Core Lecture Linguistics

Approaches to the word

Summer Term 2004

http://www.univie.ac.at/Anglistik/core2

A word?

tree

Ceci n‘est pas un mot.

brilliant

[æktl]

[æktjl]

[æktl]

[æktl]

[æktl]

[ækl]

[æl]

/æktl/

Figure 1: Five manifestations of ‘language’

‘of’

TEXTS

INSTANCES OF LINGUISTICBEHAVIOUR

(productive and/or receptive)

INDIVIDUALLINGUISTIC

COMPETENCE

resultin

trigger

informsconstrains

informsshapes

POOL/NETWORK ofCOMPETENCES

within aCOMMUNITY

consists of /emerges from

Theories,ideas,

abstractknowledge

A

B

C

D

E

GRAND LEG SEIZE OURS

Jeande

Paris

Great Legacy!Sixteen Bears!

????

JohnFromBoston

Super leg!Touch mine!

????

Classifying English vowels on textual/behavioural grounds

Classifying English vowels on textual/behavioural grounds

Front Back

/aI/ – /I//i:/ - /e//eI/ – /æ/

// – /a/// - //

line – linearserene – serenityexplain – explanatory

abundant – aboundverbosity – verbose

Classifying English vowels on textual/behavioural grounds

[pi:z] [pi:s] /s/ : /z/

[twəzaivn] It was Ivan [twəstm] It was Tom

/wz/

i[n] Austriai[m] Polandi[ŋ] Kenya

{in}

[phit] pit[phwt] pot[phwp] pop[phwt] port

[p, phw , ph , p] /p/

[phit] pit[phit][ph]

[t, , t] /t/

[khk] kick

[kh , k] /k/

fool

[fu :][fuw][ful]

/ful/

[sn] /n/[s] //

[n] /n/

[ntlrnt] /n/[ikmptnt] /n/

[k] /nk/, /k/?

What phoneme?

[dv]

language

change

Interpret

ation

language disorders

?

?

?

?

? ?

?

?

?

?

?

Grammar

etc.

neuro-biology

social structures

speakers‘ needs

physiology

Attitudes

speech errors

effects of L

genetics

texts

acquisition

evidence of I-language/competence

• Linguistic competence is a mental tool for translating meaning into sound and vice versa. (if you know what you want to say, your ‚competence‘ will compute a text automatically)

• Problem: meaning is extremely difficult to define, to describe or even to measure in non-subjective terms

The mind as a computer (1)

The mind as a computer (2)

• Human memory is limited• Humans are creative when they speak and can deal

with novelty• Humans can always distinguish utterances that are

in their language from such that are not.

• Assumption: language is like a logical production system

Logical Production Systems (Components)

• Produce symbol strings (Theorems)

• Contain: (a) Axioms (b) Production rules

Axioms: #, &Production Rules: # ###

## &Theorems: #, &, ###, #&, &#, ...

No Theorems: *##, *&&,*##&

intended meaning

syntactic generator

mental dictionaryform x / meaning aform y / meaning b....

interpretor/translator

pronouncation/reception component

articulators/ears

utterance / text

S

NP VP

S NP VPVP VGp NPVGp V Aux

VGp NP

NP (Det) N Aux TnsTns Past

Det N

V Aux

Tns

Past

Det N

The people enjoy ed the show.

The Generative Assumption:

lexicon entries = axiomssurface strings = theorems

What is the best production system?Hypothetical answer: The most economical one!

A B / X Y

/fu:l/ [fu:]l / #

[stop] [+aspirated] / V

Types of Phonological Rules

Theorems: /nstr / /mp lnd/ / krn j /

Question: What are the axioms in that

system, what the production rules?

