coral reefs and climate change v. 2

8/6/2019 Coral Reefs and Climate Change v. 2

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CLIMATE CHANGE AND CORAL REEFS

Climate Change

and Coral Reefs

Final ReportUP SURPOct. 2009

Eli Siwa & GabrielLopez


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2 INTRODUCTION

Climate change is a very concerning and distressing global phenomenon these

modern times that has affected all aspects of life and has become a major threat toenvironmental security as well as food security, health security and public safetyand security. Basically caused by uncontrolled carbon emissions caused by manyactivities related to industrial production, comfortable lifestyles, and economicgrowth and development, global climate change now threatens Planet Earth and itsvarious components. One such affected component is marine life in coral reefs.

What is Climate?

The climate of a particular region is described, measured, modeled, or predicted interms of the prevailing conditions of temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind, and other

physical variables-in effect the average expectation of weather. Weather is what thestate of these conditions on a much shorter time scale is called. There may be largeday-to-day and year-to-year fluctuations in the weather at any location, as well aslarge variations experienced by adjacent regions over similar time scales. Climate,the long-term average, is commonly discussed as if it were stable, even thoughthere may be substantial variability in the short-term weather patterns and highinter-annual variability of the physical parameters that combine to define theclimate. However, climate is not intrinsically stable; it has changed dramatically inthe past, and it is expected to change in the future, particularly as a result of human modification of the composition of the atmosphere. 1

Climate change is any long-term change in the statistics of weather over timedurations ranging from decades to millions of years. It is manifested in changes toaverages, extremes, or other statistical measures, taking place in the whole Earthor in some of its regions. Recently, climate change has come to mean globalwarming, i.e., changes in modern climate, particularly in the context of environmental studies and policies. 2 Climate is influenced (and shaped) by climateforcings, which include: variations in solar radiation, deviation in the Earths normalorbit, and changes in greenhouse gas concentrations. 3

Climate change is causing drastic alterations in many of the bio-chemical dynamicson Earth, in the atmosphere and in the waters. These all affect our temperatures,land capabilities, water capabilities, socio-economic activities on the Earths landand waters. Among the more commonly observed phenomena due to climate1 Clive R. Wilkinson & Robert W. Buddemeier, 1994. Global Climate Change and Coral Reefs: Implications for People and Reefs (Report of the UN EP-IOC-ASPEI-UCN Global Task Team on the Implications of ClimateChange on Coral Reefs). International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), Gland,Switzerland, page 44.2 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change3 Ibid.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change


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2 CHAPTER 1. CLIMATE CHANGE AND IMPACTS ONCORAL REEFS

What are coral reefs?

There have been so many pictures on magazines and online blogs that show theworlds exotic and colorful coral reefs. It may have been the favorite subject of photo enthusiasts and divers. But these coral reefs are not just there for aestheticpleasures or to showcase the beauty of aquatic life. They are, in fact, veryimportant to both people and wildlife.

Called rainforests of the sea, these coral reefs are home to a quarter of all marinespecies, provide habitat and breeding ground for commercially important species,provide natural buffers to the coastlines from erosions, and contain the highest

biodiversity of any marine ecosystem.

These coral reefs are what we may call as canaries in a coal minebeing earlyindicators of impact of climate change. Coral reefs are highly sensitive in watertemperature, clarity, acidity, early indicators of impacts of climate change andhuman activities. They are vulnerable to coastal development, sediment run-off,water pollution, many fishing practices. In fact, significant increase in number of massive bleaching episodes since 1970s mean there exists increasingly warmerglobal temperatures.

These eco-systems of environmental and human value protect shores from theimpact of waves and from storms, provide a lot of benefits to humans in the form of

food and medicine, and provide economic benefits to local communities fromtourism.

The term coral reef applies to a diversity of structures that grow in a wide range of habitats from clean oceanic waters to areas close to continents, where the influenceof land runoff can be considerable. The eventual shape and form of the reefs willdepend on this ambient environment and the underlying base structure. Reefspredominantly grow over previous reefs, which were killed off during massive seaIevel falls during ice ages. The stony corals and calcareous algae gradually build upthe calcium carbonate framework until the reef reaches the sea surface, whereatmospheric exposure limits further upward growth. Barrier reefs develop along theedge of continental shelves that are sufficiently remote from sediment input fromthe land to encourage vigorous coral growth. Usually behind these reefs arerelatively deep water ways, referred to as lagoons. Good examples are the GreatBarrier Reef and the barrier reefs of Belize and New Caledonia. These barrier reefsprotect the adjacent shorelines from the impact of oceanic waves.

