country water resource profile - nepad...
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©April/May 2013
Country Water Resource Profile M
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Country Water Resource Profile M
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AfDB African Development Bank
AMCOST African Ministers Council on Science and Technology
AMCOW African Ministers Council on Water
AU African Union
COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, South Africa
CWRP Country Water Resources Profile
DA District Assembly
DANIDA Danish International Development Agency
DSIP District Strategy and Implementation Plan
EC European Commission
FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation
GoM Government of Malawi
GWP-SA Global Water Partnership, Southern Africa
ICP International Cooperation Partners
IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature
JPCC Joint Permanent Commission of Cooperation (Malawi and United
Republic of Tanzania)
JRC Joint Research Centre
ITCZ Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
IWMI International Water Management Institute
IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
MoIWD Ministry of Irrigation and Water Development
NEPAD New Partnership for Africa‟s Development
NGO Non-governmental organisation
NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation
NSO National Statistics Office (Malawi)
ODA Official Development Agency (Japan)
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper
List of Acronyms
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PS Principle Secretary
RBO River Basin Organisation
RSAP III Regional Strategic Action Plan (2012-2015)
SANWATCE Southern African Water Centres of Excellence
SADC Southern African Development Community
R&D Research and Development
S&T Science and Technology
UB University of Botswana, Botswana
UEM University of Eduardo Montlane, Mozambique
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Education, Science and Cultural Organisation
USAID United Stated Agency for International Development
VWC Village Water Committee
SU Stellenbosch University, South Africa
TAC Technical Advisory Committee
UKZN University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
UNCHS United Nations Centre for Human Settlements
UNIMA University of Malawi, Malawi
UNZA University of Zambia, Zambia
UWC University of Western Cape, South Africa
WASH Water, sanitation and hygiene
WIN-SA Water Information Network - South Africa
WISA Water Institute of Southern Africa
WPT Water Project Toolkit
WRA Water Resources Areas
WRC Water Research Commission (South Africa)
WRU Water Resources Units
WUA Water Users Association
ZAMCOM Zambezi Watercourse Commission
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MAP OF MALAWI
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Acknowledgements The AU/NEPAD SANWATCE would like to thank the European Commission (EC)
Joint Research Centre (JRC) for making the Country Water Resources Profiles
possible. This profile was put together by Dr. Samson Sajidu, Dr. Maurice
Monjerezi, Dr, Cosmo Ngongoro, Dr. Jimmy Namangale at the University of
Malawi (UNIMA) in April 2013.
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Table of Contents Our Origins: Network for Water Centres of
Excellence………………………………………………..
Importance of the Country Water Resources
Profile………………………………………………………
Executive Summary…………………………………..
Malawi: Water Profile………………………………..
Geographic Profile…………………………….
Socio-Economic Setting…………………….
Hydrology/Hydrogeology of Malawi……
Major Water Management Issues………
Main Policy and Strategy Documents, Communication Channels and Media Links to Water Issues……………………….
Water Services and Resources Management Institutional Settings…….
Existing and Planned Water Infrastructure…………………………………..
Water Resources R & D & Science and Technology Institutions- (Staffing, Facilities & Funding)…………………………
Documented Water Sector Capacity Development Needs Assessment……….
Capacity Development Needs in the Nation…………………………………………….
Relation of the Country Situation to the SADC RSAP III Processes & Any Specific Actions Being Undertaken……..
References……………………………………………….
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In September 2000, African countries and the international community adopted the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) at the United Nations (UN) Millennium
Summit. African leaders identified water scarcity and related insecurity due to water
stress as one of the sources of the continent‟s underdevelopment and increasing
social and economic decline.
To combat these developments and “ensure sustainable access to safe and adequate
clean water supply and sanitation, especially for the poor”, the African Ministerial
Council on Science and Technology (AMCOST), a body of the African Union (AU),
decided in 2003 that science and technology (S&T) is to constitute one of the
flagship programmes of its implanting agency, the New Partnership for African
Development (NEPAD).
AMCOST decided that S&T will play an important role in water development, supply
and management and that S&T is crucial for assessing, monitoring and ensuring
water quality. The flagship programme should strengthen the continent‟s capabilities
to harness and apply S&T to address challenges of securing adequate clean water as
well as managing the continent‟s resources to become a basis for national and
regional cooperation and development.
Three years later, in 2006, the AMCOST and the African Ministerial Conference on
Water (AMCOW) met in Cairo, Egypt to reiterate the importance of S&T. By
resolution, the delegates committed themselves to establishing an African Network
of Excellence in Water Sciences and Technology Development. Along AU/NEPAD
policy, the water centres of excellence are to be established on a regional level, as of
2013, the Southern African Network of Water Centres of Excellence (SANWATCE) is
constituted of eight institutions across Southern Africa:
University of Botswana (UB),
University of Zambia (UNZA),
University of Malawi (UNIMA),
Our Origins: Network for Water Centres of
Excellence
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University of Eduardo Mondlane (UEM) in Mozambique, as well as
In South Africa: Stellenbosch University (SU) which also serves as the
network Hub, University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN), University of the Western
Cape (UWC), and the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR).
The Ministerial Mandate, as instituted in Cairo (2006), provides the AU/NEPAD
SANWATCE with the following executive mandate:
1. Facilitate, and where applicable, conduct selective research on water issues;
2. Serve as a Higher Education (PhD; postdoctoral; staff exchange) soundboard
to the Southern African Development Community (SADC) region on regional
water matters;
3. Collaborate with other networks and institutions in specialised areas;
4. Set the SADC water research agenda;
5. Establish a continental water research agenda which is based on / derived
from the SADC regional water agenda.
