However, you need to recognise that all measurements of student achievement contain an element of doubt. Experienced teachers and examiners often use a rule-of-thumb guide about the margin of doubt in assessing student performance; the figure ±5% is not a bad guide.

To improve validity you need to set the right mix of assessment tasks. You must also write questions of high quality: questions must be relevant, free of ambiguous content, and clearly delimit the task for students to do.

To improve reliability, you must employ marking procedures which ensure that students are marked consistently.

4.3 Some Guidelines for Assessing Student Performance 1. Devise a programme which:

is relevant to the course objectives/outcomes and balanced is manageable by yourself, colleagues and students conforms to University regulations and requirements can be resourced.

2. Give clear information about assessment procedures and requirements in the Course Outline. See that your outline conforms to Division and Departmental requirements. 3. Choose assessment tasks (assignments, projects, tests) to match the objectives you are assessing.

4.3.1 Preparing individual assessment tasks

1. Write good questions which are clear and well laid out: Separate information from instructions. Give each instruction a new line. Highlight key words.

2. Always have a colleague read your questions to identify possible ambiguities and other flaws.

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3. Specify, in writing, the ground rules to students (word limits, penalties, etc.).

4. Prepare a model answer in outline form (the amount of detail will depend on the kind of task you have set). This will help you to refine the question and identify potential problems.

5. Give students clear statements of the qualities or level of performance needed to achieve each grade (A, B+, B, etc.). Be as specific as you can.

6. Prepare a marking scheme which: is appropriate to the task gives proper weighting to the different qualities/objectives being assessed allows for the unexpected.

7. Try out the scheme on a few answers before finalising the details.

8. Work out procedures which eliminate or discourage plagiarism and other forms of cheating.

9. If you are sharing the marking, iron out interpretation differences on a sample of answers.

10. If you are sharing the marking, arrange for a sample of answers to be cross-marked.

11. Give constructive feedback to students (i.e. try to be positive and encouraging). Point out deficiencies in a pleasant way.

12. Be willing to reconsider a student's answer. If appropriate, have a colleague re-mark an answer.

13. Recognise that no assessment is perfectly reliable.

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4.4. Some Examples of Assessment

1. Example of an assignment marking guide

NAME:_______________________________ GRADE:________________

MARKER:____________________________ PERCENTAGE:__________

Outstanding Very good Good Satisfactory UnsatisfactoryCoverage of topic

Depth of understanding/analysis of issues

Use and evidence of reading

Logical coherence of arguments

Structure and expression

Referencing

Spelling, grammar and punctuation

Originality: Please note that bonus marks will be awarded for original work (i.e. thoughts, ideas etc. not normally expected of a 100 level student).

General Comments:

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2. Example of an Assessment form for oral presentations

Presenter’s Name: _____________________________________________

Please mark each criteria out of 5 using the following scale:Poor Satisfact Good Very Excellent

good

1 2 3 4 5

The introduction was effective and informative.

1 2 3 4 5

The presentation was well organised and easy to follow.

1 2 3 4 5

The key points were clearly stated.

1 2 3 4 5

The visual aids, e.g., slides, overheads, etc., were clear, effective and well used.

1 2 3 4 5

The speaker’s demeanor, volume, and manner of speaking were effective and clear.

1 2 3 4 5

The ending drew things together well.

1 2 3 4 5

The technical content was good, including clear and justifiable assumptions, methodology, relevant conclusions, etc.

1 2 3 4 5The questions were handled well

1 2 3 4 5Some things I found particularly effective were:

Some things that could use improvement were:

OVERALL GRADE: ___________ AND PERCENT __________

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A+ (>=90%); A (85-89%); A- (80-84%); B+ (75-79%); B (70-74%); B-(65-69%);C+(60-64%); C (55-59%); C- (50-54%); D (40-49%); E (<40%).

3. Example of an assessment form for poster presentations

Presenter’s Name: _____________________________________________

Presentation Title: _____________________________________________

Please mark each criteria out of 5 using the following scale:

Poor Satisfact Good Very Excellentgood

1 2 3 4 5

1) Attention getting, coherence: good first impression? (title, layout, colours). Easy to navigate around? Transparent structure?

1 2 3 4 5

2) Content: accurate, analytical, thoughtful, original?

