PROCEEDINGS

CORAL REEF EVALUATION WORKSHOP

PULAU SERIBU, JAKARTA, INDONESIA

11 - 20 SEPTEMBER 1995 ^ V¿

Edited by :

Subagjo Soemodihardjo

Organized Jointly

by

UNESCO Jakarta Office

and

Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI)

Research and Development Center for Oceanology

Jakarta, October 1998

PREFACE

In the past several years, the Indonesian coral reefs have been undergoing increasingdisturbances from human activities. Current information indicated that only around 28 % of thereefs were still in good to excellent condition. The rest were in fair to poor condition.Doubtlessly such a situation is highly regrettable and should not be allowed to go on unchecked,or the reefs will be totally destroyed. This would be a tremendous loss to the country sincemillion of coastal population depend largely on coral resources for their living.

In response to the above problems the Indonesian government has taken some necessarymeasures, such as establishing marine conservation areas, enacting law and regulation to protectcoral reef, and the most recent one being to launch a special project relating to coral reef entitledCoral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program or COREMAP in short. The primaryobjective of COREMAP is to protect, rehabilitate and manage the reef ecosystem in a sustainableway so as to increase the welfare of the people, particularly those who live in the coastal area.This is to be achieved through the following management approaches: (1) enhancement of publicawareness and participation; (2) capacity building and strengthening inter-institutionalcoordination (3). develop community-based management (4) set up network of reef monitoringand information system; and (5) law enforcement.

Prior to the establishment of COREMAP, a long term coral reef monitoring program hasbeen initiated by the Research and Development Center for Oceanology-LIPI in collaborationwith the International Océanographie Commission (IOC) of UNESCO. The program is carriedout in the Kepulauan Seribu, a chain ofcoral islands to the north of Jakarta. Through collection oftime series baseline data, the program aims to study the dynamic changes of the coralassemblages in this waters. The first baseline data were collected in 1985 through a survey onover 28 coral islands. The second survey was made after the lapse often years and it covered thesame sampling sites and used the same methodology as those of 1985. It should be pointed outhere that this second survey was an integral part of a workshop entitled Coral ReefEvaluationWorkshop which was held on 11 - 20 September 1995. The workshop discussed the results ofthe survey and anlysed them with reference to the baseline data of 1985 to ditect possiblechanges in the structure and condition of the reef. Taking part in the workshop and survey wereexperts from Indonesia, Australia, Netherland, United Kingdoms, USA, the Philippines,Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia and UNESCO.

This document presents the results of the Coral Reef Evaluation Workshop, coveringreports of the findings ofvarious monitoring activities, opening addresses, a recommendation toUNESCO and a collection ofnews paper clippings relating primarily to coral reef. Articles in thenews clippings were prepared by participants of the Earthwire - ASEAN Training WorkshopforEnvironmental Reporters who joined the Coral Reef Evaluation Workshop for the last two days.The clippings have been published in various Indonesian and English newspapers. It is our hopethat what is presented in this proceedings would be of value to enhance the understanding andbetter management of the coral reef of Pulau Seribu.

The Editor.

CONTENTS

Prefacei

Contentsii

Papers

1 . Lyndon De Vantier, Suharsono, Agus Budiyanto, Yosephine Tuti, PhilipImanto and Rene Ledesma. Status of coral communities of Pulau Seribu,

1985-19951

2. J.R.E. Harger Sampling periodicity for tracking change in coral reefs:The case of Pulau Seribu (Indonesia)25

3. J.R.E. Harger Sampling frequency in relation to dynamic change incoral reefs: Results from high school field surveys27

4. Suharsono, Giyanto, Yahmantoro and A.J. Munkajee Changes of distri¬bution and abundance of reef fish in Jakarta Bay and Seribu Islands 37