Platform reefs grow over hills and mountains formed by previous reefs or otherfeatures such as sand dunes, formed when sea level was lower. Once the reefsreach the surface, they grow outward often forming large areas of reef flats.


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Platform reefs are frequently found within the large lagoons formed by barrier reefs. There are good examples of platform reefs in the Bahamas, within the lagoon of the Great Barrier Reef and in the Red Sea.

Atolls are formed in oceanic waters around the bases of extinct volcanoes. As thevolcanic islands erode and sink, the coral reefs continue to grow upwards to thesurface leaving an approximately circular structure, typically with a central lagoon,which may contain remnants of the original volcano. Atolls commonly occur in midoceanic locations and may be associated in groups of atolls (the Marshall Islands,the Maldives) or in chains of high islands and atolls (Hawaii, French Polynesia).

Fringing reefs form immediately adjacent to land masses, often where there is highsediment load. These reefs form on the slopes where the land dips into deeperwater and the area behind the slope usually fills in to form a reef flat. Most reefs off Caribbean islands are fringing reefs as are many reefs in Southeast Asia and EastAfrica.

Coral cays are islands that form on reef flats, particularly on atoll and platformreefs. These occur when sand and rubble from the reef flats accumulate intomounds through wind and wave action. When these mounds attract birds andplants, a consolidation process ensues to make relatively stable structures thathave attracted human occupation. There are numerous examples throughout thePacific and Indian Oceans and the Keys of Florida are other examples. These caysare rarely more than a few meters above sea level and thus are a major point of concern for sea level rise as a result of global climate change.

How does a coral reef ecosystem work?

Coral reefs must thrive on warm, relatively consistent water temperature of 77-84.2degrees Fahrenheit, with shallow, clear water to provide regular sunlight forphotosynthesis. They can also only tolerate low levels of sedimentation, as toomuch can restrict sunlight and smother corals. They also need consistent salinityand shielding from excessive UV-B radiation, which can damage the corals DNA.

Figure 2. Illustration of reef formations. Different types of coral reefs built on top of old previous reefs, over the underlying base rock, including volcanic rock and sediments. Major influences are marked as arrows indicating direction of influence.


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Source: Clive R. Wilkinson & Robert W. Buddemeier, 1994


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Figure 3. Profile of coral reef with typical reef zones.

Source: The British Antarctic Study, http://www.antactica.ac.uk

Figure 4. There are two distinct regions which coral reefs are primarily distributed:the Wider Carribean (Atlantic Ocean) and the Indo-Pacific (from East Asia and theRed Sea to the Central Pacific Ocean).


Figure 5. Majority of reef building corals are found within tropical and subtropical

waters. Red dots show the location of major stony coral reefs of the world.



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2 Figures 6 and 7. Illustration at the left is a cross-section of a polyp, at the right is across-section of a nematocyst cell.


Where are coral reefs now?

It is sad to say that these reefs are dying around the world: Twenty percent areeffectively destroyed with no signs of recovery; 24% under imminent risk of collapsethru human pressure; 26% are under long-term threat; 60% are threatened byhuman activity; 70% may be lost by 2050 due to human impacts; and a third of thereef species are currently facing extinction.

And these numbers are seen to rise unless mitigating and adaptation measures areobserved. Global threats include coastal development, overfishing, inland pollution,and most importantly, global climate change.

IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE TO CORAL REEFS

Coral bleaching

Corals have a symbiotic partner, called a Zooxanthellae, a certain type of algae thatlives on these reefs. When they stop producing food, corals spit them out, and suchis caused by elevated sea surface temperatures due to global climate change.


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Figure 8. Illustration of the the mutual relationship between the Zooxanthellae and the corals.


The photos above illustrates how coral bleaching induces a stress on coral reefs,stress produced by hot water, cold water, lack of light, fresh water. In fact, just alittle 2 o higher than the normal summer high temperature would be very crucial tocoral reefs. These corals die if temperature is any higher. Such temperatures arepredicted very well using satellite measures of SST.

During the phenomenal El Ni o of 1998, 98% of corals in the Maldives andSeychelles diedor 16% of the worlds corals. Such a catastrophe may not havebeen known about in the 1970s but has been increasing in decades. If everythingremains the same and such a rate continues without interference, coral bleaching ispredicted to kill all reefs in 50 years.

Figures 9 and 10. Samples of how coral reefs look like when they are bleached.


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Source:http://www.images.google.com

Source: http://www.images.google.com

Slower coral growth

The vertical growth rate of corals is likely to be slower when compared to theincrease in sea level. This is unfortunate as it means corals will not be able toprotect the shore as wave energy could increase in strength; and, smaller reefs willproduce smaller amounts of reef sediment, which builds and supports island land-bases.


