counselors in texas public schools - the texas … counseling and guidance is rapidly program...

Counselors inTexas Public Schools

Every effort should be made to relieve counselors of extraneous tasksso that they may appropriately meet their responsibilities to consultand counsel with students as to their individual educational needs,goals, and aims.

State Board of Education rules ongeneral responsibilities of school districts

(Texas Administrative Code, Title 19, Part II, §75.2)

The Texas Education Agency conduct a statewide survey of a involved in a cooperative research(TEA) recently concluded a five-year representative sample of public schoolproject with the Southern Regionalinvestigation of the effects of educa- counselors. The survey will focus on Education Board (SREB) to develop ation reform on students identified as the role of the counselor and include behavioral model of educator supplyat risk of school failure. Among other questions about the counselor’s and demand for Texas and the south-findings, the study revealed discrepan-current duties, the appropriate role of ern region of the United States. Thecies between the role of the school the counselor, and the staffing needs SREB is integrating data gatheredcounselor as envisioned in state and of guidance programs. The survey from state agencies in each state tonational models of counseling and will also explore the topics of job follow prospective educators from theguidance programs and the stress and staff development needs. time they enter college through theircounselor’s actual duties as reported in professional careers. A separatethe field. In case studies, students and During the next phase of the analysis of counselor supply andschool staff consistently expressed study, staff will conduct intensive casedemand will be produced as part offrustration over the lack of time studies at a small number of districts. the joint TEA/SREB project. Aavailable for counseling and guidanceThe case studies will incorporate longitudinal analysis of Public Educa-services. Teachers reported they oftenindividual and focus group interviews tion Information Management Systemcounseled students because counselorswith counselors, teachers, principals, (PEIMS) data will provide additionalwere too busy — burdened with tasksstudents, and possibly parents. Focusinformation related to topics such asunrelated to guidance. Counselors group interviews are conducted in a mobility of counselors.confirmed that extraneous duties, discussion setting that allows interac-especially those related to paperwork tion between group members as well Guidance Programsand testing, prevented them from as with the interviewer. Through anadequately satisfying the demand for in-depth study of a few sites, the role Published as a model by TEA incounseling services. of the counselor will be examined 1990, the Comprehensive Guidance

within the broader context of the entireProgram for Texas Public SchoolsAs the student population grows educational program and school-widedescribes four components of the

more diverse and the challenges staffing configurations. The case comprehensive guidance program:students face more complex, the needstudies will also explore indicators of a guidance curriculum, responsivefor counseling and guidance is rapidlyprogram success. services, an individual planningincreasing. This report introduces a system, and system support. Thetwo-year study of counseling and The final phase of the study will guidance curriculum provides studentsguidance programs in Texas public look at data related to supply and information and instruction related toschools. In September 1994, TEA willdemand of counselors. TEA is skills needed in everyday life. AreasPolicy Research Report (Continued on page 3) Policy Research Report

Policy Research Report

Responsive Services: Addresses immediateconcerns of students.

System Support: Includes program and staffsupport activities and services.

Components Role of the Counselor

Guidance: Teach the school developmentalguidance curriculum.

Assist teachers in the teaching of guidancerelated curriculum.

Counseling: Counsel with students individuallyabout their concerns.

Counsel with small groups of students abouttheir concerns.

Use accepted theories and techniques appropriateto school counseling.

Consultation: Consult with parents, teachers,administrators, and other relevant individuals toenhance their work with students.

Coordination: Coordinate with school and community personnel to bring together resources for students.

Use an effective referral process to help studentsand others use special programs and services.

Assessment: Use student data other than test andappraisal results appropriately for assessment purposes.

Guidance: Guide individuals and groups of students through the development of educational, career, and personal plans.

Consultation: Consult with parents, teachers,administrators, and other relevant individuals toenhance their work with students.

Assessment: Interpret test and other appraisalresults appropriately.

Program Management: Plan, implement, andevaluate a comprehensive program of guidance,including counseling services.

Supervise activities of clerical, paraprofessional,and volunteer personnel.

Assessment: Help plan and evaluate the district/ campus group standardized testing program.

Guidance Curriculum: Provides guidancecontent in a systematic way to all students.

Individual Planning: Helps students monitor and understand their own development.

Components of a Comprehensive School Guidance Program and Roles of the Counselor


addressed in the curriculum includeself-esteem development, problemsolving skills, and communicationskills.

Responsive services addressimmediate academic and relationshipconcerns of students, as well asstudent misbehavior and dropoutprevention. The individual planningsystem helps students monitor andunderstand their own development andto plan and set goals. System supportincludes guidance program develop-ment and counselor professionaldevelopment, consultation withteachers and administrators, parenteducation, and school improvementplanning.

The comprehensive guidanceprogram is a program for all students,not just those identified as at risk offailure, and it is a developmental andpreventive program. Through coordi-nation with teachers, administrators,and other school staff the guidanceprogram is integrated into the educa-tion program. Through coordinationwith school and community services,counselors bring together resources forstudents and use an effective referralprocess to assist students. As develop-mental specialists counselors recog-nize students’ needs and see that thoseneeds are met, but are not necessarilythe individuals who deliver all ser-vices.

Role of the Counselor

As presented in the table on page2, the TEA model outlines six basicroles of the counselor: guidance,counseling, consultation, coordination,assessment, and program management.In their guidance role, counselorsteach and assist instructors who teachthe guidance curriculum and helpstudents develop educational, career,and personal plans. Counselors useaccepted theories and appropriatetechniques to counsel with individualsand small groups of students abouttheir immediate concerns. Counselors

also consult with parents, teachers,administrators, representatives ofyouth and social service organizations,and other members of the communityto better address students’ immediateconcerns and assist them with indi-vidual planning.

Counselors coordinate withschool and community personnel tobring together resources for studentsand refer students to special programsand services. Counselors help planand evaluate the campus testingprogram as well as interpret resultsand use other sources of student datafor assessment purposes. In theirprogram management role, counselorsplan, implement, and evaluate coun-seling and guidance programs andsupervise staff.

The Texas model for a compre-hensive school guidance programincludes counselor professionaldevelopment as part of the systemsupport component. Professionaldevelopment has a prominent placein the American School CounselorAssociation model. Professionaldevelopment includes staff develop-ment and the continuous learningnecessary to be a developmentalspecialist. It might also includeenhancing research skills and keepingup to date with important develop-ments in the counseling field.