5. Lyle Vail and Thorn Thamrongnasawat Echinoderms associated withcoral reefs in Jakarta Bay and Kepulauan Seribu 55

6. Mark Erdmann and Ouk Sisovann Distribution and abundance of reef

flat stomatopods in Teluk Jakarta and Kepulauan Seribu 66

7. Mark Erdmann -Destructive fishing practice in the Pulau Seribu archipelago 84

8. N.G. Willoughby, H. Sangkoyo and B.O. Lakaseru Long term changesin strand line litter around the Thousand Islands, Jakarta Bay, Indonesia 90

Recommendation

Working group recommendation to UNESCO1 02

Annex

1 . Opening

1.1. Report ofthe Chairman of Local Organizer1031 .2. Welcoming Address ofthe Director ofUNESCO-ROSTSEA 1 041.3. Opening Address of the Vice Chairman of LIPI 1 06

2. Press Release1083 . Time Schedule110

4. List of participants1135. News clippings

5.1. News115

5.2. Photos127

u

STATUS OF CORAL COMMUNITIES OF PULAU SERIBU, 1985 - 1995

Lyndon DeVantier ]\ Suharsono 2), Agus Budiyanto 2),Josephine Tuti 2), Philip Imanto 3), Rene Ledesma4)

1 'Australian Institute of Marine Science, PMB 3, Townsville MC, Queensland, 4810.2) Research and Development Center for Oceanology (P30-LIPI), Indonesian Institute of Science.

PO Box 4801/JKTF 1 1048, Jakarta, Indonesia.

3) Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Perikanan Jakarta (CRIFI-JKT), Jin. K..S. TubanPetamburan VI.

41 Invertebrate Section, Fisheries Resources Research Division, Bureau of Fisheries and AquaticResources. 860 Quezon Avenue, Quezon City, Philippines, 3008

ABSTRACT

With expansion of the city of Jakarta over the past century, the neighbouring PulauSeribu (Thousand Islands) reef tract has been increasingly affected by a range of human andnatural impacts, including pollution, dredging, destructive over-fishing and ENSO temperaturestress. To assess current status of the coral communities of the reef tract, 25 reefs were surveyedin 1985 and 1995 using line-intercept transects. The reefs were located from within Jakarta Bayto ~ 70 km offshore in the Kepulauan Seribu National Park. The reef tract was considered as3 groups of reefs, arbitrarily based on oceanography, reef geomorphology and distance fromthe mainland: 1) reefs within Jakarta Bay, 2) reefs ofthe mid-region (15 -50 km offshore from

Jakarta), and 3) reefs of the outer region (> 50 km from Jakarta). Reefs within Jakarta Bayexhibited little change from 1985 to 1995 and remained in very poor condition (mean coral coverof < 5 %). Water quality was poor, with massive blooms of phyto plankton in the nutrient-enriched bay waters. Water quality improved with increasing distance from Jakarta. Mid-regionreefs showed both improvement and decline in coral cover since 1985, such that mean coverremained at - 20 %. Reefs ofthe outer region exhibited a significant decline in coral cover (from~ 30 % in 1985 to ~ 20 % in 1995). The decline was most apparent for corals of the genusAcropora on the reef slopes (~ 3 m depth). Much of the decline in coral cover and coincidentincrease in dead coral was attributed to prédation by crown-of-thorns starfish, which had increasedin abundance on 15 reefs. Coral recruitment was occurring on some of the denuded reefs,

suggesting that recovery of coral cover can occur over the next 1 - 2 decades. A complementaryannual data-set for 3 reefs showed that there had been periods of recovery and loss of coral coversince 1985, indicating that a shorter interval between surveys (< 5 yrs) would improvemonitoring. The line-transect method appeared suitable as a cost-effective monitoring tool forassessing changes in coral cover, although there was considerable inter-observer variability indata recording, highlighting the importance of standardisation of observer performance in futuresurveys. Recommendations arising from this project included expansion of liaison amonggovernment decision-makers, user groups, island residents, resort owners and other stake-holdersto improve management, expanded policing ofthe marine park, and dissemination of informationto improve awareness of stake-holders and the public.