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2 3. Sea level rise - waves can go across reefs and erode land. This might drown

reefs that are near their lower depth limit by decreasing available light. This alsocauses stress by sedimentation because of the increased erosion of shorelines.

4. El Ni o southern escalation - warm water anomalies and seasonal maximumwater temperature causes further coral bleaching. Sea level decreases canexpose shallow reefs and lead to mass mortality.

5. Ocean circulation changes wind patterns change direction due to change inocean temperature.

6. Precipitation and storm patterns increase in precipitation can lower salinity andincrease sediment discharge and lead to mortality. The intensity of droughtsmay cause changes in vegetation cover and lead to erosion and stress whenrains return.

CASE STUDY: VITI LEVU, FIJI

Viti Levu is the largest island in Fiji supporting 77% of the population. In 2050, it ispredicted that climate change could produce economic losses of US$23-52 millionper year on Viti Levu alone.

The rise in sea surface temperature is predicted to increase ciguatera poisoningfood poisoning caused by eating fish that have eaten ciguatoxic algae that growsafter storms. The number or people which maybe poisoned is expected to rise from35,000 to 75,000 people to 160,000 to 430,000 by 2050.

Total economic losses of coral reef degradation caused by climate change mayreach US$5 to 14 million per year by 2050 through loss of fisheries, habitat andtourism value on Viti Levu.

COUNTRY STUDY: PHILIPPINES

The Philippines is part of the Coral Triangle and considers coral reefs as one of itsmost important assets, amounting to over US$1 billion annually. It comprises 80-90% of small island communities and reaches 20 to 25 metric tons per squarekilometer per year.Unfortunately, local coastal communities have no idea on what coral reefs are,making these reefs among the most vulnerable to climate change. In fact, in thePhilippines, nearly all are under severe threat. Among the 1,000 marine protectedareas in the country for example, only 20% are functioning. While coral reefs in thecountry amount to 10-15% of total fisheries, these have been slowly dying in thepast 30 years, with 97% currently under threat and only five percent are inexcellent condition.

This massive degradation may also be caused by rapid population growth andincreasing human pressure. It is already a fact that there are too many fishermen inthe country, as every Filipino lives within 45 meters of the coast and 4,500 newresidents born daily.


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2 CHAPTER 2. MITIGATION AND ADAPTATIONMEASURES TO ADDRESS CLIMATE CHANGESDISASTROUS EFFECTS ON CORAL REEFS

Defining Climate Mitigation and Adaptation 4

Climate mitigation is any action taken to permanently eliminate or reduce thelong-term risk and hazards of climate change to human lives and properties. TheInternational Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines mitigation as: Ananthropogenic intervention to reduce the sources or enhance the sinks of greenhouse gases. Climate Mitigation and Adaptation

Climate adaptation refers to the ability of a system to adjust to climate change

(including climate variability and extremes) to moderate potential damage, to takeadvantage of opportunities, or to cope with the consequences. The IPCC definesadaptation as the, adjustment in natural or human systems to a new or changingenvironment. Adaptation to climate change refers to adjustment in natural orhuman systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects,which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. Various types of adaptation can be distinguished, including anticipatory and reactive adaptation,private and public adaptation, and autonomous and planned adaptation.

Climate Mitigation and Adaptation

The terms adaptation and mitigation are two important terms that arefundamental in the climate change debate. The IPCC defined adaptation asadjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climaticstimuli or their effects, which moderate harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.Similarly, Mitchell and Tanner (2006) defined adaptation as an understanding of how individuals, groups and natural systems can prepare for and respond tochanges in climate or their environment. According to them, it is crucial to reducingvulnerability to climate change. While mitigation tackles the causes of climatechange, adaptation tackles the effects of the phenomenon. The potential to adjustin order to minimize negative impact and maximize any benefits from changes inclimate is known as adaptive capacity. A successful adaptation can reducevulnerability by building on and strengthening existing coping strategies.

In general the more mitigation there is, the less will be the impacts to which we willhave to adjust, and the less the risks for which we will have to try and prepare.Conversely, the greater the degree of preparatory adaptation, the less may be theimpacts associated with any given degree of climate change.

4 http://www.global-greenhouse-warming.com/climate-mitigation-and-adaptation.html
http://www.global-greenhouse-warming.com/climate-mitigation-and-adaptation.htmlhttp://www.global-greenhouse-warming.com/climate-mitigation-and-adaptation.html


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For people today, already feeling the impacts of past inaction in reducinggreenhouse gas emissions, adaptation is not altogether passive, rather it is anactive adjustment in response to new stimuli. However, our present age hasproactive options (mitigation), and must also plan to live with the consequences(adaptation) of global warming.