This can be achieved, amongst other means, through one-on-one engagement with
AMCOW and AMCOST through the SADC Technical Advisory Committee (TAC), in
order to observe political direction and engage so as to provide evidence-based
research.
Various research and capacity development initiatives, institutions and networks can
be found within the SADC-region, most notably the SADC Water Division; WaterNet;
Global Water Partnership-Southern Africa (GWP-SA); the International Water
Management Institute (IWMI); the Water Research Commission (WRC); Cap-Net;
Water Institute of Southern Africa (WISA); the Water Information Network-South
Africa (WIN-SA); Africa Portal; United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization‟s (UNESCO) Framework Programme for Research, Education and
Training in Water (FETWater) and the UNESCO initiatives, including Chairs, as well
as Category I and II centres.
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It has been established, through the assessment of the Research and Development
(R&D) value-chain, that the AU/NEPAD SANWATCE has an important role to play
within the high-end scientific research and capacity sphere (M.Sc.; PhD; postdoctoral
and Staff Exchange taking into consideration current Masters Programmes being
offered by partners, such as WaterNet).
The AU/NEPAD SANWATCE is one of the African regional networks. The regional
Hub and Secretariat is currently being hosted by SU in South Africa. Membership to
the Network is open to all countries in the Southern African sub-region and current
members are: Botswana, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa and Zambia.
AU/NEPAD SANWATCE‟s vision statement:
The AU/NEPAD SANWATCE will contribute to the improved
human and environmental well-being through research and
development in water and sanitation.
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The five Country Water Resources Profiles (CWRPs) have been prepared by the
respective AU/NEPAD SANWATCE country teams in 2013 as part of a regional
workshop series.
Each CWRP combines physical hydrology [water resource and its exploitation] with a
look at water service delivery [infrastructure], the social setting of the country and
the management of water, in terms of allocation and distribution. To some extent it
also investigates international obligations and relationships related to shared
transboundary water resources. It tries to get the base of water information in place,
so that there can be a realistic assessment of what gaps there are in S&T and R&D.
With the country‟s educational resources and institutions also identified, the
AU/NEPAD SANWATCE country team and other national stakeholders can use these
profiles as a starting point to assess and characterize: i) Where the meaningful
applied knowledge in the country‟s water sector exists and ii) what needs there are
beyond that for future cross-sectoral social developments and economic growth.
As this approach cross cuts the essential six Policy Principal Areas outlined in the EC
JRC‟s Water Project Toolkit (WPT) [Social, Economic, Technical,
Information/Education/Communication, Environmental and
Institutional/management], it should stimulate a more integrative and sustainable
approach towards exploitation and management practices resulting in increased
efficiency and more equitable water use strategies, as well as more
pertinent infrastructure development choices.
Importance of the Country Water Resources Profile
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Malawi is a landlocked country located in Southern Africa between latitudes 9°22‟S
and 17°03‟S and longitudes 33°40‟E and 35°55‟E. The climate of Malawi is tropical
continental wet and dries (Savannah) and is largely influenced by the huge water
mass of Lake Malawi, which covers almost two-thirds of Malawi‟s eastern border.
The main rain bearing systems are the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and
the Congo Air Boundary. Annual rainfall ranges from 700 to 2 400 mm with mean
annual rainfall being 1 180 mm. Droughts and floods are among the frequent top
disasters affecting the population and have become more severe since 1900. Malawi
is relatively well endowed with water resources with 20 per cent of its total area
covered by surface water bodies.
Despite having abundant water resources, Malawi is categorised among water
stressed countries with less than 1,700 m3 of freshwater per capita. The country‟s
economy is largely dependent on agriculture and water resources are therefore
central to socio-economic development. Water consumption in the country has
undergone considerable increase for both rural and urban areas due to demand for
domestic (3%), industrial (10%) and agricultural use (85%). Over 60% of the rural
population derive their domestic water requirements from groundwater. The
stressed water resources are further challenged by high population growth, climate
change and variability, increased sedimentation in rivers, lakes and reservoirs due to
catchment degradation. As of 2006, access to sanitation stood at 65 per cent of the
population had access to improved water and sanitation.
Executive Summary
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Geographic Profile
Malawi is a land-locked country in southern
Africa that lies along the southern sector of
the great East African Rift Valley system
between latitudes 9o 22‟ and 17o 03‟ south of
the Equator and longitudes 33o 40‟ and 35o
55‟ east of the Greenwich. It is bordered by
Tanzania in the north and north-east,
Mozambique in the south, south west and the
east; and Zambia in the west. It is 910 km
long and varies in width from 60 to 161 km
(Figure 1).
The climate of Malawi can be generally
categorized as tropical savanna (tropical wet
and dry) characterized by two distinct
seasons: (i) a single rainy season lasting from
November to April, and (ii) a dry season
extending from May to October. Many parts of the country experiences cool and dry
weather conditions from May to August, warm and dry weather conditions from
September to November, and warm and wet weather conditions from November to
April. In some High Altitude Plateaus, such as the Shire Highlands, drizzles, locally
known as Chiperoni, are quite common during the months of May, June and July,
which are the coldest months in Malawi. Fig 1b shows the rainfall regime of Malawi
showing the highest rainfall areas to the south east and along the west coast of Lake
Malawi.
The climate is greatly influenced by altitude and proximity to Lake Malawi, a huge
water body that covers nearly two thirds of its length which can be sub divided as
follows: (i) semi-arid (Shire Valley and some parts along the Lakeshore Plain), (ii)
Malawi: Water Profile
Figure 1. Rainfall regime of
Malawi Source: Moriniere &
Chimwaza (1996)
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semi-arid to sub-humid (Medium Altitude Plateaus), and (iii) sub-humid (High
Altitude Plateaus and hilly areas). The most important climatic variables that are
affected, or influenced, by climate are rainfall, air temperature and solar radiation.