1 2 3 4 5

3) Brevity/direction: are points made quickly and clearly? Is it simple, focused?

1 2 3 4 5

4) Techniques/evidence: Good use graphics? Proper referencing?

1 2 3 4 5

Sum to give TOTAL /20

General comments:

A+ = 18 and above; A = 17; A- = 16; B+ = 15; B=14;B- = 13;C+=12; C=11; C- = 10; D=9; E=8 or less.

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4. Example of rating criteria for assessing seminar or poster performance

Rating Description (example statements)

5. Excellent The quality has been demonstrated to an exceptional level; a professional performance; a performance well above the expected level for a student in this course.

4. Very good The quality has been demonstrated to a high standard; the student has reached a level which clearly exceeds ‘competency’.

3. Good The quality is clearly demonstrated without being exceptional in any way; students can be thought of as being competent in respect of this quality.

2. Satisfactory The quality has been demonstrated to a minimally acceptable level; there may be flaws but these are not serious enough to fail the student on this quality.

1. Poor The quality is absent or performed to a very low level, or the perfomance is seriously flawed in this respect.

5. Example of Grade Criteria

A+, A Outstanding Overall a thoroughly professional performance, which has demonstrated all of the following:

Now insert a statement or list derived from your majorobjectives. For example:

The student has shown originality, taking a different approach from the usual

The student has shown a high level of sensitivity in dealing with the cultural aspects of the subject

The student has shown both the ability to integrate different theoretical perspectives and to relate theory to practice in different contexts

The student has demonstrated the ability to deliver an enthusiastic and well-structured oral presentation

A-. B+ Very good The student’s work is of a high standard, clearly exceeding competence in achieving the objectives of the course. For an

A-, some of the work will have shown outstanding qualities.

B, B- Good A competent performance which overall exceeds the minimum requirements for achieving a pass in the course; that is, the

knowledge, skills and values being assessed have been clearlydemonstrated

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C+, C Satisfactory The student’s work is of an acceptable standard although deficiencies may be apparent. On balance, the positive aspects outweigh the negative

D Unsatisfactory The student’s work is deficient in important respects. Theobjectives have not been adequately demonstrated

E Poor The student’s work is seriously deficient in most respects. The objectives have not been achieved, and may not even have been

attempted.

4.5 Different Assessment Strategies

Hopefully you will be convinced that criterion-referenced assessment is preferable to norm-referenced! Thus we will consider a few different formats of assessment and the most likely kind of learning assessed (Table 4). Details of these types are in Appendix A, which is a chapter from Biggs (2003).

Table 4: Different assessment tasks and the kinds of learning assessed (adapted from Biggs, 2003: 210).

Assessment format Most likely kind of learning assessedExtended prose, essay typeessay exam rote, question spotting, speed structuringopen book as for exam but less memory, coverageassignment, take-home read widely, interrelate, organise, apply, copy

Objective testmultiple choice recognition, strategy, comprehension, coverageordered outcome hierarchies of understanding

Performance assessmentpracticum skills needed in real lifeseminar, presentation communication skillsposters concentrating on relevance, applicationinterviewing responding interactivelycritical incidents reflection, application, sense of relevanceproject application, research skillsreflective journal reflection, application, sense of relevancecase study, problems application, professional skillsportfolio reflection, creativity, unintended outcomes

Rapid assessment (large class)concept maps coverage, relationshipsVenn diagrams relationshipsthree-minute essay level of understanding, sense of relevancegobbets realising the importance of significant detailshort-answer recall units of information, coverageletter to a friend holistic understanding, application, reflectioncloze comprehension of main ideas

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TASK 4: Think about your learning outcomes and how these might best be assessed. What mix of tasks will be used?

4.6 Further Reading

Angelo, T.A. and Cross, K.P. (1993) Classroom Assessment Techniques – A Handbook for College Teachers, Second Edition.San Francisco, Jossey-Bass Publishers.

- A very comprehensive text that covers the theory of assessment and then discusses a huge range of techniques.

- Available in the HEDC resource library LB 2822. 75 AK36 1993


- Chapters 8 and 9 deal with assessment (part of chapter 9 is in Appendix A)- Available in the HEDC resource library LB 2331 B526 2003

Brown, S. and Glasner, A. (1999) Assessment Matters in Higher Education, Buckingham, The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.