The idea that less mitigation means greater climatic change, and consequentlyrequiring more adaptation is the basis for the urgency surrounding reductions ingreenhouse gases. Climate mitigation and adaptation should not be seen asalternatives to each other, as they are not discrete activities but rather a combinedset of actions in an overall strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES 5

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) set threeexplicit conditions for mitigation when working towards the goal of greenhouse gascontrol and stabilization in the atmosphere:

1. That it should take place within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems toadapt naturally to climate change;

2. That food production is not threatened and;3. That economic development should proceed in a sustainable manner.

To eliminate or reduce the risk of climate change to human lives and properties,both policy instruments and technology must be used in the context of sustainabledevelopment.

UNFCCC refers to adaptation in several of its articles: Article 4.1(f): All Parties shall

Take climate change considerations into account, to the extent feasible, in theirrelevant social, economic and environmental policies and actions, and employappropriate methods, for example impact assessments, formulated and determinednationally, with a view to minimizing adverse effects on the economy, on publichealth and on the quality of the environment, of projects or measures undertakenby them to mitigate or adapt to climate change.

An estimated 5 gigatons or 15 per cent of worldwide carbon dioxide emissions - theprincipal greenhouse gas - are being absorbed or sequestrated by forests everyyear, making them the "mitigation engine" of the natural world. This could also bedescribed as 'green carbon'. 6 Forests also provide services such as freshwaters, soilstabilization, nutrients for agriculture, eco-tourism opportunities and food, fuel and

fiber - all of which will be key to buffering vulnerable communities against theclimate change already underway.

Investments are needed to maintain and enhance carbon storage and adaptationservices of ecosystems in a climate-challenged world is unknown, TEEB (The

5 Ibid.6 http://www.bmu.de/english/current_press_releases/pm/44863.php
http://www.bmu.de/english/current_press_releases/pm/44863.phphttp://www.bmu.de/english/current_press_releases/pm/44863.php


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2 Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity) 7 findings indicate that investing in theEarths ecological infrastructure has the potential to offer an excellent rate of return. 8 For example an investment of $45 billion in protected areas alone couldsecure nature-based services worth some $5 trillion a year. 9

Action to Address Global Change and Preserve Healthy Coral Reefs

Dr. Kenneth E. Clifton 10 of Lewis and Clark College in Portland, Oregon proposes thefollowing major mitigation-cum-adaptation strategic initiatives to address theserious problem of coral reefs being destroyed by climate change and otherirresponsible actions of people:

1. stabilize and reduce greenhouse gas emissions2. conserve reef habitat and protect them from over-exploitation3. reduce pollution (sediment, chemicals, solid waste, etc.) of marine waters4. educate about the threats to coral reefs and the need for action now

The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources(IUCN)/The World Conservation Union has proposed some immediate and mediumto long term strategies to address global climate change effects on coral reefs. 11

They include these initiatives:

1. extensive monitoring of corals in the critical and vulnerable areas, such as CoralReef Degradation in the Indian Ocean (CORDIO) program, the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority Bleach Watch

2. transplantation of corals, where possible (a very expensive undertaking)3. strengthen and expand Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), including cooperating

with Ocean Conservancy, such as in Melanesia and the Caribbean4. undertake comprehensive Integrated Coastal Management (ICM), and5. effective Fisheries Management (FM)

All of the above will enhance coral reef resiliency and preserve precious coralswhich are the breeding and feeding sites of fish and other marine life.

In May 2009, the World Ocean Conference was held in Manado, Indonesia, whichwas participated in by the countries of the Coral Triangle, including the Philippines.It came out with the Manado Ocean Declaration, whose top priorities are:

7 TEEB Study- The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) study is a major international initiative todraw attention to the global economic benefits of biodiversity, to highlight the growing costs of biodiversity loss andecosystem degradation, and to draw together expertise from the fields of science, economics and policy to enable

practical actions moving forward. http://www.teebweb.org/8 http://www.bmu.de/english/current_press_releases/pm/44863.php9 Ibid.10 Face the Nation Website, Coral Reefs and Global Climate Change, 1/26/200811 IUCN (2006). Coral Reef Resistance and Resistance to Bleaching. The World Conservation Union, Gland,Switzerland.
http://www.bmu.de/english/current_press_releases/pm/44863.phphttp://www.bmu.de/english/current_press_releases/pm/44863.php


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1. To achieve long-term conservation, management and sustainable use of marineliving resources and coastal habitats;