There are two main synoptic systems, or rain bearing systems, which bring rainfall
to the country: (i) the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), and (ii) the Congo
Air Mass or Zaire Air Boundary. The other factors that equally influence the climate
of Malawi include: anti-cyclones, easterly waves, and occasionally tropical cyclones.
The deficiency in rainfall may occur if these systems are not active in a season
(Kundel 2008).
The mean annual rainfall in Malawi ranges between 500 mm in low-lying marginal
rainfall areas, such as the Shire Valley and some areas along the Lakeshore Plain, to
well over 3,000 mm on High Altitude Plateaus, such as Nyika plateau. The mean
annual minimum and maximum temperatures range from 12oC to 32oC. The highest
temperatures occur at the end of October or early November, and the lowest in June
or July. The highest mean air temperatures are recorded in the Lower Shire Valley
(25-26 oC) and some areas along the Lakeshore Plain (23-25 oC). The lowest mean
temperatures (13-15 oC) are recorded over the Nyika, Viphya, Dedza, Mulanje and
Zomba plateaus, Misuku Hills and the Kirk Range. Relative humidity ranges from
50% to 87% for the drier months of September and October and for the wetter
months of January and February.
Climate change studies in the 20th century (Mc Sweeny, 2008; Ngongondo et al,
2011, Ngongondo et al, 2013) show slight decreases in rainfall and actual
evapotranspiration and increases in temperature. Projections show that these trends
are likely to continue through the 21st Century.
Socio-Economic Setting
Agriculture is by far the most important sector of Malawi‟s economy. In 2003, it
contributed 37.6 percent to the country‟s GDP of USD1.700 million. Agriculture
accounts for about 90 percent of the country‟s export earnings, with tobacco alone
accounting for 60 percent, and provides employment for 81 percent of the
economically active population.
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Malawi‟s agricultural sector is characterized by a dualistic structure: A low input/low
productivity smallholder sector and high input/high productivity estate sector. The
smallholder sub-sector comprises a very large number of small-scale farmers
growing mainly food crops for their own consumption but they also grow some cash
crops such as coffee, tobacco, macadamia and cotton. The estate sector comprises a
much smaller number of large-scale farmers, producing almost entirely for the
export market. In 2001, the cultivated area was about 2.34 million ha (25 percent of
the land area) with just over half occupied by agricultural estates.
The main food crop is maize, which accounts for nearly 90 percent of the cultivated
land, supplemented by sorghum, millet, pulses, rice, root crops, vegetables and
fruits. Industrial export crops grown by smallholders include cotton, rice,
groundnuts, coffee, macadamia and tobacco. The main estate-grown crops are
tobacco, coffee, tea and sugar. Malawi is the second largest producer of tobacco in
Africa after Zimbabwe.
Food demand in Malawi has been increasing steadily because of the absolute
increase in population. In addition, droughts like the one of 1991/92, partially of
1996/97 and 2001/02 cause low yields and countrywide crop failures. The country is
currently not able to meet its food requirements, particularly in cereals. The reasons
for the food deficits are:
The failure of food production to keep pace with increases in the human
population;
Lack of water (droughts) and inability to use it for agricultural production;
Declining soil fertility, combined with shrinking average farm holdings;
Inappropriate and outdated agricultural technologies;
The perception by many that maize is the only food when other types of
cereals that are more adapted to drought are available.
Past food production increases were achieved through expansion of the cultivated
area. However, because of the increasing shortage of land and the small size of the
family holding, this is no longer a viable option. Given the relatively low rainfall in
parts of the country and its monomodal pattern, the potential for increased
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production through higher cropping intensities is severely limited without some form
of irrigation. Increased irrigation, particularly in the smallholder sub-sector, is
therefore essential for increased crop production.
According to the National Statistics Office (2008), Malawi‟s current population is
approximately 13,066,320 people, up from 9.9 million in 1998, representing an
overall population increase of 32% that is growing at the rate of 2.8% per annum,
up from 2.0% in 1998. Malawi is regarded among the most densely populated
countries in the world with a population density of 139 person‟s km-2 in 2008, up
from 105 km-2 in 1998. The spatial population distribution in the country indicates
that 45%, 42% and 13% of the people live in the country‟s administrative regions of
south, centre and north respectively. Women and men comprise 51% and 49% of
the population, respectively which is the same as reported for the 1998 Population
and Housing Census Report (NSO, 2002; 2008). The population of the 18 years and
above age-group is 6,216,432, of whom 3,200,000 are females. The overall average
life expectancy is 37 years, which is very low even by African standards.
It is estimated that by end-2001, 15 percent of adults (15-49 years old) in Malawi
were living with HIV/AIDS. The high prevalence of HIV/AIDS has resulted in
increased infant mortality and death rates and in changes in the distribution pattern
of population in terms of age and sex. The 1998 population census revealed a
noticeable drop in the population growth rate, as compared to the projections made
on the basis of the 1987 population census.
Malawi is among the most rapidly urbanising countries in the world. According to a
study released by the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) in
2004, Malawi was in fact first among the most rapidly urbanising countries in the
world, with an urban population growth rate of 6.3%. Statistics published by UN
Habitat estimate that there were 1,101,000 people living in urban areas in Malawi in
1990. This figure is projected to grow to 2,691,000 people by 2010, representing a
144.4% increase in just 20 years. An unprecedented 25.1% of the national
population (i.e. 4,188,000 people) is projected to live in urban areas by 2020 (UN-
Habitat 2008).
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Malawi still remains one of the poorest countries in the world. Malawi ranks 160th out
of 182 countries in the Human Development Index and in 2009, almost half the
population lived in poverty. According to the UN Human Development Report for
2009, about 75% of the population still lives below the income poverty line of
US$1.25 a day and 90% below US$2 a day threshold.