- A useful collation of work that explores different approaches to assessment. - Available in the HEDC resource library (cataloguing in process).

James, R, McInnis, C and Devlin, M (2002) Assessing Learning in Australian Universities. Accessible at http://www.cshe.unimelb.edu.au/assessinglearning/index.html

- This website has some excellent material about assessment including addressing tricky aspects such as:

o assessing large classeso assessing group worko minimising plagiarismo on-line assessment

- Report is available in the HEDC resource library (cataloguing in process).

Knight, P. (Ed.) (1995) Assessment for Learning in Higher Education. London, Kogan Page in association with the Staff and Educational Development Association.

- Another useful text that is a collation of essays pertaining to the practicalities and ethics of assessment.

- Available in the Central Library LB 2367 G76 AU44

Ramsden, P (2003) Learning to Teach in Higher Education. London, Routledge- See chapter 10- Available in the Central Library LB 2331.R519 2003

Schwartz, P. and Webb, G. (Eds) (2002) Assessment – Case Studies, Experience and Practice from Higher Education. London, Kogan Page.

- A useful text which shares good practice with examples from the use of IT to assess large classes, reflective assessment, assessment methods for special purposes, addressing the needs of individual students in assessment and everyday problems in assessment practice.

- Available in Central Library LB 3051 AU4327


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http://www.cshe.unimelb.edu.au/assessinglearning/index.html

- Chapter 9 addresses assessment- Available in HEDC and Central libraries LB 2361.TN27

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5. Content and Sequence

So far you have hopefully identified the major learning outcomes for the course you are developing and the mix of tasks you intend to use for assessing students. You will need to work further on the assessment particularly to determine the qualities you are testing in each of the tasks and the match between these qualities and the major learning outcomes.

The next step is to develop in more detail the content of your course. There are four main steps. 1. Organise your course into several units. Give each unit a title. 2. For each unit, write brief notes to indicate what you intend to cover under this title.3. Identify the student objectives (learning outcomes) for each unit.4. Sequence the units into a coherent order.

Each of these is discussed in turn.

1. Organise your course into several units

There are several ways a course can be divided into smaller units. You can break-up the material by topics, themes, issues, problems, or a combination of these. To assist you with this, consult textbooks, previous course plans or other sources. Of course you will want to tailor the structure to suit your own approach to the subject. While there is no point in re-inventing the wheel, you are bound to want a course that has your own flavour to it.

If you want to develop a problem-based approach to your course in which you want to have students develop their knowledge and skills through interaction with actual or simulated life events, you should first make sure that you have identified the key concepts, theories and skills (tools) that are essential to an understanding of your subject. Many educationists use case studies to embody these tools, and set students tasks which encourage them to take on the responsibility for their own learning. Case studies must therefore be developed with great care so that they embody the content and processes that you want students to experience. If you are using this approach, you may want to discuss your course design with colleagues and/or HEDC.

2. Write brief notes on each unit

The purpose of this is to identify the concepts, terms, theories, examples etc. that will help you decide what to cover and where to draw the limits. Inevitably, you will end up with more content than you have time to cover. You should ask yourself this question: why should students study this unit? This will help you focus more directly on the most important aspects of the unit.

The notes that you write are personal; you do not need to show them to others or have them presented in a well laid-out fashion. However, you will find that the notes will act as a useful prompt when you develop your lectures at a later point. At this stage you may want to organise your notes into a more orderly summary to give to students as a handout.

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3. Identify the learning outcomes for the unit

It is at this point that you should make more specific the learning outcomes for a course. The way to do this is take each major learning outcome in turn and ask yourself the following questions:

(i) Does this learning outcome relate to this unit? (ii) If so, what specifically must students do to achieve this outcome?

Refer back to the section on "Guidelines for writing learning outcomes or course objectives" (page 14). This will give you more advice on how to write student objectives.

If you find that none of the major learning outcomes of the course relate to this unit, you should examine whether the unit should be included in the course or whether the major outcomes should be revised.

4. Sequence the course units

Most courses have an inherent order where some units should be covered before others. However, not every unit will fall into a simple order. Choices will be available to you about what to cover first and whether a particular unit should precede or follow another. We will try using topic order diagrams as a means of mapping out the course.