According to the comprehensiveguidance model, counselors’ focus onthe four components of the guidanceprogram should shift depending on thedevelopmental level of the students onthe campus. For example, as Chart 1shows, the guidance curriculumshould receive more attention inelementary and middle school. Asstudents get older, counselors shouldplace more emphasis on individualplanning. The actual amount of timespent on each program is determinedat the campus level by the counselorand principal in conjunction withteachers, parents, and others based onan assessment of the needs on thecampus.

Texas Policy Overview

Texas state laws and State Boardof Education (SBOE) rules related toguidance programs and counselors inpublic schools changed very little inthe decades preceding the 1990s. In1990 the Texas Legislature directedthe SBOE to conduct a sunset reviewof all existing Texas EducationAgency (TEA) rules. The sunsetlegislation included a three-yearschedule specifying when each rulewould become void and the SBOEwould need to adopt new rules. Thatreview process set in motion a seriesof changes that continues to affectguidance policy.

As students get older, the emphasis on the individual planning and systemsupport components of the guidance program increases.

ComponentElementary

Schools Middle/Junior High Schools

High Schools

Guidance Curricula 35% - 45% 35% - 40% 15% - 25%Responsive Services 30% - 40% 30% - 40% 25% - 35%Individual Planning 5% - 10% 15% - 25% 25% - 35%

System Support 10% - 15% 10% - 15% 15% - 20%Non-Guidance 0% 0% 0%

Chart 1Recommended Time Distribution

Across Components of the Comprehensive Guidance Program

(Continued from page 1)


Chart 2Requirements for Counselor Certification in Texas

Professional Counselor Certificate • Bachelor’s degree • Texas teacher certificate, special education

certificate, or vocational certificate that requires a bachelor’s degree

• Three years of teaching experience • 30 semester hour graduate program in counseling

that includes (1) three semester hours in the guidance program; (2) six semester hours related to the pupil served: intensive study that develops an understanding

of the physical, intellectual, social, and emotional development of children and youth, and influences

of the school program on development; and (3) 21 semester hours related to the resource area:

courses in educational and occupational information, testing, guidance techniques, and supervised

practicum • ExCET requirement: Counselor

Professional Special Education Counselor Certificate • Professional counselor certificate • Six semester hours in special education

Professional Vocational Counselor Certificate • Professional counselor certificate • 12 semester hours of specified vocational guidance courses • Three years of experience in an occupation for which vocational education is being conducted in the Texas public secondary schools (may also include up to two

years teaching experience)

Guidance Programs

In 1976 the SBOE adopted rulesdescribing a comprehensive guidanceprogram that was to be incorporatedas part of the educational program inpublic schools. The rules wereamended in 1979, then remainedunchanged until 1991. In 1991, thefirst year of the sunset review process,rules related to guidance programswere repealed because the SBOE didnot have specific statutory authority toadopt rules in this area. The SBOE’sgeneral rule making authority was

repealed as part of the same bill thatincluded the sunset legislation. Thatsame year the Texas Legislature addedthe presence and quality of compre-hensive and developmental guidanceand counseling programs to theaccreditation criteria in law.

Before 1989, powers and dutiesof the SBOE laid out in the TexasEducation Code (TEC) prevented theSBOE from adopting any policy thatwould require a district, as a prerequi-site for accreditation, to hire a guid-ance counselor. This restriction was

repealed in 1989. In 1992 the accredi-tation rules were repealed and revisedaccreditation rules were adopted aspart of the sunset process. In theprocess, the SBOE added the newcriteria for accreditation from the lawto the rules.

Legislation passed in 1993 pulledtogether in one chapter and redirectedthe focus of Texas laws related topublic school system accountability.In response the SBOE amended theplanning and accreditation rules tomove the state from the process-drivenaccreditation system to a performanceaccountability system. The accredita-tion criteria related to a comprehensiveguidance program did not survive thischange in TEA rules but remains inlaw.

Counselor CertificationRequirements

Requirements for certification asa school counselor established by theSBOE in 1955 remain in effect today.The requirements, detailed in Chart 2,are a bachelor’s degree, a Texasteaching certificate, three years ofteaching experience, and 30 hours ofgraduate course work in counseling.Although a master’s degree is notrequired by SBOE rule, all of the 34counselor preparation programs atTexas colleges and universities requirecompletion of a master’s degree forcertification as a counselor. As Chart3 shows, 92 percent of the counselorsin Texas schools in 1993-94 have amaster’s degree or higher. Almost 20percent of those without a master’sdegree are on emergency permits.

In 1993 the SBOE conductedthe sunset review of rules related toprofessional educator preparationprograms. Besides readopting existingprogram requirements for certification,the SBOE adopted a plan that willmove the state away from the currentprocess-driven system of approvingeducator preparation programs. Rulesspecifying the types of courses

(Continued on page 6)


Campus Type

0

20

40

60

80

100

ElementarySchools

MiddleSchools

High Schools CombinedElementary/Secondary

Percent of Counselors

% Female % Male

However, male counselors are not as often assignedto campuses with high percentages of economicallydisadvantaged students. Only 21 percent of counselors oncampuses with more than 80 percent economically disad-vantaged students are male.

There are 1,370 male counselors on Texas cam-puses, 18 percent of all counselors. As with teachers,there are more male counselors on high school campusesthan middle school and elementary campuses. One-fourthof high school counselors are male compared to 11percent of elementary school counselors. Although thegender makeup of the counseling staff does not varyconsistently with campus size, the smallest campuseshave considerably larger proportions of male counselors.One-third of the counselors on campuses with fewer than100 students are male.

Campuses with more than 50 percent Hispanicstudents have more male counselors than campuses withfewer Hispanic students. This pattern is reversed oncampuses with more than 50 percent African Americanstudents, which have fewer male counselors. Campuseswith high percentages of African American students alsohave higher percentages of African American counselorsthan other campuses. The low percent of male counselorson these campuses may reflect in part the small number ofAfrican American male educators.

As the percentage of economically disadvantagedstudents in a district increases, the percentage of malecounselors also increases. Students are classified aseconomically disadvantaged if they meet any of a numberof conditions such as being eligible for free and reduced-price meals under the National School Lunch and ChildNutrition Program or having a family income below thepoverty line. One third of counselors in districts withmore than 80 percent economically disadvantagedstudents are male.