The proportion of the poor is highest in rural areas of the southern and northern
parts of the country. Access to assets, services and economic opportunities is
unequal across the population. Larger households are likely to be poor most
especially those with many children. Access to education is highly inequitable as
well. Almost 30% of poor children do not start primary school even though it is free.
Access to markets and financial services is also restricted especially for smallholder
farmers. Only 12% of the households have got access to credit. Poor diversification
of economic activities results into underemployment. The rural poor are unable to
diversify out of agriculture which is the major economic activity with more than a
third of the rural households depending on it.
A key challenge is rural versus urban per capita spending on water, sanitation and
hygiene (WASH) activities, which reflects a less than equitable share being spent in
rural areas where more than 80% of the population lives. This is particularly the
case for sanitation, which has been neglected in terms of political leadership and in
financing. A 2005 WaterAid report notes that only 3% of the 2005/06 budget was
spent on water and sanitation, and of this only 2.5% was spent on sanitation, with
the remaining 97.5% spent on water. Even with this focus on water, the
Government of Malawi (GoM) has not dedicated funds for operations and
maintenance of the many village based water facilities. The rural subsector also
suffers lack of coordination of investment funds. In 2008, a National Sanitation
Policy was approved, however it is unclear whether this will attract much needed
funding, since limited funds and lack of political interest are the likely causes for
neglecting sanitation.
While policies and legislation surrounding urban water exist, a lack of enforcement
has led to critical gaps for urban populations. The cities of Lilongwe and Blantyre
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each have their own Water Boards responsible for water supply however the Water
Boards in these cities are unable to recover operating costs from user fees. Efforts to
enhance revenue collection are being made, for example through extensive metering
and Water Boards have received increased capacity strengthening over recent years,
in part to boost cost recovery. A new model tested by Lilongwe‟s Water Board for
water kiosks is proving promising and may be tested in other urban areas. The
challenge, however, is that the urban poor cannot afford the prices and as such seek
alternative means such as shallow wells or rivers that are contaminated from point
and non-point sources of pollution. The Water Users Association (WUA) ensures
water availability in urban areas and has been successful in revenue collection, in
addition to engaging service contractors for Water Boards in the bigger cities. WUAs
have also resulted in improved maintenance of community water infrastructure.
Hydrology/Hydrogeology of Malawi
Malawi is generally considered
to be relatively rich in water
resources, which are stored in
the form of lakes, rivers and
aquifers. The country is
divided into 17 Water
Resources Areas (WRAs),
which are subdivided into 78
WRUs (Figure 2). The Lake
Malawi and Chilwa basins are
the two major drainage
systems in the country. The
Lake Malawi system, which is
part of the Zambezi River
basin, dominates the
hydrology of the country. This
system represents 91 percent
of the country and fully Figure 2. WRA’s of Malawi Source: Kumambala (2010)
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located in the Zambezi River basin. The Shire River is the only outlet of Lake Malawi
and has an average flow of 400 m3/s. The Lake experiences mean annual rainfall of
1549 mm. Total annual inflows into the lake amount to 920 m3/s of which 400 m3/s
are from Malawi; 486 m3/s from Tanzania and 41 m3/s from Mozambique (42.6%,
52.9%, 4.5% respectively). The Shire River is Lake Malawi‟s only outlet and has
mean outflow of 395 m3/s. The highest annual outflow was 825 m3/s recorded in
1979/80 whereas the highest monthly outflow of 963 m3/s was recorded in May
1980., with lake levels above a high of 477.2 m above sea level resulting in
widespread flooding a along the lake shore (Parry and Burton 2009). A prolonged
period of drought between 1915 and 1937 resulted in no outflow for the 22 years.
Lake levels are controlled at Kamuzu barrage, located 72 km downstream, mainly to
ensure hydropower generation supply, whose minimum is set at 100 m3/s (Shela
2000).
The Lake Chilwa system, which is shared
with Mozambique, is an endorheic basin
occupying the low lying Phalombe-Chilwa
plain. The lake drains rivers originating
from the eastern slopes of the Shire
Highlands, the Zomba Plateau and the
northern slopes of the Mulanje Massif.
The Lake is shallow with levels not
exceeding 6 meters at peak water level
(Njaya 2001). The lake is very prone to
drying up in years with low rainfall, the
recent being in 1995.
Malawi‟s hydrogeology is characterized by
two main types of aquifers (Figure 3):
The Precambrian weathered
basement complex, which is extensive
but low yielding (up to 2 l/s);
The quaternary alluvial aquifers of the
Figure 3. Malawi’s Hydrolithological
Units Source: Chimphamba et al (2009)
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lakeshore plains and the Lower Shire valley, which are high yielding (up to 20
l/s).
Malawi‟s total renewable water resources are estimated at 17.28 km3/yr (Table 2).
From this, 16.14 km3/yr are produced internally, while about 1 km3/yr comes from
Mozambique via the Ruo River and 0.14 km3/yr is from a lake shared with
Mozambique along the course of the Shire River. Almost all of the internal
groundwater resources of 1.4 km3/yr are thought to be drained by the rivers, as
Malawi is a humid, enclosed country. Water resource distribution is highly variable
both seasonally and geographically, as nearly 90 percent of the runoff in major
rivers occurs between December and June.
Malawi is rich in wetlands, which include lakes, rivers, many reservoirs spread over
the country, and marshes. The most important marshes are the Elephant and Ndindi
marshes in the Lower Shire Valley, the Vwaza Marsh in the Rumphi district, and the
Chia Lagoon in Nkhotakota. The major wetlands of Lake Malawi and Lake Chilwa are
closely monitored under the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance,
especially as Waterfowl Habitat (commonly referred to as RAMSAR Convention) and
UN biodiversity conventions.