Homework task:

The first step is to divide your course into natural units or segments - we will call them topics. Number each one or label it with a brief title. Note down with each topic any essential detail which will help you place that topic in order. We suggest that you try to divide the prescription into no more than 15 - 16 topics; in some cases, 4 or 5 topics may be enough.

The second step is to arrange these topics into a sequence that gives a natural progression through the course. One way is to enter each topic on a separate card, draw cards at random, then see which should go first in the sequence. For example, if you draw out topics A and E, you would ask whether A should be taught before E, or E before A or whether it matters at all which order they are taught in. The argument for using a random procedure is that it makes you think for yourself about the order of topics instead of just using an existing sequence. Keep going until all cards are drawn and in this way you will build up a topic order diagram showing the possible paths through your course. If there is more than one possible path, make your choice (this may be influenced by resource constraints).

The third step is to decide on timing of assessments. Points of convergence and end- points are good locations for summarising preceding content. They are therefore sensible points after which performance may be assessed. Remember to allow students enough preparation time between the completion of a topic (or block of topics) and a test based on the material covered.

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Points of divergence are also important for assessment of skills needed for the next topics. This is especially important in a course in which earlier topics are essential for the understanding of later ones.

We do not want to make too much of topic order diagrams, but we do recommend their use to help both your teaching and your assessments. You may have to change the sequence of a course during the year because of staff changes, lack of equipment or a specialist room not being available. With the overall view of the structure of the course that a topic order diagram gives you, you can easily adjust your planning and timing of assessments. Topic order diagrams can also be useful for explaining or ‘mapping’ the course for students.

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6. Teaching and Learning Process

Consideration of the teaching and learning process involves a series of steps. Each of these are given in the following sections.

6.1 Use of Course Evaluations

If you are revamping an existing course, check out recent evaluations of the course. This will help you to identify the strong points of the course and any areas in need of improvement. Accept the negative aspects of an evaluation from a developmental standpoint – decide what can be done to meet the criticisms – rather than from a defensive standpoint, which is likely to impede progress. If you feel that a particular criticism is unfair – that what you have been doing is appropriate in respect of the goals of the course – then make sure you explain to students the reasons for your approach; the problem may be one of further communication.

6.2 Your Role in Student Learning

Knowing your role (or roles) as a teacher is fundamental to providing the right climate for a successful course. For many teachers this involves the development of a philosophy about teaching and learning, including a view on the goals of a university education.

You may feel that you would like to spend more time on developing your own skills as a teacher. If so, HEDC is very willing to advise, act as a sounding board for your ideas, or observe your classes. You are also encouraged to attend workshops that focus on improving your teaching.

6.3 Teaching and Learning Activities

Think about what the best method is to achieve the desired course outcomes. Of course you may be hampered by logistical considerations such as class size. Often, courses to be taught the next year have already identified the balance between lecturing, tutoring, laboratory work etc. These are usually confirmed well in advance for academic approval and publication in the Calendar. However, you still have considerable freedom to work out strategies to facilitate student learning.

As a start, select one unit in your course and work out whether the objectives and content of this unit require your input in the form of a lecture presentation, or student input in the form of a group discussion, or some other strategy which encourages students to undertake their own learning. Most often, you are likely to choose a combination of all three. Table 5 gives the ten common teaching methods which are matched to the learning objectives. It is clear from this table that different teaching methods are appropriate to different objectives. As Bourner (1997) suggests, when there are disagreements about different teaching and learning methods, the source of the disagreements is likely to be found in differences in the learning objectives that are being assumed.

If you set students work to do out of class, do not simply assign them reading. Give them a challenge by setting them a task (e.g. posing them some questions to answer). The task can be done in class (laboratory or tutorial) or in the students’ own time. It should embody the

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important concepts, ideas or values that you want the students to take on, but if it contains material which is difficult you should introduce it through explanations in lectures. You will also need to decide whether the tasks you set are sufficiently major that they should be part of the formal assessment framework, or whether they are primarily exercises for learning.

Remember the role of the lecturer is not simply to transmit information from you to the student. A textbook can do that!

TASK 5: Think about the types of teaching and learning activities you might use.