2. To develop long-term national strategies for sustainable management of coastaland marine ecosystems, particularly, mangroves, wetlands, seagrass, estuaryand coral reefs as buffer zones;

3. To implement integrated ocean and coastal management, including marine andcoastal land use planning;

4. To reduce marine pollution as well as land and air pollution, that contributes toacidification of marine waters that threatens coral reefs continuously;

5. To conduct and institutionalize continuous monitoring;6. To undertake timely researches;7. To adopt comprehensive adaptation strategies for global climate change;8. To develop adaptation measures for nations to increase resilience of coral atolls

and coastal communities;9. To develop new environmentally sound ocean technologies for nations to take

advantage of;10.To institutionalize exchange of ideas, best practices and useful lessons in

effective marine waters management.

For his part, Boris Erg 12 of IUCN Program Office for Southeastern Europe, proposedthe following general strategies during the IUCN Conference on Changing climate,changing biodiversity in South-East Europe in Belgrade, 18-19 June 2008 inpreparation for the Denmark International Conference on Climate Change inDecember 2009:

Adapt in anticipation - rather than react after the fact Maintain and develop options to maximize ecosystem resilience Avoid fragmentation and provide for connectivity (establish new corridors or biolinks, ecological networks), assist migration Maintain and increase large (Protected Areas) PAs as needed Protect known climatic refugia at all scales Provide for buffer zones around PAs to adjust PA boundaries if required -

flexibility Maintain natural processes and successional regimes as possible Include climate change scenarios in the selection of new PAs Protect mature and older forest stands Support ex-situ conservation efforts Provide for restoration with the future in mind Pay particular attention to the conservation of functional groups of species

such as pollinators, seed dispersers and predators

Identify natural values that are most threatened by climate change, such asplant and animal species that are currently range edge Involve local communities in strategies Use adaptive management and strategy testing

12 Boris Erg, IUCN, 2008. Mitigation and Adaptation Measures to Tackle Climate Change and Biodiversity inEurope (Powerpoint Presentation), Conference on Climate Change, Changing Biodiversity in South-Eastern Europe,Belgrade, 18-19 June 2008.


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2 Erg 13 encourages the expansion and management of Protected Areas (PAs) as afundamental mitigation strategy to address and reduce the negative effects andimpact of climate change:

PAs represent conservation cores and will provide anchors for biodiversityunder increasingly stressful conditions.

PAs act as a buffer against extreme weather events (e.g. cyclones and floodsand 2006 Tsunami impacts were less in protected coastal areas).

PAs act as carbon sinks and thus help mitigate climate change impacts. This is a major challenge that must be met by a fundamental rethinking of

PAs as a critically important biodiversity conservation tool in the overalladaptation kit.

For its part, the Asian Development Bank has staunchly proposed and undertaken anumber of very important initiatives for mitigation and adaptation in addressingproblematic global climate change. 14 For its mitigation initiatives, it supports thesemajor initiatives:

Advancing Energy Efficiency and Use of Low-Carbon Energy Sources Enabling Sustainable Transport Policies and Applying Efficient Systems Promoting Improved Urban Sanitation and Reduction of Fugitive Methane

Emissions Promoting Sustainable Land Use and Forestry

To address global climate change problems and issues the banks adaptationmeasures include these major project categories:

Addressing Vulnerability Risks in National Development Strategies andActions (These efforts include analyzing of the national and localconsequences of climate change and identifying of cost-effective measures toimprove the resilience of infrastructure and vulnerable populations toadverse impacts.)

Increasing Climate Resilience of Vulnerable Sectors (Sectors at greatest riskin Asia and the Pacific are agriculture and natural resources, urbandevelopment, health, water resources management, transportincludingcoastal roads and ports, and energyespecially hydropower.)

Climate Proofing Projects (ADB aims to ensure that projects and programstake into account predicted changes in precipitation patterns, the severityand frequency of storms, accelerated glacial melting, sea-level rise, and otherclimate-related impacts.)

Addressing Social Dimensions (Climate change actions, particularly foradaptation, are about helping people cope with increased threats to theirlivelihood and well-being. This must include providing adequate attention tothe needs and participation of women, the poor, and minority groups.Ensuring water security at the onset of climate change is essential.)

13 Ibid.14 Asian Development Bank (2008). Climate Change ADB Programs: Strengthening Mitigation and Adaptation inAsia and the Pacific. ADB, Mandaluyong City.