Renewable Water Resources Total Units
Precipitation 140 109m3/yr
Total actual internal renewable water resources 17.28 109m3/yr
Total actual renewable water resources per inhabitant
1,401 m3/yr
Total dam capacity 43 106m3
Total water withdrawal 1,005 106m3/yr
Major water users in the country are the municipal sector, irrigation, hydropower,
industry, navigation, recreation and tourism, fisheries and biodiversity. Water
withdrawal for agricultural and municipal purposes has increased over the last
decade as a result of socio-economic development and population growth.
Agriculture/irrigation is still by far the major water-withdrawing sector, accounting
Table 2. Water Sources and Use Source: Food and Agricultural Organisation (FAO) (2005)
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for over 81% of the total withdrawals, and is followed by the municipal water supply
with 15% and industry with about 5% (FAO, 2005). However, an updated and
comprehensive water resources and water use information database is not available
in the country.
Major Water Management Issues
Malawi has made significant progress on water supply with over 74% of the people
having over two and half million people remain without safe drinking water. The key
challenges and threats facing the water and sanitation sector include the
degradation of water resources, flood management, water demand management,
hydropower generation, drought management, catchment management, stakeholder
coordination, water resources management systems, unharmonised policies,
inadequate service coverage, inadequate financing, increasing water demand as a
result of increasing population, HIV and AIDS prevalence, insufficient capacity, lack
of integrated approach to water resources management and development, climate
change and climate variability, lack of mitigation measures for water related
disasters and inadequate promotion of hygiene and sanitation (National Water Policy
2008; Laisi 2008). According to Laisi (2008), principal of these challenges are
unharmonised policies and laws, inadequate stakeholder coordination, poor
catchment management, inadequate water supply and sanitation and capacity
building.
Water is critical, but often overlooked element in sustainable development of Malawi.
According to Mkandawire et al (2008), water management in Malawi has been the
responsibility of various institutions (Public, Private, NGOs etc). Effective, long lasting
solutions to water problems require a new water governance and management
paradigm using the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) concept,
which was fully embraced by Malawi as stated in the National Water Policy (2008).
IWRM explicitly challenges conventional, fractional water development and
management systems and places emphasis on integrated approach with more
coordinated decision making across sectors and scales. Recognising that exclusively
top-down, supply led, technically based and sectoral approaches to water
management are imposing unsustainably high economic, social and ecological costs
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on human societies and on the natural environment. The development of the
national IWRM in Malawi, as outlined by Mkandawire et al (2008), was a very
consultative process involving various stakeholders and started in 2004. Key
stakeholders consulted include cross-section of stakeholders such as the GoM, non-
governmental organisations (NGOs), private sector, civil society, community
representatives, the media, academics and research communities.
According to Laisi (2008), presentation indicated plans on mainstreaming of the
IWRM into the development of the nation. The plans stated that strategies should:
Recognize the role and importance of stakeholders
Solicit buy-in from institution and organisations
Build commitment to the reform process
Arrange for an implementation framework
Put in place a monitoring and evaluation framework
Ownership of the government
Various NGOs are involved in water resources management and related projects in
Malawi. WaterAid began work in Malawi in November 1999 and projects are now
under way in four rural areas: Salima, Machinga, Mzimba, and Nkhotakota, with one
urban project in Lilongwe to improve level of sanitation and hygiene. WaterAid works
in partnership with district governments, local NGOs, churches and a public water
utility company. An ongoing national water point mapping project, in which WaterAid
has been involved, indicates that only 57% of the rural population have access to
safe water in comparison to 90% of the urban population. Access to sanitation is
considerably lower with only 15% to 30% of the rural population having access to a
latrine.
On the other hand, UNDP, FAO and WASH initiatives are involved in the water
management issues of the whole country. Considerable progress has been made
across the WASH sector in Malawi, establishing the required policies, strategies and
plans to move forward. However, prioritisation of water over sanitation has led to
the sanitation subsector being neglected and lagging behind MDG targets. Strategic
sanitation planning is still needed. Barriers to progress in the WASH sector include
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financial, managerial and technical capacity limitations at all levels. With regard to
urban areas, Malawi is making excellent progress in access to basic sanitation
(compared to other sub-Saharan countries) which is reported to meet the needs of
98% of the urban population. In practice, Malawi‟s urban areas suffer a chronic lack
of proper disposal of sanitary waste, with only 10% of Blantyre‟s population and 8%
of Lilongwe‟s population connected to sewers, while as of 2009, Mzuzu (another
large town) had no sewers at all.
Main Policy and Strategy Documents, Communication Channels
and Media Links to Water Issues
In recent years, Malawi has undertaken a number of reforms in the water sector.
These reforms are driven by the desire to meet changing national and international
needs and priorities. The reforms include new water policies and legislation,
decentralisation of government functions and efforts to harmonise policies in the
natural resources area. These reforms have not only exerted pressure on the already
understaffed government departments but they have also called for a re-orientation
of staff in order to make them conversant with emerging issues and trends.
The vision of Malawi‟s new national water policy is “water and sanitation for all,
always” and seeks to provide every Malawian with “equitable access to water and
sanitation services for sustainable socio-economic development of the country”
(GOM, 2004). This is a big challenge for Malawi given the country‟s economic
problems and the uneven distribution of water resources. In 2003, the Ministry of
Water Development came up with a strategy paper which outlines plans for the
implementation of its policies and programmes between 2003-2006 (GOM, 2003).
The Government has established a National Water Development Policy, and there is
an ongoing water development project to get good and clean water to the rural
community, upgrading management of water resources and the provision of water
related services.