6.4 Resourcing the Course

Appendix B provides a checklist to help you identify the resources (human, equipment and materials) you may need. The checklist, while comprehensive, does not cover everything. Once you have worked through the checklist, give thought to the constraints under which you must operate. For example, if you intend to set an essay assignment for a class of 300 students, think about the availability of library resources. You may need to assign books to close reserve or give students a wide range of topics to choose from so as to ease the pressure on particular books.

6.5 Workload

Most Divisions now provide workload guidance. Try giving approximate estimates to the time students should allocate to your course overall. The easiest way is to indicate how many hours each week students should spend on your course. Remember this time should include contact hours, reading and assignment work.

It is important not to exceed the Division guideline otherwise students will end up working too many hours and possibly becoming despondent with the course.

By the same token, give some thought to your own workload. If your load is too heavy, it is probably time for you to reflect on how your time is being spent and possible ways for making more efficient use of resources. HEDC may be able to advise or act as a sounding-board.

6.6 Course Timetable

You must establish a course timetable. Use the course sequence to assign dates to lectures, tutorials, laboratories and fieldtrips (if appropriate). When drafting the timetable, consult all colleagues who are teaching in the course; also contact any guest speakers to ensure that they can attend on the dates that you have assigned. At the same time set assessment dates that fit in with the course sequence. Check with other courses at the same level, to avoid congestion of due work and high stress levels! Allow sufficient time between assignments so that work can be returned in time for students to act on your feedback.

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Table 5: Teaching and learning methods for different learning objectives (after Bourner, 1997).

Learning objectives

Disseminate up-to-date information

Develop the capability to use ideas and information

Develop the student’s ability to test ideas and evidence

Develop the student’s ability to generate ideas and evidence

Facilitate the personal development of students

Develop the capacity of students to plan and manage own learning

LecturesUp-to-date textboooksReading listsHand-outs“Guest” lecturesUse of exercises that require students to find up-to-date knowledgeDevelop skills in using library and other learning resourcesDirected private studyOpen learning materialsUse of the internet

Case studiesPracticalsWork experienceProjectsDemonstrationsGroup workingSimulations (e.g. computer-based)Problem-solvingDiscussion and debateEssay-writing

Seminar and tutorialsSupervisionPresentationsEssaysFeedback on written workLiterature reviewingExam papersCritical assessmentPeer assessmentSelf-assessment

Research projectsWorkshops on techniques of creative problem solvingGroup workingAction learningLateral thinkingBrainstormingMind-mappingCreative visualizationUse of relaxation techniquesProblem solving

FeedbackAction learningLearning contractsRole playExperiential learningLearning logs/ reflective diariesStructured experiences in groupsReflective documentsSelf-assessmentProfiling

Learning contractsProjectsAction learningWorkshopsMentorsReflective logs and diariesIndependent studyDissertationsWork-placementPortfolio development

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Once you have finalised your timetable, provide students with a copy – usually as part of the course outline handout and/or on Blackboard. If using a handout, students often prefer the timetable to be on a separate (usually last) page so they can pin this up to consult throughout the course.

Once the course is underway, keep to the timetable except in special circumstances (e.g. a guest speaker has had to call off). If you find that you are falling behind on each unit, rethink the content of your lectures; you are probably trying to cover too much. Students will not react positively to this, and evaluations of your course and teaching are likely to suffer.

6.7 Course Evaluation

Develop an evaluation plan for your course. In the first year, include brief checks on key features (a new teaching strategy, readability of handouts, availability of library resources etc.) as you progress. These do not have to involve HEDC. For example, after a few class meetings (be they tutorials or lectures) you can distribute paper and get students to jot down the three best things about your strategy (or whatever) and three things that could be improved. Give them about five minutes to fill this in and collect back responses. Collate and analyse these, and then close the loop by telling students what the nature of the feedback was and how you will act (or not) on it and why.

Also inspect student work to see how they are progressing (e.g. give a five minute test during class and sample a selection of answers). Also solicit and monitor feedback from tutors. Another useful way to get feedback on your course and your teaching, is to involve your peers - invite a colleague in for a peer observation session. The most important evaluation you can do is to continually reflect on how the course is going and to gain evidence in as many forms as possible.

In addition, identify the scope of any assistance HEDC can provide in terms of other types of evaluation. For example, HEDC can come into the course to conduct a small group instructional diagnostic which involves getting more in-depth feedback from the class. Decide on the features or aspects that you want monitored (e.g. teaching, value of tutorials, workload, organisation and assessment).