Percent Male

Percent Female

Campus Size Over 1,000 22 78 700 to 1,000 17 83 500 to 700 14 86 250 to 500 13 87 100 to 250 23 77 Under 100 34 66 Percent Hispanic Students Under 5% 14 86 5% to 10% 15 85 10% to 20% 16 84 20% to 30% 17 83 30% to 50% 17 83 Over 50% 24 76 Percent African American Students Under 5% 21 79 5% to 10% 17 83 10% to 20% 17 83 20% to 30% 15 85 30% to 50% 16 84 Over 50% 15 85 Percent Economically Disadvantaged Students Under 20% 17 83 20% to 30% 16 84 30% to 40% 17 83 40% to 60% 19 81 60% to 80% 19 81 Over 80% 21 79 State Total 18 82

Gender of Counselors

Texas Counselors by Campus Type1993-94 School Year


1% PhDs

91% Masters

8% Bachelors

Although Texas does not requirea master’s degree for certificationas a counselor, all of the counselorpreparation programs in the stateoffer counseling as a master’sprogram.

prospective teachers and professionalsupport staff must complete will bereplaced with proficiencies. In 1994the SBOE approved proficiencies forteachers and administrators. Counse-lor proficiencies being developed bythe Commission on Standards for theTeaching Profession, Texas Counsel-ing Association, and TEA are sched-uled for approval by the SBOE in1995. The counselor proficiencieswill describe what counselors areexpected to know and be able to do.Like the teacher and administratorproficiencies, the counselorproficiencies will be founded on alearner-centered environment. As alearner-centered professional thecounselor will focus on what studentsneed rather than the needs of theguidance program. This shift in focusmay ultimately lead to a restructuringof counselor preparation programs.

ExCET Examination

In 1986 the Examination for theCertification of Educators in Texas(ExCET) was added as a requirementfor certification as a counselor. Testobjectives for the counseling exami-nation cover guidance programs,human development and learningtheory, measurement and appraisal,individual and group counseling andcareer development. These objec-tives will be replaced in the next yearwith test competencies from which anew ExCET examination will bedeveloped. The test competencieswill reflect the same shift in focusfrom what prospective counselors aretaught to what they should know andbe able to do. The new competencieswill emphasize understanding learn-ers, promoting learners’ growth andachievement, and counseling in thelearner-centered environment.

Counseling Assignment

SBOE rules related to creden-tials and assignments were reviewedin 1993 along with the rules related toeducator preparation. In response to

concerns about the shortage of certi-fied counselors, the SBOE initiallyproposed adding a student servicesspecialist position to the list of assign-ments to be readopted. The studentservices specialist would have beenassigned to special counseling pro-grams such as drug education pro-grams, programs for students at risk ofdropping out of school, and familycrisis intervention. A TEA counselorcertificate is required for assignmentas a school counselor. As proposed,psychologists, social workers, andcounselors certified by the TexasDepartment of Human Services wouldhave been eligible for assignment asstudent services specialists, in additionto TEA certified counselors. Theposition was deleted before the newlist of assignments was adopted due toconcerns about assigning individualswho did not have the credentialsrequired for certification as a counse-lor by TEA.

Teacher shortage areas areidentified in Texas based on the

Chart 3Highest Degree Heldby Texas Counselors1993-94 School Year

percent of teachers in each program orsubject area who have emergencyteaching permits because they are notfully qualified to teach the classes towhich they are assigned. The 1994-95teacher shortage areas, based on 1992-93 permits, range from a high of 7.9percent of bilingual education/Englishas a second language teachers to a lowof 3.2 percent of high school math-ematics teachers on emergencypermits. About 3.6 percent of 1993-94 counselors have emergencypermits.

Funding for Guidance Programs

The Texas school finance systemdistributes state funds to schooldistricts based on the number ofstudents in each district and districttax effort. These funds, combinedwith local property tax revenues, arethe primary source of funding foreducational programs and supportservices in schools. State and localrevenues are supplemented withfederal funds distributed to schooldistricts under programs such as theElementary and Secondary EducationAct (ESEA) Chapter 1 program foreconomically disadvantaged students.

The number of students percounselor generally varies in Texasby district operating expenditures perpupil, although the highest spendingdistricts do not have the loweststudent/counselor ratios. Muchgreater variation exists betweencampuses. As Chart 4 shows, cam-puses with instructional expendituresbelow $2,000 per pupil have anaverage of 559 students per counselor,compared to 296 students per counse-lor in campuses with instructionalexpenditures over $3,400 per pupil.

In 1991 the Texas Legislatureadded language to the school financeprovisions earmarking $5 million ofthe state compensatory educationallotment each year for elementaryschool counseling programs. In1993 they increased the amount to




Percent Economically Disadvantaged Students in District

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Under 20% 20% to 30% 30% to 40% 40% to 60% 60% to 80% Over 80%

StudentsPer Counselor

1989 1993

-600 -400 -200 0 200 400 600

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Increase in Number of Counselors

Major Urban

Major Suburban

Other Central City

Other Suburban

Indep. Town

Non-Metro Growing

Non-Metro Stable

Rural

Number of Counselors

Decrease in Student/Counselor Ratio

Student/Counselor Ratio

Growth of Counseling Staffs — 1988-89 to 1993-94

Student/Counselor Ratio — 1988-89 to 1993-94

Counseling Staff Trends —1988-89 to 1993-94The greatest increase in number of counselors

between the 1988-89 and 1993-94 school years occurredin the major urban districts and the suburban districts inand around the ten major urban districts. Most of thisincrease was driven by student growth. Student/counselorratios in the major urban and suburban districts show theleast change in the state. The greatest change in student/counselor ratios over the past five years occurred in ruraldistricts, where the number of students per counselor wascut in half. The decrease in student/counselor ratios inrural districts is due almost entirely to adding counselorsin schools that had no counselor in 1988-89. The student/

counselor ratios on rural campuses with counselors aver-aged 380 students per counselor in 1988-89 compared to371 in 1993-94.

Districts with the highest percentage of economicallydisadvantaged students experienced the greatest decreasein student/counselor ratios between 1988-89 and 1993-94.Districts with over 80 percent economically disadvantagedstudents now have the lowest average student/counselorratio, compared to districts with fewer economicallydisadvantaged students.


17

18

19

16

13

14

15

20

1

2

3

4

56

7

8

12

1011

400 - 499

500 - 599

600 and Over

Under 400

Texas is divided into 20 geographic regions,each served by an education service center (ESC).The Wichita Falls and Midland regions have the higheststudent/counselor ratios with 600 or more students percounselor in 1993-94. The lowest student/counselor ratiosare found in the south Texas regions of Edinburg andCorpus Christi.