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SOME CASE STUDIES IN MITIGATION ANDADAPTATION PROGRAMS TO ADDRESS GLOBALCLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS EFFECTS ON CORAL

REEFS1. Continuous Monitoring of Coral Reef Bleaching and Temperature in the

Caribbean 15

The Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity (CARICOMP) Program was initiated bythe United States Government in the late 1980s to monitor the bleaching anddestruction of corals in the Caribbean using modern scientific technologies,including satellite sensing and water quality analysis. This program will examine therelationship between satellite-derived sea surface temperatures and thosemeasured in the water column over coral reefs at 17 sites in the greater Caribbean,from Bermuda to the South American coast. There are three specific scientificobjectives:

To relate satellite temperature data on a regional scale to temperaturemeasurements on a local, coastal scale;

To examine how (whether) large scale temperature trends influence local-scaletemperatures;

To define any relationship between surface temperatures and those of the watercolumn in direct contact with coral reefs.

2. Management of Special Marine Protected Areas 16

There are several special Marine Protected Areas in various parts of the world,where great attention is given to monitoring the conditions of the coral reefs andthe many facets of life that they generate and to preserve them as sanctuaries.

They include: the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary in the United States andthe Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority in Australia. Not only are they valuablefor sustaining the production of many fish and marine creatures, but they are alsopopular tourism sites.

Few marine environments in the U.S. compare to the Florida Keys in terms of natural beauty and natural resources. 17 The most extensive living coral reef in theUnited States is adjacent to the 126 mile island chain of the Florida Keys. The Keysare located on the southern tip of the Florida peninsula, beginning just south of Key

Biscayne and ending just 90 miles north of Cuba. These coral reefs are intimatelylinked to a marine ecosystem that supports one of the most unique and diverseassemblages of plants and animals in North America. The 2,800 square nauticalmile Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary (FKNMS) surrounds the entire

15 Clive R. Wilkinson and Robert W. Buddemeier (1994). Global Climate Change and Coral Reefs: Implications for People and Reefs, Report of the UNEP-IOC-ASPEI-IUCN Global Task Team on the Implications of ClimateChange on Coral Reefs. Published by IUCN, Gland, Switzerland16 Ibid.17 http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/visitor_information/welcome.html


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2 archipelago of the Florida Keys and includes the productive waters of Florida Bay,the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. Cultural resources are also containedwithin the sanctuary. The proximity of coral reefs to centuries old shipping routeshas resulted in a high concentration of shipwrecks and an abundance of artifacts.

The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system composed of over2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2,600 kilometers(1,600 mi) over an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometers(133,000 sq mi). The reef is located in the Coral Sea , off the coast of Queensland innortheast Australia. 18

18 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_Seahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_Sea


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Figure 12. The Great Barrier Reef.

Source: http://www.wikipedia.org on The Great Barrier Reef

A large part of the reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park , whichhelps to limit the impact of human use, such as overfishing and tourism. Otherenvironmental pressures to the reef and its ecosystem include water quality fromrunoff , climate change accompanied by mass coral bleaching , and cyclic outbreaks

of the crown-of-thorns starfish.

3. Government Direct Management 19

The United States Coral Reef Task Force (USCRTF) was established in 1998 byPresidential Executive Order 13089 to lead U.S. efforts to preserve and protect coralreef ecosystems. Co-chaired by the Department of the Interior and the Departmentof Commerce though the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, theUSCRTF includes leaders of 12 Federal agencies, seven U.S. states, territories,commonwealths, and three Freely Associated States. The USCRTF helps buildpartnerships, strategies, and support for on-the-ground action to conserve coralreefs.

Presidential Executive Order 13089: Coral Reef Protection was issued to enhancethe role of Federal agencies in the preservation and restoration of coral reef ecosystems. The Executive Order establishes a policy framework to guide Federalaction and its impacts on coral reefs, and mandates that:

1. The Federal agencies utilize their programs and authorities to protect andenhance the conditions of U.S. coral reef ecosystems, and

2. To the extent permitted by law, ensure that any actions they authorize, fund orcarry out will not degrade the conditions of such ecosystems.

The USCRTF is responsible for overseeing implementation of the Executive Order,and developing and implementing coordinated efforts to map and monitor U.S. coralreefs; research the causes of, and solutions to coral reef decline; reduce andmitigate coral reef degradation from pollution, over-fishing and other causes; andimplement strategies to promote conservation and sustainable use of coral reefsinternationally.