6.8 Further Reading

Ramsden, P. (1999) Learning to Teach in Higher Education. London, Routledge. - chapter 9 – teaching strategies for effective learning – first discusses problems with the most common forms of teaching and then offers some case studies of effective teaching from a range of disciplines.

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7. References

Biggs, J (2003) Teaching for Quality Learning at University: Second Edition. Buckingham, The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.

- a key text for academics – it is very readable and contains a wealth of information on all aspects of university teaching. Full of useful practical advice.

- available in HEDC resource library LB 2331 B526 2003

Biggs, J (1999) Teaching for Quality Learning at University. Buckingham, The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.

- earlier edition of the above.

Biggs, J. and Collis, K.F. (1982) Evaluating the Quality of Learning: The SOLO Taxonomy. New York, Academic Press.

Bourner, T (1997) Teaching methods for learning outcomes. Education and Training, 39: 344-348.

Elton, L. (2001) Research and teaching: conditions for a positive link. Teaching in Higher Education, 6, pp. 43-56.


- an excellent text that discusses theories of student learning and teaching, and considers all aspects of curriculum design. Part 3 takes a more in-depth at teaching in various disciplines.

- available in HEDC resource library LB 2331 H6863 2003

James, R, McInnis, C and Devlin, M (2002) Assessing Learning in Australian Universities. Accessible at http://www.cshe.unimelb.edu.au/assessinglearning/index.html

- this website has some excellent material about assessment including addressing tricky aspects such as:

o assessing large classeso assessing group worko minimising plagiarismo on-line assessment

- report is available in the HEDC resource library

Jenkins, A., Breen, R. and Lindsay, R. (2003) Reshaping Teaching in Higher Education: Linking Teaching with Research. London, Staff and Educational Development Series.

- another excellent text that tackles how to strengthen teaching–research links at all levels from the individual, to course and institutional levels.

- It draws on contemporary research and offers practical advice and strategies for linking research and teaching.

- available in HEDC resource library LB 2326.3 JH2

Neumann, R., Parry, S., & Becher, T. (2002). Teaching and learning in their disciplinary contexts: A conceptual analysis. Studies in Higher Education, 27:4, 405-416.

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http://www.cshe.unimelb.edu.au/assessinglearning/index.html

Race, P. (2001) The Lecturer’s Toolkit – a Practical Guide to Learning, Second Edition. London, Kogan Page.

Ramsden, P (2003) Learning to Teach in Higher Education. London, Routledge.- another key text for academics - Part 2 concerns course design for learning- available in HEDC resource library and central Library, LB 2331.R519 2003

Schuell, T.J. (1986) Cognitive conceptions of learning. Review of Educational Research 56: 411-36.


- a classic and highly recommended text for course designers- available in both HEDC resource and Central libraries LB 2361.TN27

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Appendix A: Course Outline Template

This template has been designed so that information can be inserted in the various sections. Guidelines are provided in italics. The order of the sections is in no way fixed and all the material can be adapted to match the course requirements.

Code and title of paper

1. General information

a) Administrative information (including code, paper name and staff contacts plus who's who)

Contact person (this is your first point of contact for matters related to this paper)

Name:Phone:Email:

b) Teaching team (include members of the teaching team)

The teaching team include:

(or)

The names of the teaching team are available on Blackboard.

c) Use of Blackboard learning platform (Be explicit and say what Blackboard is and how students access it. For example:)

Blackboard is a web-based learning platform that we use to help manage teaching and learning in the course. On Blackboard you will find resource material, a list of lectures and tutorials, a discussion site, on-line quizzes, and your own personal grade sheet.

We will use some of these tools later in the course, but for now we just want to make sure you can access these pages. First, go to the Blackboard home page by following these steps:

1. Click on to your browser, for example Internet Explorer or Mozilla.

2. Go to the University Homepage: http://www.otago.ac.nz/ and click on Blackboard (in ‘Quickfind’ at top of third column on yellow band at the bottom of the Homepage).

Alternatively, go to: http://blackboard.otago.ac.nz

3. You will be asked to Login by typing in your username and password (use your university-wide Student ID and password). Once you have logged in you will find yourself on your personal Blackboard page.