INTRODUCTION

Comprising some 17,000 islands spanning the equator from 100° E to 140° E, Indonesia is situated in thecentre of global coral reef biodiversity (Best et al., 1989; Hoeksema, 1992; Veron, 1993; Wallace, in press).The archipelago supports some 400 species of reef-building hard corals on reef systems ranging from near-shore fringing reefs to oceanic atolls. The island of Java (popn. ~ 90 million) borders the shallow (< 100 m)

semi-protected Java Sea on its northern coastline, wherein are located the Pulau Seribu (Thousand Islands,Fig. 1). These are a group of about 100 coral islands (cays) and reefs forming a cluster to the north-west ofthe capital city of Jakarta (popn. ~ 10 million).

The corals and reefs ofthe Thousand Islands were first described in detail by Umbgrove(1928, 1929, 1939) and Verwey (1931), who found them to be in generally good condition in the1920's, although some human influences were already apparent on near-shore reefs. With therapid expansion of Jakarta, increasing use ofthe resources ofthe reefs and islands ofthe Java Seahas occurred (Harger, 1986; Ongkosongo, 1986a,b; Halim and Djohani, 1992; Tomascik etai, 1994). The sea floor and reefs close to Jakarta have been dredged for land fill and an artisanalfish trap ('bagan') industry has been long established. Further offshore to the north-west ofthereef tract a major oil field is in operation. Some ofthe islands are national park wildlife refuges,some have been developed as tourist resorts and others as 'dormitory towns' of Jakarta (Table 1),with local populations engaged in reef fishing and gleaning. The waters of Jakarta Bay are fed byseveral major coastal rivers transporting sediments, sewage, agricultural and industrial effluents,including heavy metals and pesticides (Harger, 1986; Ongkosongo, 1986b; Hungspreugs, 1988).This has resulted in high levels of nutrients and the eutrophication of coastal waters extending fora considerable distance into the Java Sea (Suyarso, 1995). The 'dormitory' towns and some oftheresorts also deliver untreated sewage to ground waters, with the likelihood of dispersion toadjacent reef waters. The reefs have been adversely affected by temperature stress associated withENSO periods in the 1980's (Suharsono, 1990) and possibly also in the 1990's (Harger, 1995).

Herein we report the results of a ten-year comparison of cover of corals and other sessilebenthos made using the lifeform line-intercept transect method (DeVantier, 1986; English et al.,1994). The surveys formed part of a larger series of studies of corals, fish, echinoderms,stomatopod crustaceans, island geomorphology, water quality and beach litter, conducted by amulti-national team of reef scientists, and co-ordinated by UNESCO and P3O-LIPI (see other

papers in this volume). Twenty-eight reefs, from within Jakarta Bay to~70 km offshore in theKepulauan Seribu National Park were surveyed, initially in May 1985 and subsequently inSeptember 1995.

METHODS

Reefselection

Reefs were selected initially to provide a representative sample across the reef chain(Table 1, Fig. 1). The reefs were categorised into 3 arbitrary groups based on geomorphology,oceanography and distance from Jakarta and the mainland. The first group of reefs (Region 1)was located within the major influence of Jakarta Bay (< 12 km from mainland and < 1 8 km fromJakarta), the second group (Region 2) was located outside the major influence of Jakarta Bay andin the mid-region ofthe archipelago (< 50 km from Jakarta). The third reef group (Region 3) waslocated in the outer region (~ 50-70 km from Jakarta). Classification of Pulau Ubi Besar and P.

Ayer Besar in Region 1, and P. Damar Kecil and P. Damar Besar in Region 2, was based largelyon océanographie data of current patterns, temperature, salinity, and the distributions of nutrientsand chlorophyll within Jakarta Bay (Tomascik etal., 1994; Suyarso, 1995).

Site selection

Survey sites were selected on the northern side of each reef. In the 1995 surveys, sitepositions were recorded on' a portable GPS unit for ease of relocation during future surveys (Table

1 ). Two depth ranges were sampled: the outer reef flat - reef crest (~ 1 m depth) and upper reefslope (~ 3 m depth). In each depth range, sets of 3 replicate 30 m long line transects werepositioned haphazardly along the reef edge. A trained observer using SCUBA recorded onwaterproof data-sheets the intercepts of the transect tape with the underlying sessile benthos,

classified into ~ 20 categories at the level of lifeform (DeVantier, 1986; English et al, 1994). Thefield data were entered into the database program dBase for storage, checking and preliminaryanalysis. Original data are stored at P3O-LIPI (Jakarta).