19 United States Coral Reef Task Force (2009). Federal Member Coral Profiles.
http://www.wikipedia.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef_Marine_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_runoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_bleachinghttp://www.wikipedia.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef_Marine_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_runoffhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_bleaching


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2 In 2000, the USCRTF adopted the National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs(National Action Plan), the first national blueprint for U.S. domestic and internationalaction to address the growing coral reef crisis. The National Action Plan outlines 13integrated conservation strategies within two fundamental themes to address themost pressing challenges facing reefs today. To help implement the National ActionPlan, the USCRTF launched a variety of initiatives and provides a forum to supportcollaborative action of its members and partner organizations. In 2002, the USCRTFdeveloped the U.S. Coral Reef National Action Strategy (National Action Strategy) tofurther implement the National Action Plan as called for in the Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 (CRCA) (16 U.S.C. 6401 et seq.). These documentsprovide the guiding framework for the priorities, strategies, and actions of theUSCRTF and its members.

4. NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program (United States) 20

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) Coral Reef Conservation Program (CRCP) is a national, science-based organization thatsupports effective management and sound science to protect, sustain and restorecoral reef ecosystems. It was established in 2000 to help fulfill NOAAsresponsibilities to preserve, protect and restore coral reefs from the Coral Reef Conservation Act (CRCA), Presidential Executive Order 13089 on Coral Reef Protection and other mandates. Since 2000, the CRCP has been responsible forprogram planning, execution and evaluation including management of annualappropriations, which amount to about $27 million. To address these mandates, theCRCP has invested in the application of a range of tools and activities by NOAA andother organizations to 1) increase our understanding of coral reef ecosystems, 2)reduce reef threats, and 3) increase management effectiveness at local,state/territory, regional, national and international levels.

There are three primary mandates that guide implementation of the CRCP: (1) theCoral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 (CRCA)(16 U.S.C. 6401 et seq. December2000), (2) Executive Order 13089 on Coral Reef Protection (1998), and 3) theMagnuson-Stevens Fisheries Conservation and Restoration Act.

The CRCA of 2000 authorized the Secretary of Commerce to publish a National CoralReef Action Strategy (National Strategy) and establish a national program, grantsprogram and conservation fund to fulfill the following purposes:

to preserve, sustain, and restore the condition of coral reef ecosystems; to promote the wise management and sustainable use of coral reef ecosystems

to benefit local communities and the Nation;

to develop sound scientific information on the condition of coral reef ecosystem and the threats to such ecosystems; to assist in the preservation of coral reefs by supporting conservation programs,

including projects that involve affected local communities and nongovernmentalorganizations;

to provide financial resources for those programs and projects; and

20 Ibid.


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to establish a formal mechanism for collecting and allocating monetarydonations from the private sector to be used for coral reef conservation projects.

5. Restoration and Replanting of Coral Reefs 21

Coral reef restoration is a young science, and the majority of our collectiveexperience derives from attempts to repair vessel-grounding sites by recreatingphysical reef habitat and transplanting adult corals in damaged areas. Recentscientific studies of ways to enhance recovery rates show promise for futurerestoration efforts. Coral transplantation involves introducing healthy coral juvenilesto degraded ones. Transplantation is also costly and limited in scope. It is probablybest used to repair specific localized damage, such as areas of ship grounding or tohouse reefs off tourist resorts, rather than as a tool for mitigating the impact of large-scale events, such as mass coral bleaching. Transplanting slow-growingmassive corals rather than faster-growing branching corals may be better for higherlong-term success.

An example of successful coral reef transplantation is in Duka Bay, Medina, MisamisOriental 22 . The transplantation site was purposely chosen to be contiguous to thedonor site to minimize seedling transport as well as stress on the fragments takenfrom the donor corals. This strategy also allowed for controls on the waterparameters (the sites being contiguous) e.g. similar vectorial currents operating onthe two systems, similar salinity, and others. The collected coral fragments weretransferred underwater using a plastic basket carried by hired SCUBA divers. Livecoral fragments were individually planted within their respective coral substrates(concrete blocks). Planting of coral fragments were made upright by just insertingthem in a center hole provided in the blocks. These planted fragments werecemented right away through underwater cementing procedure. Young corals areparticularly fragile and so the divers had to be instructed to be extra careful inhandling these materials. The newly cemented coral fragments will take three tofour hours underwater before they harden completely.

Monitoring of both the donor corals and the transplanted corals were doneperiodically, once very quarter for the period 2000 to 2002. Observations included:(a.) coral growth increments (in cm.), (b.) listing of residential, migratory andgrazing fishes in the study area, and (c.) number of coral branches. At the sametime, related activities such as cleaning of debris attached to the coral clones andpreserving the transplantation area (as an off- limits area for the period of thestudy) were done.