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http://www.otago.ac.nz/

4. On the right hand side of the site you will see the heading ‘My Courses’. All the papers in which you are enrolled should be listed. Click on this button.

5. Once you are in the website bookmark it or add it to your ‘favourites’. If you have any problems with Blackboard please contact …

2. Introduction to xxxx111

Include a brief statement of what the paper is about and where it leads – its relations to other papers in the degree. If possible include a diagram that shows how this paper relates to other papers in the programme – prerequisites, co-requisites, and progression.

3. Intended learning outcomes for the paper

Include the intended learning outcomes of this paper. Intended learning outcomes indicate to the students what you expect them to have learned, i.e., go away with, by the end of the semester or year, and the reasons why these outcomes are important.

The learning outcomes can be broken down into knowledge-oriented learning outcomes, skill-oriented learning outcomes, values etc.

Learning outcomes are stated as things students should be able to do by the end of the course and they are written from the learner’s perspective. For example:

On completion of your study of xxxx111 you are expected to:

4. Content and structure

Provide an indication of the content of the paper and its structure. The description of the structure should show the logic of the organization of the paper. It can be demonstrated diagrammatically or as text. A sense of the overall structure helps the student orient the parts and relate the parts to the whole. Also include the number of teaching sessions.

5. Lecture programme

Include lecture topics, and if possible, individual lecture topics and dates.

6. Teaching/learning approaches

Briefly explain the main ways that students are expected to learn in this course. This may include lectures, laboratories, tutorials etc. Explain the function of each teaching/learning mode and what use you expect students to make of the approach. If you use terms like self-directed learning and active engagement – what do you expect the student to do and what support is available for them? Do you expect students to prepare for each teaching session? If so, in what way?

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Example

You will find learning easier in this course if you read the relevant materials before each lecture. Laboratory sessions include pre-and post lab check-ins, which are designed to provide you with feedback about your learning: how much you knew about the topic before the teaching session and how much you learned during the session.

Also available are self-directed learning modules that are designed to help you develop your understanding of the content. The self-directed learning modules include supplementary material, learning resources provided on Blackboard, your lecture notes, and identified textbook sections.

We recommend that you form study groups of two or three where you can discuss the ideas and concepts you are learning with others. Discussion helps understanding and application of the course material in different situations. Your study group will be helpful for peer-marking of your essays, and to providing constructive feedback.

7. Teaching/learning resources

Explain how these are used to support the course.

Examplea) Materials : lecture outlines and objectives will be provided for you to bring to every

lecture. They will list the learning outcomes of the lecture, and provide copies of complex diagrams and space for you to write notes.

b) Web resources: material to support your learning such as audiovisual aids and computer-assisted learning packages will be provided on Blackboard. There is also a discussion board for you to ask questions of tutors and other students. All your computer assessments will also be accessible on Blackboard.

8. Readings

Readings are often separated into required and recommended. If some readings are necessary for the completion of the paper then they are required and they should be then distinguished from recommended readings.

a) Required readingsb) Recommended readings

9. Expected workload

Give points for the paper and the hours you expect students to spend on study. Indicate how this should be spent.

ExampleMost weeks you will be expected to spend 4 hours in lectures, 3 hours in laboratories, and 3-5 hours in self-directed activities such as reading, making summary notes etc.

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10. Assessment

Learning is encouraged if students are aware of the full assessment details at the beginning of their course. Students are able to manage their time more effectively and efficiently and they also respond well to assessment if they know what is expected of them and how their work is to be judged and marked.

Provide a breakdown of internal assessment and final exam (if there is one). Indicate the main components, what they will test, their weighting or percentage worth, and when they are due. Indicate the criteria by which each piece is to be graded and the grading scheme.

Note that the grading scheme used at Otago is:A+ 90-100A 85-89A- 80-84B+ 75-79B 70-72B- 65-69C+ 60-64C 55-59C- 50-54D 40-49E <40

What do I do if I need more time?

Indicate the course policy for accepting and grading late work.

11. Referencing style used in xxxx111

Indicate the referencing style required in the course and how the student can access more information.