Student/Counselor Ratioby Education Service Center Region

ESC Students Per Counselor ESC Students Per Counselor 1 Edinburg 396 11 Fort Worth 528

2 Corpus Christi 380 12 Waco 556

3 Victoria 470 13 Austin 438

4 Houston 499 14 Abilene 460

5 Beaumont 500 15 San Angelo 506

6 Huntsville 490 16 Amarillo 453

7 Kilgore 509 17 Lubbock 508

8 Mt. Pleasant 457 18 Midland 600

9 Wichita Falls 618 19 El Paso 545

10 Richardson 487 20 San Antonio 401

9

18


$7.5 million. School districts mustapply for the funds. The law specifiesthe duties of counselors employedwith these funds, outlines componentsof the guidance program, and specifiesa student/counselor ratio of not morethan 500 students per counselor.These funds must be used to imple-ment a guidance program or enhancethe existing guidance program in thedistrict. In distributing the funds,preference is given to districts withhigh percentages of students identifiedas at risk of school failure.

TEC Revision

In 1993 the Texas Legislaturepassed sunset legislation for the TexasEducation Code (TEC), directing thecommissioner of education to submitproposed revisions before the nextlegislative session. With the exceptionof the two chapters containing lawsrelated to public school finance, the

TEC will become void and new lawsmust be adopted by the legislature.State professional counseling associa-tions advocate expanding the lawdescribing the role of counselorsemployed with earmarked state fundsto cover all counselors. They reportthat counselors employed under thislegislation are not burdened withadministrative and clerical dutiesunrelated to the guidance program.The commissioner feels this wouldnot be consistent with his emphasison accountability and deregulation inthe TEC revision. His recommenda-tions, transmitted to the legislature inJuly 1994, modify the languagedescribing the role of counselors butdo not expand the law to cover allcounselors.

Future Policy Directions

Recent actions of the SBOE andTexas Legislature reflect a shared

The number of students per counselor on a campus is related to the instructional expenditures, both of which are relatedto campus type. High school campuses typically have higher expenditures and lower student/counselor ratios than middleor elementary schools.

Campus Instructional Expenditures Per Pupil

Students PerCounselor

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Under $2,000 $2,000 to $2,399 $2,400 to $3,400 Over $3,400

concern about the availability ofcounselors for public school students.The same concern was voiced by thegovernor at the April 1994 jointmeeting of the SBOE and TexasJuvenile Probation Commission. Thisconcern will undoubtedly resurface ascounselor proficiencies and ExCETcompetencies are developed over thenext year, and the Texas Legislaturereexamines funding priorities in anatmosphere of fiscal constraint.

Profile of the Texas Counselor

The analyses throughout thisreport are based on the 7,558 full-timeequivalent counselors assigned toTexas public schools in 1993-94.An additional 222 counselors areemployed by districts and cooperativesof districts but not assigned to cam-puses.

Chart 4Student/Counselor Ratio by Campus Instructional Expenditures

1993-94 School Year



Texas counselors, like teachers, arepredominantly female. They are alsopredominantly white, although almost30 percent are Hispanic, AfricanAmerican, and other minorities.The average counselor age is 47;only 16 percent are under 40.

82% Female

18% Male

38%Over 50YearsOld

46% 40-49Years Old

15% 30-39Years Old

1% Under30 Years Old

18%Hispanic

Less Than 1%Other Minority

70% White

12%AfricanAmerican

Gender

Ethnicity

Age

Chart 5Demographic Characteristics

of Texas Counselors1993-94 School Year

percent of counselors are under 30 and16 percent are under 40. Almost halfof all counselors are between the agesof 40 and 49. Hispanic counselors asa group are slightly younger; theiraverage age is 45. African Americancounselors are slightly older, with anaverage age of 49. Texas counselors,on the average, have 18 years ofprofessional experience (includingteaching experience) and 11 years oftenure in the district.

The average counselor salary is$38,144 per year. Counselor salariesare typically higher in districts thatalso have higher teacher salaries.Larger districts and districts in urbanareas, for example, pay higher counse-lor salaries.

District operating expendituresare not related to counselor salaries.However, district wealth and tax effortare both related to counselor salaries.Wealth, taxable property value perstudent, is an indicator of a district’sability to raise local revenues.Wealthier districts pay slightly highercounselor salaries. Districts with totaltax rates over $1.3367 have averagecounselor salaries that are about$3,500 higher than salaries in thedistricts with total tax rates under$1.1297.

In 1993-94, a total of 1,085campuses with 267,316 students donot have even a part-time counselor.This represents 17 percent of the6,300 campuses and over sevenpercent of the students in Texas.Since the se data were reported inOctober 1993, they may includeschools in which the counselingposition was vacant in the fall of the1993-94 school year. Over half of theschools with no counselor have fewerthan 200 students and 85 percent havefewer than 500 students.

Almost twenty percent of cam-puses have less than a full-timecounselor. Many of these campuses

Few national data on schoolcounselors are available. The NationalCenter for Education Statistics (NCES)estimates the number of guidancecounselors and directors nationallybased on data reported by the states.Guidance counselors and directors aredefined as professional staff membersassigned specific duties and schooltime for counseling students andparents. In 1991-92, the most recentyear for which NCES data are avail-able, Texas reported 8,648 guidancecounselors and directors under thisdefinition. This accounted for 2.6percent of total staff. Nationally,guidance counselors and directorsmade up 1.8 percent of total staff.

Like the teaching force, the Texascounseling staff is predominantlyfemale. As Chart 5 shows, 82 percentof Texas counselors are female.Although Texas counselors as a groupare more diverse than teachers, they donot reflect the racial/ethnic diversity ofthe student body. Chart 5 also showscounselors by race/ethnicity. Almost30 percent of counselors are Hispanic,African American, or other racial/ethnic minorities, compared to overhalf of all students.

Chart 6 shows the change innumber and percent of counselors byrace/ethnicity since 1988-89. Thenumber of counselors increased by 37percent over this five-year period. Thenumber of Hispanic counselors in-creased by 65 percent, growing from15 percent to 18 percent of all counse-lors. The number of African Americancounselors grew at a much slower rate.Examination for the Certification ofEducators in Texas (ExCET) results for1993-94 show this trend continuing.Almost 20 percent of the 762 ExCETexaminees who passed the counselorexamination were Hispanic. Only fivepercent were African American.

Texas counselors range in agefrom 25 to 80 years old. The averageage is 47. As Chart 5 shows, only one



The patterns of racial and ethnic diversity ofcounselors in Texas are similar to those of teachers.African American counselors are employed predomi-nantly in the major urban districts. Major urbandistricts are the ten largest school districts that servethe metropolitan areas of Austin, Corpus Christi,Dallas, El Paso, Fort Worth, Houston, and San Anto-nio. Fifty-six percent of African American counselorsare employed in the major urban districts, making up30 percent of their counseling staffs.