EXERCISE:

I II III America aroma veranda cinema horizon agenda venison arena placenta arsenal angina utensil

Vocalic - Consonantal + High - Back - Low - Anterior + Coronal + Voice - Continuant + Nasal - Strident +

/s/

Vocalic - - + Consonantal + + + High - - - Back - - - Low - - - Anterior + + - Coronal + + + Voice - - + Continuant + - + Nasal - - - Strident + - -

/str/

Vocalic - - Consonantal + + + High Back Low Anterior + Coronal + Voice Continuant Nasal Strident

/str/ - underspecified

present tense past tense

Axiom/Lexical Entry /kep/

Syntactic Processes

Past Tense Affixation - kep+d

Phonological Processes

Shortening before CC - kep+d

Devoicing of /d/ - kep+t

Vowel Shift kip -

Theorems/Surface Forms /kip/ /kept/

kept as a regular verb

present tense past tense

Axiom/Lexical Entry /pep/

Past Tense Affixation - pep+d

Shortening before CC - pep+d

Devoicing of /d/ - pep+t

Vowel Shift pip -

Theorems/Surface Forms /pip/ */pept/

What about peeped then?

present tense past tense present tense past tense

Axiom/Lexical Entry #kep+ #pep#

Past Tense Affixation - kep+d - pep#d

Shortening before CC - kep+d - -

Devoicing of /d/ - kep+t - pep#t

Vowel Shift kip - pip pip#t

Surface Forms /kip/ /kept/ /pip/ /pipt/

A classical solution

Problem: circular and ad-hoc !!!

Lexical Phonology I

bak+er, great+ness, home+less presid+ent, seren+ity, formid+able

Free bases Bound bases

No stress shifting Stress shifting

No re-syllabication of liquids Re-syllabication of liquids

Very productive Restricted productivity

Semantically transparent Semantically opaque

All kinds of roots Latinate roots

Lexical Phonology II

Stratum 0 Roots

Stratum 1 Weird affixes, weird phonological processes

Stratum 2 Natural affixes

Words

Postlexical Natural phonological processes, e.g. assimilations

home home+less home+less+nesstone ton+ic ton+ic+itytone ton+ic ton+ic+nesshome home+less homelessity

Lexical Phonology III

Strict Cyclicity Effect:

Structure-changing cyclic rules apply in derived environments only 

(where a ‘derived environment’ is an environment created by either a morphological rule or a phonological rule on the same cycle).

Elsewhere Condition:

Rules A, B apply disjunctively to a form iff:(i) SDA is a proper subset of SDB; and(ii) SCA is distinct from SCB.

In that case Rule A, applying first, blocks rule B.

 

Lexical Phonology IV

-er 1 2 astronomer singer philosopher producer adulterer informer transcriber driver wrestler bottler

-ant/ent 1 2 president disinfectant confident pollutant coincident propellant applicant defendant claimant

-able 1 2 comparable comparable arable manageable formidable navigatable tolerable toleratable

-ing 1 2 sprinkling sprinkling coupling coupling twinkling twinkling

Natural Phonology I

Ants [ats]

Salmon [sabud]

Lion [zad]

Pretty [bidi]

Bread [but]

Spoon [bud]

Through [dru:]

Through [fru:]

Natural Phonology II

Evidence:

•Language acquisition•Language loss•Pidginisation•Language Change•Language variation•Frequency•Implicational hierarchies

Natural Phonology III

Processes (automatic, innate) i[m] PolandRules (have to be learnt) serenity

General assumption: phonology serves the purpose ofmaking language pronounceable and perceivable.

Processes and rules are signs,and can work better or not so well.

Iconicity

Icons Indexes Symbols

Images Diagrams

-+communicative/cognitive function

+-expression of social identity

l

l n m

n

Bi-Uniqueness

m

Pressures on the phonological sign

Articulatory:

Principle of least effort

Perceptual:

Ease of perception

Semiotic

Iconicity / Prominence / Bi-uniqueness

[x]

/y/

Phonological Process Types

FortitionsForegroundingStrengthening

LenitionBackgrounding

Weakening

Parameters

Prosodic Position, Style, Speed, Register, Class, Social Setting

Language Change, Language Acquisition, Language Loss

External Evidence

Consonantal Strength

Stops – Fricatives – Nasals – Liquids – Glides

Vocalic ‘Strength’

ColourI U

A

Sonority

1. /mlk/ [mk]

2. [f] vs. [fl]

3. /fand/ [fan]

4. /bd/ [bd]

5. /si/ [si]

6. /tald/ vs. /tldrn/

7. /srin/ vs. /srent/

8. /ms j/ [mj]

Classifying Phonological Processes

The morphological sign

Morphotactic level

Morphosemantic level

/ple/ /d/

{play} {past}

/set/

{set} {past}

BETTER WORSE

sight – sighted

play – played

keep – kept

sing - sang

put – put

read - read

BEST

WORST

Peter regretted Harriet‘s early departure.