ExampleThe course uses the APA (American Psychological Association) referencing style. You are recommended to obtain the tutorial booklet Using the APA Referencing Style from the Student Learning Centre in the ISB Building. You will also find information about different referencing styles at:

http://www.library.otago.ac.nz/research/citation.html

12. Plagiarism/dishonest practice

Include a statement relating to plagiarism and the University’s dishonest practice regulations.

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ExampleYou should make sure that all submitted work is your own. Care should be taken to correctly cite the work of others and the teaching team are happy to provide guidance on this, or you can consult materials provided by the Student Learning Centre (see http://slc.otago.ac.nz/studyskills). Plagiarism is defined as copying or paraphrasing another's work, whether intentionally or otherwise, and presenting it as one's own (approved University Council, December 2004). Any student found responsible for plagiarism in any piece of work submitted for assessment shall be subject to the University's dishonest practice regulations (http://policy01.otago.ac.nz/policies/ click on academic policies, and then scroll to Dishonest Practice) which may result in various penalties, including forfeiture of marks for the piece of work submitted, a zero grade for the paper, or in extreme cases exclusion from the University.

13. Paper requirements

Indicate what is required to pass the course and also any requirements for progression. Indicate requirements for terms if relevant to the course and also say how students will be notified if they have terms.

14. Impairment

Create an environment in which it is possible for students who are suffering from an impairment to communicate their problem with the teaching team.

Example If you are suffering from anything that is likely to impair your study in this course, please let the Course Co-ordinator know as soon as possible. If you let us know of any problems we can make arrangements for appropriate support.

(Insert name and contact details of Course Co-ordinator)

15. Key dates and events

On a separate page give a table with key dates and events.

16. What do you do if you have concerns about the course?

Rationale: see University grievance policy.

ExampleWe hope you will feel comfortable coming to talk to us if you have a concern about the course. The Course Co-ordinator (insert name) will be happy to discuss any concerns. Alternatively, report your concerns to the student representative who will follow up with Departmental staff. If, after making approaches via these channels, you do not feel that your concerns have been addressed, there are university channels that may aid resolution. For further advice and more information on these channels, contact the departmental administrator or Head of Department.

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http://policy01.otago.ac.nz/policies/

http://slc.otago.ac.nz/studyskills

Appendix B: Checklist of Resources

A. Yourself

1. Have you viewed yourself as a resource?2. Have you identified your own professional development needs? Include teaching (including

postgraduate supervision), research and management.

B. Other people

1. Have you established the availability of other lecturers including guests?2. Have you organised tutorial and/or laboratory assistance?3. Have you organised tutor training for your tutors?4. Have you established good communication networks and a support system for your tutors?5. Will you need help in supervising tests and examinations?6. What secretarial help will you need?7. Do you have IT support for use of web resources?8. What help will you need in conducting field trips?

C. Rooms

1. Have you booked all the rooms you need for lectures, tutorials and laboratories?2. Are rooms appropriate for the task? (Size, lighting, layout, seating, etc.)3. Will you need extra rooms for special occasions, such as oral tests or in-class examinations?4. For in-class examinations, will desks be sufficiently spaced out to prevent students reading other

students’ answers?5. Have you arranged accommodation for students on fieldtrips?

D. Equipment and materials

1. What teaching aids will you need? (Data projector? OHP? Video playback? Tapes and slides? Microphone?)

2. What equipment will you need for any in-class tests?3. What equipment will students need to bring for any in-class tests? (Tools? Calculators? See University

of Otago policy on calculators)4. What materials will you need to supply for laboratories and tutorials?5. What vehicles and related equipment will you need for fieldtrips?

E. Teaching resources

1. Have you prepared a course outline that conforms to your Division’s requirements?2. Have you specified a textbook?3. Have you ordered enough copies of the textbook through UBS?4. What handouts will you need? (Course outline, Readings? Laboratory manuals? Course notes?)5. What web resources do you need to post?6. What tapes, films, articles and computer software will you need?7. Have you sent materials to the printing office by the due date?

F. Library resources

1. Have you informed the library of your reading list?2. Are there sufficient copies of key texts in the library?3. Should library copies of books be put on restricted loan?

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Appendix C: Chapter 9 “Assessing for learning quality II: practice”

from Biggs, J. (2003) Teaching for Quality Learning at University – What the Student Does, Second Edition. Buckingham, The Society for Research into Higher Education & Open University Press.

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