Although the greatest number of Hispaniccounselors are employed in major urban districts, theycomprise the largest proportion of counselors in othercentral cities and their suburbs. Other central cityschool districts are major districts in large Texas citiesoutside the major metropolitan areas. The suburbandistricts are located in and around the central citydistricts. The smallest percentages of minority coun-selors are found in rural districts and suburban districtsin and around the major urban districts.

As might be expected, over half of the counselorsin the border regions of Edinburg and El Paso areHispanic. Schools in the Corpus Christi and SanAntonio education service center (ESC) regionsaverage 40 and 30 percent Hispanic counselors,respectively. Statewide 35 percent of students areHispanic. The Houston and Beaumont ESC regionshave the largest percentages of African Americancounselors, over 25 percent. The Richardson andWaco ESC regions have 17 and 12 percent AfricanAmerican counselors. Fourteen percent of Texasstudents are African American.

The panhandle and north central regions ofWichita Falls, Abilene, Amarillo, and Lubbock allhave over 90 percent white counselors. These regionsalso have over 90 percent white teachers. The ethnicmakeup of the student body is predominantly whiteand Hispanic.

Race/Ethnicity of CounselorsThere is some correspondence between the race/

ethnicity of counselors and students. Half of the counse-lors are minorities in the 254 districts in which 50 percentor more of the students are minorities. Districts in whichfewer than five percent of the students are minoritieshave no minority counselors.

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marking of state funds for counselingmay explain in part the equalization ofstudent/counselor ratios over the pastfive years.

As Chart 8 shows, the campusstudent/counselor ratio is partlydetermined by whether the campus islarge enough to have a full-timecounselor, or to add counselors to thestaff. Campuses with between 500and 700 students have the higheststudent/counselor ratios. Thesecampuses are large enough to employa full-time counselor, but not largeenough to employ a second counselor.Larger campuses are able to employadditional counselors to lower theirstudent/counselor ratios. Smallercampuses share a counselor betweentwo or more campuses. They havesmaller student/counselor ratios but donot have a counselor on campus fulltime.

Chart 9 shows that student/counselor ratios are lower in second-ary than elementary schools. With anaverage of 338 students per counselor,high schools meet the 350 to one ratiorecommended by state professionaleducation associations, including theTexas School Counselor Association.Elementary schools, by contrast, have

share a counselor with other campusesin the district or region. Forty percentof campuses have one full-timecounselor. The remaining 24 percentof campuses have more than onecounselor.

Student/Counselor Ratio

The student/counselor ratio, ornumber of students per counselor, isused to compare both counselor workload and student access to guidanceprograms across districts and cam-puses of different sizes. Statewidethere is an average of 476 studentsper counselor in 1993-94. Thiscompares to 595 students per counse-lor in 1988-89.

Student/counselor ratios varywidely across Texas school districts.As noted earlier, these ratios arerelated to district and campus expendi-tures per pupil. School district wealth,however, is not related to student/counselor ratio. In 1993-94 lowwealth districts have student/counselorratios very similar to those in highwealth districts. As illustrated inChart 7, this equalizing of student/counselor ratios has taken place since1988-89. Equalizing of the stateschool finance system and the ear-

an average student/counselor ratio of646 to one.

Campuses with lower TexasAssessment of Academic Skills(TAAS) passing rates also have lowerstudent/counselor ratios, suggestingthat counseling programs focus onstudents at risk of failing or droppingout of school. Chart 10 shows thispattern persists regardless of thepercent of students on the campus whoare economically disadvantaged.

Issues Related to the Role ofthe Counselor

One goal of this research andevaluation study is to explore questionssurrounding the professional identityof the counselor. In School CounselorRole Statement: Fact or Fiction, Carterreports that the majority of counselorssurveyed view themselves as develop-mental in orientation. However, inpractice, it seems counselors do notoften perform developmental tasks. InHow They View Their Role: A Surveyof Counselors in Different SecondarySchools, Tennyson finds that mostcounselors surveyed seldom engage inpreventive activities such as facilitat-ing self-awareness through small groupprocesses; developing interpersonalskills; teaching decision making;promoting social development; orusing any formal measures to assessstudents’ developmental needs andmaturity.

Instead, counselor roles continueto focus on remediation of studentswith special needs, especially thoseidentified as at risk. Over 40 percent ofstudents in Texas public schools arecategorized as being at risk of schoolfailure. This remedial, or “crisis-oriented,” approach combined with theincreasing importance of assessmentfor school accountability may empha-size the counselor’s role related toassessment and expand that role to oneof a testing coordinator.

The Texas counseling staff increased by 2,061 counselors in the five years from1988-89 to 1993-94. The diversity of counselors as a group changed little.

Counselors 1988 – 89 1993 – 94

White 3,958 (72%) 5,305 (70%)

Hispanic 806 (15%) 1,331 (18%)

African American 718 (13%) 898 (12%)

Other Minority 14 (0.3%) 24 (0.3%)

TOTAL 5,497 (100%) 7,558 (100%)

Chart 6Change in Number of Counselors by Ethnicity

1988-89 to 1993-94



Primary prevention activities deal withthe basic needs of all students, andsecondary prevention targets morespecific concerns once an individualhas displayed certain characteristicsthat place him or her at a higher risk.A balanced program contains bothelements and must be age-appropriatefor the different developmental stagesstudents undergo from prekindergartenthrough grade 12.

Because their work involvesstudents from many different agegroups, counselors feel developmentalguidance must also be reinforcedthrough the staff development process.Studies, including the Texas evalua-tion study of prekindergarten educa-tion programs being conducted by theTexas Education Agency (TEA),report that current educational prac-tices do not always adhere to peda-

In its February 1994 newsletter,the Texas Association for Assessmentin Counseling published the results ofan informal survey conducted at astate conference in which counselorsreported concerns about their assess-ment duties. Counselors were con-cerned about being used as clericalhelp and felt some duties associatedwith assessment are an inappropriateuse of time for any professional.They felt assessment duties take toomuch time away from more appropri-ate counseling functions, misusinglimited guidance funds, and thedemands of assessment duties createunnecessary stress for counselors.Counselors were also concernedabout their image as “police” or“warehouse custodians.”

Time management is one of thegreatest concerns of counselors.Besides assessment, counselors arealso assigned numerous non-guidanceduties such as scheduling, discipline,and various paraprofessional tasksthat interfere with their abilities toestablish preventive, developmentalprograms.