Areas receiving attention in policy and strategy formulation are
23 | P a g e
Integrated Water Resources Development and Management which will involve
integrated catchment management, thus developing water resources and
managing water taking into account the interactions among water and social
and economic development;
Protection of water resources, water resources and aquatic resources;
Drinking water supply and sanitation,
Water and sustainable urban development;
Water for sustainable food production and rural development and
Impacts of climate change on water resources.
Within the National Water Development Policy, the Malawi Government is keen on
bringing on board communities, water boards, local authorities, the private sector,
NGOs and government line agencies in the areas of forestry, agriculture, national
parks and local governments to address the issue of integrated management of
water resources and drinking water supply and sanitation in the country with full
community participation.
Looking at water allocation according to WASH (2011), urban water supply has only
increased from 90% to 95% since 1990, despite receiving significant infrastructure
investments. This is primarily due to service providers‟ inability to keep up with the
rapid urbanisation, together with inadequate maintenance. Of the 2% of the total
population with access to piped water inside their dwelling, most (70%) live in urban
areas. Rural access to water supply has increased considerably from 33% in 1990 to
77% in 2008. Inequities in service provision of both water and sanitation are openly
acknowledged by GoM and particularly relate to improved sanitation, with coverage
ranging between 12% and 90% in different districts.
Other inequities relate to gender and education levels. Female headed households,
of which there are many due to the prevalence of HIV/AIDS, report a lower level of
access, as do households where the household head has a low level of education.
From 2006-2009, the SADC Regional Water Sector Programme, supported by Danish
International Development agency (DANIDA), has piloted a new approach to water
services through IWRM Demonstration Projects in five countries, including Malawi.
Through „learning by doing‟, a new scalable integrated water services approach was
24 | P a g e
developed, called Local-Level IWRM (or community-based IWRM, or community-
based multiple-use water services). This approach focuses on water resource
management at the lowest appropriate levels, users‟ participation, the inclusion of
women, and financial and environmental sustainability. In these areas, poor people‟s
agrarian livelihoods depend in many ways upon water, but water services levels are
still very low. The participatory approach invariably identified improved access to
water to better meet multiple domestic and productive water needs as highest
priority. Hence, Local-level IWRM was defined as
a water services approach that takes poor people‟s multiple water needs
and their priorities as starting point of the planning and design of new
infrastructure or rehabilitation and sustainable management institutions.
The bottom-up approach has resulted into the communities being more active and
aware on the usage and protection of water resources. It gives them a sense of
ownership which is a single most important aspect of sustainability. By recognizing
and building upon all existing technical and institutional capital in a community both
ownership and sustainability are enhanced at lesser costs than if parallel processes
for infrastructure development for single uses were undertaken.
The media is responsible for the education and awareness of issues of water in the
country. Most notable are on-air programmes on the radio which is far reaching
compared to all other mediums like television, reading materials and the internet. In
recent years, the media has portrayed water issues to be the responsibility of every
citizen in Malawi. However, the government is still seen to be the key player in the
sector followed by NGOs.
25 | P a g e
Water Services and Resources Management Institutional
Settings
The Ministry of Irrigation and Water Development (MoIWD) has the overall
responsibility of managing the water resources. The institutional set up of Ministry is
shown in Figure 4.
The Ministry is headed by the Principal Secretary (PS). The four technical
departments are headed by Directors. The Water Resources Department is
subdivided into Surface Water, Ground Water and Water Quality Sections which are
headed by Deputy Directors. The Water Supply Department is further subdivided
into Operation and Maintenance and Planning and Construction Divisions.
Water supply is decentralized and achieved through five water boards: Blantyre and
Lilongwe Water Boards are responsible for the two large cities with the rest of the
country being supplied by Northern, Central and Southern Region Water Boards.
These Water Boards primarily report to the Water Supply Department. There are
however plans to split the Southern Water Board into two thereby forming the
Eastern Region Water Board. The Water Boards are however poorly capacitated and
Figure 4.
26 | P a g e
reported to be in dire need of restructuring, investment planning and improvements
to achieve efficiency. Local governments also hold some responsibility for water
planning and coordination and some confusion exists regarding conflicting roles of
Water Boards and local governments.
Malawi‟s experience with infrastructure provision gives rise to questions of private
sector participation in infrastructure development. In this regard with funding from
the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) has conducted a
study examining the possibilities of allowing private sector participation in
infrastructure development through various modes like Build-Own-Operate or Build-
Operate-Transfer.
The water tariff structure as in 2000 for two of the water boards are shown in table
3.
According to the Ministry of Finance, in the years 2005 to 2010, USAID was the
largest donor, accounting for 43% of all donor funds committed for water and
sanitation projects in Malawi. The multilateral institutions such as African
development Bank and the World Bank, have also committed considerable resources
to water and sanitation. In the period 2007-2010 donor disbursement were 30% of
the total commitments. There was considerable variation amongst the donors with
some of the smaller donors such as Canada, Finland, Iceland and Germany
disbursing as much if not more than their commitments. On the other hand the USA,
the major donor to the WASH sector, had the lowest ratio of disbursements to
commitments at 18% over the four year period. The EU and OPEC, did not disburse
funds despite making commitments to do so. In the case of EU, the main reason for
Consumption charges Quantity Rates
LILONGWE First 100 cubic metres US $ 0.64 per cu. metre
In excess of 100 cubic metres US $ 0.82 per cu. metre
First 10 cubic metres US $ 3.78 per cu. metre
BLANTYRE Up to 30 cubic metres US $ 0.75 per cu. metre
Over 30 cubic Metres US $ 0.88 per cu. metre
Table 3. Water Tariffs as of April, 2000
27 | P a g e
the delay in disbursements was the delay by the government in appointments of
directors of water boards, a condition for release of the funds.