Peter regretted the fact that Harriet had departed early.Peter regretted that Harriet had departed early.Peter regretted Harriet having departed early.Peter regretted Harriet’s having departed early.Peter regretted Harriet’s departing early.

heart-breaking (O P-ing) griefhome made (AdP P-ed) souppredidential (O) adviserpresidential (S) refusalindustrial (AdP) workercriminal (pO) lawyermarginal (AdP) note

John eats an appleThe apple is for eatingThe apple which is for eatingapple for eatingeating apple

carri+agemarri+ageorphan+agecour+age

morphosemantic transparency

sereneseren+ityseren+ade

Tomatoes grow.John grows tomatoes.The growth of tomatoes.*John‘s growth of tomatoes.The growing of tomatoes.John’s growing of tomatoes.

John rejected the offer.The rejection of the offer.John’s rejection of the offer.

The acceleration of the process.

CompoundingPseudo-CompoundingDerivationConversionBlendingClippingOnomatopoeia

DETERMINANT - DETERMINATE

Backformation

write writerburglar burglebutcher *butchtypewrite typewriterproofreader proofread

CONVERSION

N Vcheat wordcatch chairsave tablelie housestand floorsleep headwork doorplay eyedance plantkill bottleroar cankick picture

Nominalisations

-ant/-ent: contestant, claimant, participant, consultant ; solvent, detergent, lubricant

-ate: professorate, syndicate

-ation: purification, organization, clonization, adaptation

-dom: kingdom, Christendom, boredom

-ee: appointee, employee, transferee

-eer: privateer, pamphleteer

-er: baker, gambler, mixer, transmitter, reminder, thriller, tongue twister

-ery: robbery, carpentry, masonry, swannery

-ism: communism,

-ity: conformity, serenity, opacity

-y : laddie, kiddy, daddy

-ess: lioness, priestess, neighbouress, teacheress, authoress, patroness

-ette: kitchenette, undergraduette, sailorette

-hood: priesthood, childhood, knighthood, maidenhood,

-ing: boxing, skiing,

-ist: humanist, americanist, novelist, mnotorist, cyclist

-th: length, width, strength

Verbalisations

-ate: hyphenate, mutate, confiscate, demarcate, illustrate

-en: darken, brighten, lighten, madden, flatten

-ize: atomize,

-ify: Chomskify

Adjectivisations

-able: lovable, laudable, readable, marriageable -ary : elementary, complementary, revisonary, evolutionary-ate: passionate, affectionate-ed: palefaced, five-fingered, forked, wretched-en: wooden, golden, flaxen, linen-ese: Japanese-esque: arabesque, Kafkaesque, Garboesque-fold : twofold,. manifold-ful : careful, rightful, shameful, hasteful, merciful-ic: atomic, barbaric-ine: masculine, alpine, crystalline-ive: productive-like: childlike-wise: examwise

serene - serenade

wide - width

(to) kill - (the) kill

impress - impression

bear - birth

boat – boatswain /bsn/

waist, coat – waistcoat /weskt/sit – sitting (of an exam)

bind – bond

blitz – blitzlike

kosher – kosherize

Christ – Christmas

moon, day – Monday

Berlusconi – anti-Berlusconi

mock, bird – mockingbird

straw, berry – strawberry

beat – (a) beating

denotation – connotationsentence meaning – utterance meaning

meaning – referencemeaning – concept

meaning – usemeaning – truth

lexical meaning – utterance meaning...

meaning – text – speaker – listener – world

My sister would kill me (=be very angry with me) if she heard me say that.Lack of romance can kill a marriage.The doctor gave her some tablets to kill the pain.The two of them killed a bottle in one evening.We were killing ourselves laughing.

Snow is white is true, iff snow is white.

John is a bachelor is true, if John is not marriedJohn is a bachelor is false, if John is not an adult.John is a bachelor is false, if John is not male.