Viewing counseling as relatedonly to academic assessment andcareer guidance appears to be prob-lematic. Studies continue to advocatethat preventive, developmentalguidance and counseling should alsobe part of the educational process. Arecognition of the close relationshipbetween students’ personal growthand their academic developmentunderlies this view and supports theintegration of these programs. Thisposition is echoed throughout theState Board of Education policystatements on early childhood andelementary school, middle school,and high school education.

In an effort to address thedevelopmental needs of all students,counselors pursue preventive activi-ties before risk behaviors occur.

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Below Average Above Average

1988-89

1993-94

District Wealth


Chart 7Student/Counselor Ratio by District Wealth

1988-89 and 1993-94

Campus Enrollment

Counselors Per Campus

Students Per Counselor

Over 1,000 4.0 379

700 to 1,000 1.5 549

500 to 700 1.0 584

250 to 500 0.8 504

100 to 250 0.5 394

Under 100 0.2 221

Chart 8Counselors Per Campus — 1993-94 School Year

Student/counselor ratios are determined in part by campus size. Campusesin the middle size ranges have the highest student/counselor ratios. Largecampuses hire more than one counselor. Smaller campuses have lowerstudent/counselor ratios but often do not have a counselor on campusfull time.

Student/counselor ratios have equalized across different wealth categories ofdistricts over the past five years.



National and state professional counseling organiza-tions recommend student/counselor ratios as low as 100students per counselor. The ratio recommended by Texasprofessional education organizations is 350 students percounselor. Texas legislation funding counseling programsrequires districts to maintain a ratio of at least one counse-lor per 500 students district-wide at the elementary level.One barrier to meeting these ratios is the cost to districtsof employing additional counselors.

The average Texas counselor salary is $38,144.Fringe benefits increase the total payroll cost to about$50,000 per counselor. Fringe benefits include contribu-tions to the Teacher Retirement System, social security,health insurance, workers’ compensation, and unemploy-ment contributions.

An additional 535 counselors are needed to provideaccess to counselors at a ratio of 500 to one for the267,316 students on campuses that currently have nocounselor. The payroll cost for 535 counselors would bealmost $27 million. This does not include the cost offacilities, furniture and equipment, or materials.

Although the average student/counselor ratio inTexas is 476 students per counselor, 334 campuses with210,005 students have student/counselor ratios over 1,000to one. Reducing the ratio on these campuses to 1,000students per counselor would require 39 additionalcounselors at a payroll cost of almost $2 million. A 1,000to one student/counselor ratio is three times as manystudents per counselor as recommended by Texas profes-sional education organizations.

Reducing student/counselor ratios statewide to 350students per counselor would require increasing thecurrent counselor work force by 45 percent, at a payrollcost of $171 million. To put these costs in perspective,the $171 million to reduce the student/counselor ratio to350 to one would increase average district per pupilexpenditures in the state by $47. Average per pupilexpenditures in 1992-93 were $4,201. This represents anaverage property tax rate increase of $ .03. The averagetotal tax rate in 1992-93 was $1.3017.

Financing Lower Student/Counselor Ratios

oitaR1/000.1 oitaR1/005 oitaR1/053sesupmaC stnedutS srolesnuoC lloryaP srolesnuoC lloryaP srolesnuoC lloryaP

srolesnuoCoN 580,1 613,762 762 008,563,31$ 535 006,137,62$ 467 000,881,83$

1/0001revOsoitaR 433 500,012 93 570,339,1$ 942 053,334,21$ 924 055,334,12$

1/0001-005soitaR 850,2 120,503,1 736 552,578,13$ 657,1 627,408,78$

1/005-053soitaR 515,1 052,850,1 964 105,864,32$

latoT 299,4 295,048,2 603 578,892,51$ 124,1 502,040,17$ 814,3 874,498,071$


Texas high schools have student/counselor ratios that approximate state and national recommendations. There are twiceas many students per counselor in Texas elementary schools as recommended by state and national professional associa-tions.

Texas Elementary Principals Association (TEPA)Texas Association of Secondary School Principals (TASSP)Texas School Counselor Association (TSCA)

American School Counselor Association (ASCA)(Maximum Ratio)

American School Counselor Association (ASCA)(Ideal Ratio)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Elementary Middle High School CombinedElementary/Secondary

TEPA, TASSP, TSCA

ASCA Maximum

ASCA Ideal

RecommendedRatios


Chart 9Student/Counselor Ratio by Campus Type — 1993-94 School Year

Compared to Recommended Ratios

gogically or developmentally appro-priate principles. Prekindergartenteachers in the TEA study understoodthe concept of developmentallyappropriate practices but had diffi-culty transferring these practices tothe classroom. Staff developmentactivities can help counselors bothincrease their understanding ofdevelopmentally appropriate practicesand develop strategies to guidepractice.

Ten years ago, in AssessingSchool Counselor Performance,Bleuer identified four dimensions ofguidance programs that were most inneed of change. Her framework isconsistent with that presented by theComprehensive Guidance Programfor Texas Public Schools, which

describes traditional program methodsas reactive, unsystematic, and clericalin nature. Summarized in Chart 11,the framework includes a shift fromcrises and remedial priorities todevelopmental and preventive priori-ties. Inherent in this shift is a movetoward consistent services to allstudents. The framework also in-cludes a shift from individual guid-ance and counseling only to groupguidance and counseling, fromadministrative tasks to counseling, andfrom counselors working in isolationto programs that are part of theschool’s entire educational program.

Conclusion

The history of counseling andguidance programs in Texas public

schools has been characterized byefforts to forge a balanced approach tothe academic and developmentalneeds of students. These efforts haveplayed a large part in shaping theprofessional identity of the schoolcounselor as well. Recent studiessuggest, however, that in practice,local programs and counselor rolesremain at odds with state and nationalmodels.

Since 1981, when the AmericanSchool Counselor Association firstdeveloped recommended guidelinesfor school counseling and guidanceprograms, state and national modelshave continued to advocate programsthat are more developmental andpreventive in nature. Yet, as Texas hasmoved toward a system of educational



Percent Passing All TAAS Tests Taken

Percent Economically Disadvantaged

Under 33.3%

33.3% to 47.2%

47.2% to 60.5%

Over 60.5% Total

Under 20% 255 366 429 478 449

20% to 30% 335 420 446 527 448

30% to 40% 358 472 492 594 488

40% to 60% 392 472 539 634 487

60% to 80% 429 510 608 672 482

Over 80% 510 555 633 719 531

Total 431 468 476 512

Chart 10Student/Counselor Ratio

1993-94 School Year

Campuses with low TAAS performance have fewer students per counselor thanhigh performing campuses. Campuses with large proportions of economicallydisadvantaged students, however, have more students per counselor thancampuses with fewer economically disadvantaged students. There is a highcorrelation between student family income and TAAS performance; about halfof all campuses fall in the six shaded cells on the chart.

accountability that stresses assess-ment, counseling and guidanceprograms appear instead to havefocused increasingly on academicremediation.