International Corporation Partners (ICPs) is supporting 15 countries in the SADC
region despite the level of their intervention (e.g. one river basin) according to the
SADC RSAP III. The partnership between SADC and its ICPs is guided by the
Windhoek Declaration adopted in April 2006, in which areas of cooperation identified
were HIV/AIDS; water; capacity building; agriculture and food security; trade;
industry; finance and investment; energy; and transport. The EC is the lead donor in
the Joint SADC-ICPs Task Force, whose primary objective is to improve coordination
between ICPs and the SADC Secretariat. The European Investment Bank, the World
Bank, USAID, the UK, the EC and the African Development Bank (AfDB) are major
donors to SADC and COMESA programmes. The Bank closely coordinates with other
ICPs and specialized agencies when implementing its activities.
Existing and Planned Water Infrastructure
Water supply in Malawi is governed by the Water Resources Act, the Blantyre Water
Works Act and the Lilongwe Water Works Act. The overall authority on national
water resources management is the Ministry of Irrigation and Water Development.
Water supply constraints largely stem from huge debts accumulated by the water
providers while at the same time having uncollected funds. The water sector
therefore needs comprehensive and speedy reforms of the water providers to ensure
effective debt collection and hence availability of investment funds. The sector also
may ensure the availability of adequate quantities of water through the construction
of adequate dams and water reservoirs.
There are nine major dams with a height of more than 12 m and with a total storage
of slightly over 43 million m3 (Table 4). They have been constructed mainly for
municipal water supply, except for two that were constructed in the 1950s near
Blantyre for hydroelectric purposes. In addition there are 700,750 small dams with a
storage capacity of approximately 64 million m3, most of which were built during the
colonial period and are in various states of disrepair. Due to lack of maintenance
28 | P a g e
over a long period, most of these small dams require major rehabilitation. Currently
the government has embarked on the rehabilitation of some of these small dams
through various programs as part of the national water conservation strategy.
According to the Water Resources Board, any dam with a dam height of 4.5 m and
above is classified as a large dam; for that reason, dam design reports and drawings
have to be available for technical consideration when a water right application is
processed.
A great part of Malawi‟s water resources, such as Lake Malawi, Lake Chilwa, Lake
Chiuta, and Shire, Ruo and Songwe Rivers are shared with the neighboring countries
of Mozambiqueand the United Republic of Tanzania as trans-boundary and cross-
boundary waters. So far, no major conflicts have arisen over the utilization of these
resources. However, in order to avoid potential conflicts, Malawi is signatory to a
number of international treaties and conventions, including the SADC Protocol on
Shared Watercourses and the 1997 UN Convention of Non-navigational Uses of
International Waters.
On a bilateral level, Malawi is implementing a project for the stabilization of the
Songwe River course jointly with the United Republic of Tanzania, through the
Malawi/United Republic of Tanzania Joint Permanent Commission of Cooperation
Table 4. Existing Large Dams in Malawi Source: Kumambala (2010)
29 | P a g e
(JPCC). The agreement on the establishment of a Joint Water Commission between
Malawi and Mozambique was signed in November, 2003. With Lake Malawi and the
Shire River system being a sub-basin of the Zambezi watercourse, Malawi actively
participates in the Zambezi Watercourse Commission (ZAMCOM), which was signed
by the eight riparian member states of the Zambezi River Basin in July 2004 in
Kasanne, Botswana. Within the SADC region, Malawi is part of other initiatives such
as the Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) initiative and the FAO-
supported Convention on the Management of Lake Malawi/Nyasa for Sustainable
Development. This indicates that the Malawi government is taking an initiative in the
protection of the ecosystem.
Even though Malawi has taken steps to support the function of its shared water
resources, the SADC RSAP III states much needs to be done to consolidate the role
of River Basin Organisations (RBOs) and strengthen their capacity to carry out that
role. The SADC Water Division in RBO development will diminish as RBOs get
established and strengthened. RBOs are not only accountable to their respective
states and funding agencies but also to the entire region. Every year RBOs have to
report their progress and performance to the SADC Ministers of Water. This provides
for accountability and responsibility in the basin management.
Water Resources R & D & Science and Technology Institutions-
(Staffing, Facilities & Funding)
INSTITUTION COURSES STUDENT LEVELS
Chancellor College
Hydrology, Geology, Land
& Water Resource Use,
EIA, Environmental
Sciences, Biomonitoring,
Wastewater Management
Expertise to teach
specialized
Courses over 1000
students
List of Institutions Related To Water R&D
30 | P a g e
Mzuzu University
Climatology, Hydrology,
Geology, Meteorology,
Hydrogeology
Expertise to teach
specialized
Courses over 1000
students
Natural Resources
College
Irrigation,Water
Management,
Urban Environmental
Management, CBNRM, Soil
&Water Conservation
Expertise to teach water
related courses, over
1000 students
Malawi
Polytechnic
Geology, Hydrology, Water
and
Waste Water Engineering,
Environmental
Engineering,
Public Health Engineering
Environmental, Chemistry
Laboratory Technicians
Expertise to teach
specialized
Courses over 1000
students
Bunda College of
Agriculture
Agriculture
Soil and Water
Conservation,Irrigation
Engineering
Expertise to teach water
related course, over 1500
students
Ministry of Irrigation and
Water Development
Plumbing, Water Pollution,
Water
Blantyre and Lilongwe
Water Board; Southern ,
Central and
Northern Region Water
Boards
Water supply to piped
areas
According to Mulwafu & Mkandawire (2008), it has long been recognised that
Malawi, like most countries in the southern African region, lacks capacity in various
aspects of the water sector. The situation has recently been exacerbated by a
combination of several factors. First, the enactment of the decentralisation policy in
1999 requires a lot of personnel at the lower levels of government. Many of the
functions that used to be handled at central government will now be dealt with at
district level (GoM, 1998). However, a major constraint to the effective performance
of district assemblies is the lack of human and financial capacity. In the water sector
there is lack of adequately trained personnel to effectively manage water resources
in the newly established district assemblies.