Logical approaches to meaning

man womanstallion mareram huebull cow

boy girlcolt filly

lambcalf

+MALE – MALE

– ADULT

+ ADULT

woman

+ concrete+ animate+ human+ adult– male

girl

+ concrete+ animate+ human– adult– male

man

+ concrete+ animate+ human+ adult+ male

boy

+ concrete+ animate+ human– adult+ male

conceptual level / mentalese

semantic level / logical forms

??

GRAMMAR

SURFACE FORMS

frog

World

Mind

/frg/

World

Mind

[frg]

/frg/

World

Mind

?

?

/tri:/

TREE

?World

Mind

signans

signatumobserver

/tri:/

???? observer

?

Optimality Theory

Input

Generator [produces rivalling outputs] Evaluator [ranks universal constraints]

& selects most harmonic …

Output

OT Tableaus

Cockney /b t / [b [t]] [b []] [b ][t] No Light Foothead * NoCoda * * No Oral Closure in Codas * * Faith Gesture *

RP /b t / [b [t]] [b []] [b ][t] No Light Foothead * NoCoda * * Faith Gesture * No Oral Closure in Codas *

Language as a Darwinian System Replicators: NEURAL CELL ASSEMBLIES that acquire their identities from

the way in which they are linked up with one another. They‘represent’ linguistic elements from phonemes over words tosyntactic constituents or concepts. They govern linguisticBEHAVIOUR and produce cultural artefacts, i.e. TEXTS.BRAINS come equipped with a propensity to make sense oftheir environment, including crucially texts. When they do sothe neural networks of which they consist SELF-ORGANISEINTO structures that contain COPIES of the Cell Assemblieswhich originally produced the texts. Thereby the former havereplicated.

Imperfect Copying Fidelity inherent in the special type of replication.

Differential Replication :Ease of production, ease of perception, learnability,usefulness ... legions of well established factors

External Limits on Sustainability: obvious limits on memory.

evaluation BRAIN feed back on

decreases increases assumes

chance to regenerate STATESgenerate EFFECTS on

ENVIRONMENT

STATES with a high chance of regeneration count as STABLE.

-

+

The G(enerate) -T(est) -R(egenerate) Cyclein cognitive development

+

-

CONSEQUENCES (COSTS, SUCCESS, ETC.)

VERBAL BEHAVIOUR (‘PERFORMANCE’)

SELECTIVE EFFECT ON VIABILITY OF SCHEMA AND COMPETITION AMONG SCHEMATA

PRESENT DATA (SITUATION)

UNFOLDING

COMPETENCE STATE THAT SUMMARIZES THE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH PAST COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOUR HAS WORKED AND ‘PREDICTS’ TYPES

OF SUCH BEHAVIOUR TO BE SUCCESFUL (ONE OF MANY COMPETENCE STATES RELATED BY MUTATION AND

COMPETITION)

COMPRESSION

PREVIOUS DATA,

INCLUDING PREVIOUS COMMUNICATIVE BEHAVIOUR AND ITS EFFECTS

Replication in Neural Networks

E A

C

D C

A

B D

E

B

ORIGINAL COPY

{zoo}

{was}

/z/

Vocal folds: [+voice]

Tongue: [corona towards alveoles] [+voicing]

[+consonantal] Airstream: [+egressive]

...

...

...

...

{busy}

{-es}

{... } {...}

Articulatory Gestures

Phone-Meme

Auditory Impressions

[+strident]

Phone-memes / / /l/

/b/

‘Nucleus’ Nodes for Suprasegmentals ‘Coda’ ‘Onset’ ‘monosyllable’ Syntag-memes {b l} NOUN Morph-meme

[STRONG] [ANIMAL] [BIG] [DANGEROUS] [HORNS] Concepts [EDIBLE]

[increase effort] [decrease effort][more prominence] [less prominence]

S w

‘’ [syllabic configurationsin which the prominencevalues get expressed]

[timing unit]

[+strident]

{wz}

/z/ /w/ //

Vocal folds: [+voicing]

Tongue: [corona towards alveoles]

Airstream: [+egressive]

[+voiced]

[+consonantal]

/s/

Vocal folds: [-voicing] [-voiced]

[+continuant]

Stricture: [close approximant]

/t/

{tm}

Devoicing of [z] in it was Tom:

Know then your PARTS, avoid your SELF to scan,The least objective judge of MAN is MAN.