The increased responsibilitiesassociated with standardized testingand numerous non-guidance dutieshave left counselors feeling overbur-dened and ill-equipped to meet therising demand for developmentalcounseling. The lack of time availablefor counseling is compounded by anaverage student/counselor ratio in thestate of 476 to one.

This report provides a cross-section of the information currentlyavailable about Texas counselors.The profile of the counselor includes asummary of demographic informationsuch as race/ethnicity, gender, age,and education, as well as employmentinformation such as years of profes-sional experience, tenure, and salary.The variation in number of counselorson a campus and students per counse-lor is discussed in regard to counselorwork load and access of students tocounselors.

National and state models ofguidance programs are presentedalong with an overview of issuesrelated to these models. Finally,Texas policy regarding guidanceprograms and counselors is reviewed.Taken together, each of the topicsreviewed contributes to an under-standing of the status of counselors inTexas.

Responses to the upcomingsurvey, information gathered throughcase studies, and further longitudinalanalysis of existing data will expandthis understanding in three ways.First, greater detail will be providedabout the counselor work load andneeds of the guidance program. In thesurvey counselors will respond toquestions about how they spend theirtime and their level of involvement in

Traditional Comprehensive

crises/remedial priorities developmental/preventive

uneven service to students consistent service to all studentsindividual guidance and counseling only

group guidance and counseling

counselors only

counselors, school staff, parents, and community

unstructured student centered

administrative tasks counseling

unmeasurable designed from needs assessment and ongoing evaluation

Chart 11Shift in Focus of Guidance Programs

Comprehensive guidance programs focus on developmental and preventiveactivities and emphasize coordination with the educational program. Tradition-ally, counseling programs have been crisis oriented.


campus-wide activities. Both thesurvey and case studies will alsoprovide information about the clerical,paraprofessional, and administrativestaffing needs of the guidance pro-gram not reflected in the student/counselor ratio.

Second, the study will provideinformation against which the currentmodels can be evaluated. The modelguidance program is described asdevelopmental, preventive, and

comprehensive. The survey willexamine counselors’ perceptions ofthe ideal program and priorities ofdifferent activities and student groups.The case studies will explore thesequestions in relation to students needsand program goals and objectives.Finally, the model of educator supplyand demand and further longitudinalanalysis of data will answer questionsrelated to supply and demand ofcounselors.

Overall, this study will assess theavailability and quality of counselingin an effort to define a professionalidentity for the school counselor thatbetter addresses student needs. Thestudy also will look at the policyimplications of enhancing counselingand guidance programs in terms of theorganization of their delivery andcoordination with other agencies.


Selected BibliographyAmerican School Counselor Association. (1992) “Ethical Standards for School Counselors.” The School Counselor.V. 40: 7-12.

American School Counselor Association. (1981) “ASCA Role Statement: The Practice of Guidance and Counselingby School Counselors.” The School Counselor. V. 29(1): 7-12.

American School Counselor Association. (1984) “ASCA Position Statement: Ethical Standards for School Counselors.”The School Counselor. V. 32(2): 84-89.

American School Counselor Association. (1985) “ASCA Role Statement: The Role of the School Counselor in CareerGuidance: Expectations and Responsibilities.” The School Counselor. V. 32(3): 164-169.

Baizerman, Michael. (1993) Report to the Texas Education Agency on Field Interviews. Austin, TX: unpublisheddocument.

Baker, Stanley B. (1992) School Counseling for the Twenty-First Century. New York: MacMillan Publishing Company.

Baron and Richardson. (1975) Developmental Counseling in Education. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Bleuer, Jeann. (1984) Assessing School Counselor Performance. Ann Arbor: ERIC Clearinghouse on Counseling andPersonnel Services # CG018467.

Burtnett, Frank. (1993) “Let’s Bump Counseling Off the Back Burner of Reform: Counselors Themselves Are Partly toBlame for Being Ignored.” The Education Digest. V. 59 (2): 51-55.

Burke, William T. III and Cavaliere, Frank. (1988) “Counseling, The Foundation of a ‘Better Education.’ ” Education.V. 109 (1) Fall: 55-58.

Carter, Richard B. (1993) “School Counselor Role Statement: Fact or Fiction.” Education. V. 114 (1): 45-53.

Chickering, Arthur W. and Reisser, Linda. (1993) Education and Identity. San Francisco: Josey Bass Publishers.

Cole, Claire G. (1991) “Counselors and Administrators, A Comparison of Roles.” National Association of SecondarySchool Principals Association Bulletin. (April): 5-15.

Coy, Doris R. (1991) “The Role of the Counselor in Today’s School.” National Association of Secondary School Princi-pals Association Bulletin. (April): 15-19.

Dobson, Judith E. and Dobson, Russell L. (1981) “The Cloning of America.” The School Counselor. V. 29(1): 13-22.

Eisner, Eliott. (1993) “Forms of Understanding and the Future of Educational Research.” Educational Researcher.V. 22 (7): 5-11.

Cummings, Oliver and Nall, Roger L. (1982) “Counselor Burnout and School Leadership Style: A Connection.”The School Counselor. V. 29(3): 190-196.

Gardner, Howard. (1983) Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. U.S.: Basic Books, HarperCollins Publishers.


Gardner, Howard. (1991) “The School of the Future.” Ways of Knowing. John Brockman (ed.). NY: Prentice Hall Press,199-218.

Gazda, George, Childers, William, and Brooks, David Jr. (1987) Foundations of Counseling and Human Services.New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Gerler, Edwin R. Jr., Kinney, Judith, and Anderson, Ronald F. (1985) “The Effects of Counseling on ClassroomPerformance.” Humanistic Education and Development. (June): 155-165.

Gerler, Edwin R. Jr. and Anderson, Ronald F. (1986) “The Effects of Classroom Guidance on Children’s Success inSchool.” Journal of Counseling and Development. V. 65 (October): 78-81.

Glossoff, Harriett and Koprowicz, Constance. (1975) Children Achieving Potential, An Introduction to ElementarySchool Counseling and State Level Policies. Paper presented at the National Conference of State Legislatures andAmerican Association for Counseling and Development in Washington, D.C.