Following conduction ofthe transects at each site, an area of approximately 500 m2 wassearched for the coral-feeding crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci. When found, thestarfish were measured (aboral diameter in cm) and their colour was recorded as 1 of 2 common

colour morphs - iridescent blue-purple or red-green. Field notes were taken on any other forms ofcoral mortality and of any outstanding features ofthe sites.

Five observers collected the lifeform line-intercept data during the 1995 surveys. All hadprior experience in use ofthe method. However, it became apparent subsequently that problemshad arisen in interpretation of lifeform categories, with one observer in particular recordinghighly anomalous results (DeVantier et al., in press). All comparisons between the 1985 and 1995data sets herein were undertaken after exclusion of data from the anomalous 1995 observer. All

temporal comparisons were conducted on data from the 25 reefs sampled in both 1985 and 1995(Table 1). Changes in cover were assessed for all hard corals, hard corals ofthe genus Acropora(major reef-builders and the most speciose genus in the Indo-west Pacific region), other hardcorals and dead hard corals, using ANOVA in the S-plus suite of statistical programs.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

There was an overall reduction in cover of hard corals from 1985 (~ 23 %) to 1995 (-17%) (P = 0.08) for the 25 reefs (Tablé 2, Fig. 2). Sixteen reefs had similar coral cover in 1995 as in

1985, 2 reefs (Region 2) exhibited substantial increases in coral cover and 7 reefs (mostly inRegion 3) showed a major decline in coral cover over the decade (Fig. 3). The overall decline incover was mostly attributable to coral mortality on the reef slopes (~ 3 m depth) of Region 3,whereas there was little change from 1985 for the shallow sites (~1 m depth) (Fig. 2). There weremajor differences in coral cover among regions (P < 0.001) and for the year : depth (p = 0.04) andregion : depth (P = 0.001) interactions (Table 2).

In 1985, highest coral cover was in the deeper (3 m) sites. In 1995, there was little

difference in cover between the deeper and shallower sites overall, and for Region 1 . In Region 2,coral cover remained higher on the deeper slopes whereas in Region 3, cover was higher on theshallower slopes (Fig. 2). These trends resulted mostly from reduction in cover of corals of thegenus Acropora (Figs. 4 and 5). There were significant declines in cover ofAcropora overall (P =0.006), and significant differences among regions (P < 0.001) and for the year : depth interaction(P = 0.02). There was relatively little change in cover of corals other than Acropora over thedecade from 1985 (-12 % cover overall), other than a decline on the reef slopes (3 m depth) ofRegion 3 (Table 2, Figs. 6 and 7).

The loss of coral cover on the reef slopes was largely attributable to prédation by crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planci, which were actively feeding on most reefs surveyed inRegions 2 and 3 (Fig. 8). The starfish had increased markedly in abundance in the decade since1985 (Fig. 9). Sizes ofthe starfish in 1995 suggest annual recruitment to the reefs since 1991(Fig. 10). Earlier surveys reported large populations ofthe starfish feeding on several reefs in theearly 1990's ( Soekarno, P3O-LIPI pers. comm.), suggesting a gradual increase in abundance anddistribution throughout the reef tract in the decade since 1985. P. Tidung was the only reef whereA. planci was common in 1985 (Fig. 9), and may well have been a major source of larvae forrecruitment ofthe starfish to other reefs in the area.

Table 1. The distance from the mainland and Jakarta, the principal activities on the islands,

the approximate number of households (Willoughby et al, this volume), andposition of sites (GPS, WGS 84 datum) are listed for the three groups of islands. 1- reefs surveyed in 1985 only, 2 - reefs surveyed in 1995 only. * represents islandsthat had eroded to or below sea level.