Still another example of coral transplantation is in Serangan 23 , Denpasar, Indonesia

off Bali. In 2002, the local government started to transplant coral using the graftingtechnique, or planting coral seeds on substrates (where the coral grows, includingdead coral). In attaching the seeds, the leaders were helped by local youthgroups, who later established the Karya Segara Beach Fishermens Group. Theymake small stools or plates from cement with metal or concrete frames to

21 United States Task Force on Coral Reefs (2000). The National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs. Washington,D.C.22 http://www.reefball.com/map/phillipinescoraltransplant/T10_DukaBayLAlfeche.pdf 23 http://www.developing8.org/2009/05/11/coral-reef-transplant-in-serangan-a-study-case-for-d-8-marine-tourism/


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2 position the coral. They have planted 32 species of corals, which are growing wellacross a 3.5-hectare area.

The biggest challenge of coral reef transplantation is the great cost of undertakingsuch a difficult activity.

6. Artificial Reefs

Artificial reefs are man-made underwater structures typically built for promotingmarine life in areas of generally featureless bottom. They may also improvehydrodynamics for surfing and/or to control beach erosion. 24 Artificial reefs can bebuilt in many ways. They include sinking old oil rigs, scuttling ships, or by deployingrubble, tires and construction debris. Regardless of the construction method,artificial reefs provide the hard surfaces on which algae and invertebrates, such asbarnacles, corals and oysters attach. In turn, the accumulation of the attachedmarine life provides intricate structure and food for assemblages of fish. Many man-made reefs can be found off Hawaii, Florida and North Carolina.

In the Philippines, there is a number of artificial reefs projects. The biggest artificialreef has been built in Lamon Bay, off Atimonan, Quezon. In their aim to protect andrehabilitate the vast fishing grounds fronting this town, officials, environmentalists,fisherfolk and members of civic groups have banded together and built a massiveartificial reef, which they sank to the bottom of Lamon Bay last August 2009. 25

Touted to be the Philippines biggest, the concrete, man-made reef is about 4meters high and 21 meters in diameter, and weighs some 85 tons. It is supportedby hundreds of concrete-like balusters joined together in several sections. Puttingartificial reefs in the Atimonan fishing grounds had long been a dream of thefishermen because of the natural absence of mangrove areas in the vicinity. Amangrove forest is the natural breeding ground of marine species. The collective

effort is now bearing fruit with the return of diverse marine species to the area. Thereappearance of whale sharks in the bay area demonstrated the renewed vibrancyof marine lives. Whale sharks disappeared from the bay in the 1980s afterirresponsible fishermen began slaughtering them for meat.

24 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_reef 25 http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/nation/view/20090817-220676/Quezon-folk-build-biggest-artificial-reef
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_reefhttp://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/nation/view/20090817-220676/Quezon-folk-build-biggest-artificial-reefhttp://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/nation/view/20090817-220676/Quezon-folk-build-biggest-artificial-reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_reefhttp://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/nation/view/20090817-220676/Quezon-folk-build-biggest-artificial-reefhttp://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/nation/view/20090817-220676/Quezon-folk-build-biggest-artificial-reef


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SUMMARY OF PROBLEMS OF CORAL REEFS VIS--VIS GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE ANDCORRESPONDING ACTIONS FOR MITIGATION ORADAPTATION

PROBLEMS ACTIONS

Coral bleaching and

depletion due tomarine waterswarming from climatechange andacidification due toenvironmentalpollution

Declaration of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) andtheir effective management, protection and possibleexpansion

Overall, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions thatcause global warming

Transplanting of healthy young corals to replenishthe depleted corals

Creation of artificial reefs where new marine life canrebound (e.g., Lamon Bay, Denpasar)

Regional agreements (e.g. Manado OceanDeclaration, 2009)

National Laws and Policies (e.g., US National ActionPlan to Preserve Coral Reefs, 2002; Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000)

International Coral Reef Initiative (ICRI, 1994) International Coral Reef Action Network (ICRAN,

2000)

Global Programme of Action for the for the Protectionof the Marine Environment from Land-BasedActivities (GPA, 1995)

Declaration by United Nations of 2008 asInternational Year of Coral Reefs

Destruction of coralsthrough irresponsibleharvesting, fishingand constructionactivities

Legal controls and measures to ban and preventharvesting of corals for trading, destruction of coralsthrough fishing and construction activities

Citizens action (e.g., NGO protests in Iloilo againstspecific Boracay resorts built on corals, 2009)

Continuingirresponsible practicesthat generategreenhouse gasesthat generate globalclimate change

International agreements (e.g., Kyoto Protocol, 1997;Bali Road Map, 2007; )

United Nations Framework Convention on ClimateChange (UNFCC, 1992)

coral reefs and climate change v. 2

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