Grubaugh, Steve and Houston, Richard. (1990) “Establishing a Classroom Environment that Promotes Interaction andImproved Student Behavior.” The Clearinghouse for the Contemporary Educator in Middle and Secondary Schools.V. 63(8): 375-379.

Madaus, George and Tan, Ann. (1993) “The Growth of Assessment.” Challenges and Achievements of AmericanEducation. Gordon Cawelti (ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

McDill, Natriello, and Pallas. (1990) Schooling Disadvantaged Children: Racing Against Catastrophe. New York:Teachers College Press.

McIllwain, Sherry. (1994) Strategies for Matching Teaching Styles and Learning Styles. Commerce, TX.: EducationalDevelopment & Training Center, East Texas State University.

Minor, Robert O. (1991) “Curriculum-Based Counseling Programs: How Important Are They?” National Association ofSecondary School Principals Association Bulletin. (April): 20-26.

National Center for Education Statistics. (1993) Public Elementary and Secondary State Aggregate Data for School Years1990-91 and 1991-92. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Education.

O’Bryant, Beverly J. (1991) “Getting the Most From Your School Counseling Program.” National Association ofSecondary School Principals Association Bulletin. (April): 1-4.

O’Rourke, Kathleen. (1991) “A Report of the ASCA Certification Survey.” National Association of Secondary SchoolPrincipals Association Bulletin. (April): 43-48.

Peer, Gary. (1985) “The Status of Secondary School Guidance: A National Survey.” The School Counselor.V. 32(3): 181-190.

Pittman, Karen J. (1992) Pushing the Boundaries of Education: The Implications of a Youth Development Approach toEducation Policies, Structures and Collaborations. Paper presented at the Council of Chief State School OfficersSummer Institute in St. Louis, Missouri, unpublished document.


Rotter, Joseph C., et.al. (1994) Examination of the Career Development Training Needs of a National Sample of SchoolCounselors: A Preliminary Analysis. Paper presented at the American Educational Research Association (Department ofEducational Psychology, University of South Carolina).

State Board of Education. (May 1994) “Proposed Amendments to 19 TAC Chapter 97, Planning and Accreditation.”Agenda, May 13, 1994. Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

State Board of Education. (May 1993) “Proposed Repeal and Readoption of 19 TAC Chapter 143, Assignment ofPersonnel.” Agenda, May 6-7, 1993. Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

State Board of Education. (May 1993) “Proposed Repeal and Readoption of 19 TAC Chapter 141, Teacher Certification.”Agenda, May 6-7, 1993. Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

State Board of Education. (March 1993) “Proposed Repeal and Readoption of 19 TAC Chapter 143, Assignment ofPersonnel.” Agenda, March 12, 1993, Vol. I. Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

State Board of Education. (January 1991) “Proposed Repeal of 19 TAC Chapter 85, Student Services.” Agenda,January 20, 1991, Vol. I. Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

State Board of Education. (1993) First Impressions: Report of the Task Force on Early Childhood and ElementaryEducation. Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

State Board of Education. (1992) One Student at a Time: Report of the State Board of Education Task Force onHigh School Education. Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

State Board of Education. (1991) Spotlight on the Middle: Report of the Task Force on Middle School Education.Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

Siegel, Janna and Shaughnessy, Michael. (1994) “Educating for Understanding: An Interview With Howard Gardner.”Phi Delta Kappan, V. 75(7). March: 563-566.

Texas Administrative Code, Title 19, Part II. (1994) Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

Texas Administrative Code, Title 19, Part II. (1988) Austin, TX: West Publishing Company.

Texas School Counselor Association. (February 1994) Texas Association for Assessment in Counseling Newsletter.

Texas Education Agency. (1993) Preliminary Findings: A Study of the Impact of Educational Reform on At-Risk Studentsin Texas. Austin, TX: TEA.

Texas Education Agency. (1989-1994) Public Education Information Management System (PEIMS) Data Base.Austin, TX: TEA.

Texas Education Agency. (1990) The Comprehensive Guidance Program for Texas Public Schools: A Guide forProgram Development Pre-K-12th Grade. Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

Texas Education Agency. (1988) A Review of the Literature on the Effects of Educational Reform on Dropouts.Austin, TX: TEA.

Texas Education Agency. (no date) Successful Schooling for Economically Disadvantaged At-Risk Youth.Austin, TX: TEA.


Texas Education Code Revision. (March 1994) 1st draft. Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

Texas Education Code Revision. (July 1994). Austin, TX: Texas Education Agency.

Texas Education Code. (1994) Austin, TX: West Publishing Company.

Tennyson, Wesley W., et. al. (1989) “How They View Their Role: A Survey of Counselors in Different SecondarySchools.” Journal of Counseling and Development. V. 67. March: 399-403

Thomas, Ellis J. (1991) “Guidance—The Heart of Education: Three Exemplary Approaches.” Ann Arbor: ERIC Clearing-house on Counseling and Personnel Services # CG023135.

U. S. Department of Education. (1993) Reinventing Chapter 1: The Current Chapter 1 Program and New Directions,Final Report of the National Assessment of the Chapter 1 Program, Executive Summary. Washington, D.C.: U.S.Department of Education, Office of Policy Planning and Evaluation Service.

Wagenaar, Theodore C. (1982) “Quality Counseling: The Roles of Counseling Resources and Activities.” The SchoolCounselor. V. 29(3): 196-203.

Walz, Gary R. (1984) Counseling and Educational Excellence: A Response to “A Nation at Risk.” Ann Arbor: ERICClearinghouse on Counseling and Personnel Services # CG018468.

Wehlage, Gary, et. al. (1989) Reducing the Risk: Schools as Communities of Support. Philadelphia: Falmer Press.

Conferences

Annual Texas Testing Conference. (1994) Austin Texas, March 1-3.

15th Annual High School Counselor’s Conference. (1994) Austin, Texas, March 20-22.

25th Annual Elementary School Counselor’s Conference. (1994) Austin, Texas, May 1-3.


Project Staff

Criss CloudtAssociate Commissioner

Office of Policy Planning and Evaluation

Nancy StevensEditor

Martha P. PérezResearch Specialist

Research and Editorial AssistanceCatherine A. Christner

Richard KallusMichael X. MaoLynn T. Mellor

Vicky A. KillgoreGraphics, Layout, and Design

Reviewers

Guidance and Counseling DivisionJohn Lucas

Yvette Henley

Professional Educator Preparation DivisionJames Salmon

Teacher Appraisal DivisionPamela Tackett

Texas Counseling AssociationElaine Nail

G. K. Sprinkle

Texas School Counselor AssociationJan GallagherValerie Smith

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