31 | P a g e
The challenge that is hindering the progress on water resources R&D in Malawi is
due to the fact that most institutions are under-staffed and lack appropriate training
to equip staff with high levels of skill. Student enrolment into water related courses
is also poor. It is a challenge to send students to placements into institutions where
they can gain exposure. This is largely due to a lack of funding to provide allowances
for the student to attend such programmes.
Financing
The GoM obtains funding from a variety of sources such as EU, International Union
for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN), World Bank, United Nations Children‟s Rights
and Emergency Relief Organization (UNICEF), Japan‟s Official Development
Assistance (ODA) and Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (NORAD) for
water supply and sanitation programmes, water policy and legislation, education,
integrated management and conservation campaigns.
Documented Water Sector Capacity Development Needs
Assessment
According to WASH (2011), one of the outlined statements stated that even though
the levels of investment into infrastructure have improved, the rate of water service
provision is still poor. The supply does not satisfy the need.
Despite efforts of the 2005 Water Policy, the Ministry of Irrigation and Water
Development (MoIWD) is reported to be weak and understaffed ‐ in 2008 the
MoIWD had a core staff vacancy rate of 66%, while for support staff it was 22%.
Decentralisation is underway, with Ministry of Local Government (MoLG) tasked with
following through changes at the District Assembly level. District Assemblies (DAs)
are responsible for water and sanitation services. Relatively soon after the National
Sanitation Policy was developed, some DAs developed District Strategy and
Implementation Plans (DSIPs), indicating some preliminary progress in the sector.
However, District Water Offices (which are a component of DAs) are also severely
32 | P a g e
lacking capacity. At the village level, Village Water Committees (VWCs) are expected
to manage the operation and maintenance of a village‟s pumps, with minor repairs
the financial responsibility of the local community.
Success of policies depends on resources, skills and technical expertise of the
responsible institutions. Hence there is need for institutions to be appropriately
structured and provided with a legislative and administrative framework which
promotes efficiency (Aquaknow, 2013). In Malawi this has been promoted by the
introduction of decentralisation and updating regulatory frameworks.
The capacity of institutions should be enhanced by means of human
resources development training as well as material and financial support.
There is also need to establish mechanisms for intersector liaison and co-
ordination, to equitable allocation of water resources between competing
users.
Foster the establishment of sector programmes by the government through
the sector–wide approach
Monitoring equity and poverty indicators management approaches and
strategies to be equitable, gender sensitive and pro poor.
Capacity Development Needs in the Nation
For maximum input to reach all the developmental goals and to achieve all the
policies put forward, there is a need to improve technology. If the communication of
ideas would be more efficient, it might lead to more efficiency in the service
provision. However, to achieve that, extensive funding is needed to bring all those
departments together that work with water and coordinate their activities.
Water sector reforms have been initiated to achieve government‟s goal to improve
the accessibility of water to every individual in the country, to reduce public
expenditure, and to increase stakeholder participation as well as to conform to
international trends in water resources management. Central to the overall water
reform process is institutional reform, which has seen the creation of various policies
and structures to promote IWRM. But implementation of these institutional reforms
is beset by a number of problems, including the lack of human and financial capacity
33 | P a g e
and the uncoordinated implementation of water reform and decentralisation policies
in the country. While the need for technical personnel is greatly required, it is also
important to compliment that with mid-level to high level managerial training. This is
critical for effective policy formulation and implementation. There is need to acquaint
management staff with knowledge of IWRM and other national and international
goals and objectives such as the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) and the
MDGs (UNDP, 2003; Mulwafu & Msosa, 2005; GoM, 2002).
Relation of the Country Situation to the SADC RSAP III
Processes & Any Specific Actions Being Undertaken
The SADC RSAP III talks about shared water courses. An important vehicle of
implementing this policy is the existence of a well functioning RBO mandated by the
protocol and operating under sound legislation, as well as systems to involve
stakeholders in the planning processes (SADC, 2005).
According to the SADC RSAP III, the individual, organisational and institutional
capacities of RBOs are strengthened to improve the sustainable, equitable and
efficient management of shared water courses.
Key activities include:
a) Facilitation of meetings and negotiations between states that share a water
course,
b) Provision of strategic guidance and sharing of best practices,
c) Facilitation of the establishment and strengthening of basin-wide Secretariats.
A great part of Malawi‟s water resources, such as Lake Malawi, Lake Chilwa, Lake
Chiuta, and Shire, Ruo and Songwe Rivers are shared with the neighbouring
countries of Mozambique and the United Republic of Tanzania as transboundary and
crossboundary waters. So far, no major conflicts have arisen over the utilization of
these resources. However, in order to avoid potential conflicts, Malawi is signatory to
a number of international treaties and conventions, including the SADC Protocol on
Shared Watercourses and the 1997 UN Convention of Non-navigational Uses of
International Waters.
34 | P a g e
At a bilateral level, Malawi is implementing a project for the stabilization of the
Songwe River course jointly with the United Republic of Tanzania, through the
Malawi/the United Republic of Tanzania JPCC, and is negotiating with Mozambique
for the establishment of a Joint Water Commission. With Lake Malawi and the Shire
River system being a sub-basin of the Zambezi watercourse, Malawi is actively
participating in the on-going negotiations for the establishment of the ZAMCOM.
Within the SADC region, Malawi is part of other initiatives such as the SIDA initiative
and the FAO-supported Convention on the Management of Lake Malawi/Nyasa for
Sustainable Development.
35 | P a g e
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