No. Distance Distance Latitude LongitudeReef name Activity house¬

holds

mainland

Java (km)

Jakarta

(km)

(deg. S) (deg.E)

Group 1Nyamuk besar* At sea level . 0 8 11 6.01.80 106.51.00

Nyamuk Kecil I Eroding 1 II 13 6. 00.30 106.49.85

Ayer Besar Residential

and tourism

10 8 14 6.00.04 106.46.80

Ayer Kecil 1 ? ? 7 16 -5.59.9 -106.46.7

Ubi Besar* At sea level 0 5 17 5.59.91 106.44.42

Kelor Reserve 0 4 14 6.01.51 106.44.62

Onrust Residential

and tourism

10 2 14 6.01.93 106.44.00

Bidadari Tourism

and

residential

20 3 13 6.01.91 106.4.78

Group 2Damar Besar Residential 20 15 18 5. 57.27 106.50.44

Damar Kecil Residential 10 13 16 5. 59.02 106.50.72

Rambut 1 Reserve 2 5 22 5. 58.50 106.41.30

Untung Jawa Residential 100 3 23 ~5. 58.4 -106.41.0

Bokor Reserve 0 10 30 5. 56.61 106.37.64

Dapur At sea level 0 11 25 5. 55.73 106.43.93

Tidung Residential 0 23 46 5. 48.04 106.31.54

Lancang 0 13 35 5.55.59 106.35.50

Tikus South 2 Residential 1 17 36 5.51.94 106.34.94

Tikus North Residential 1 17 36 5.51.13 106.34.98

Group 3Semak Daun Residential 1 33 49 5. 43.65 106.33.97

Air Residential 1 5. 45.65 106.34.69

Kotok Besar Tourism

and

residential

20 34 54 5.41.92 106.32.38

Kotok Kecil 2 Residential 1 35 55 5.41.37 106.31.98

Kelapa Residential

- fishing

120

0

39 57 5.39.30 106.33.55

Belanda Reserve 0 45 60 5. 36.23 106.36.15

Sepa Tourism

and

residential

20 49 64 5.34.45 106.34.79

Putri Tourism

and

residential

20 46 63 5.35.39 106.34.03

Panjang Airport,coconuts

0 41 58 5. 38.59 106.33.58

.lukung Residential 10 50 67 5.34.01 106.31.64

Ilantu Kecil Tourism

and

residential

40 52 70 5.32.18 106.31.79

Hantu Besar Tourism

and

residential

40 53 70 5.31.74 106.32.31

Table 2. Comparisons of cover of hard corals, Acropora, other hard corals, and dead hardcorals, from line transects in 1985 and 1995. ANOVA model: (e.g.) Hard coral ~region*year*depth+Error (reef). Values of cover were square-root transformed prior toanalysis. Significant results (P < 0.05) are bolded.

Hard corals Acropora Other hard corals Dead corals

Source df F P F P F P F P

Error: reef

Region 2 32.34 <0.001 17.75 <0.00I 25.90 <0.001 7.53 0.003

Residuals 22

Error: within

Year 1 3.19 0.08 7.99 0.006 0.07 0.79 240.5 <0.001

Depth 1 2.30 0.13 0.001 0.97 4.60 0.04 4.04 0.05

Yeanregion 2 1.88 0.16 1.83 0.17 0.25 0.78 1.89 0.16

Year:depth 1 3.26 0.04 1.81 0.17 2.16 0.12 2.10 0.13

Region:depth 2 11.26 0.001 6.16 0.02 7.82 0.007 7.45 0.008

Year:region:depth 2 1.10 0.34 1.08 0.35 1.02 0.37 0.88 0.42

Residuals 66

Prédation by the starfish and other sources of coral mortality had caused a significantincrease in the cover of dead corals overall (P < 0.001) and in each ofthe 3 regions, for both theshallow (lm) and deeper (3 m) sites (Figs. 11, 12, 13, Table 2). This increase was mostsignificant in the offshore Region 3 reefs, where dead corals covered more ofthe substrate (~ 30%) than living hard corals, and all reefs other than P. Jukung had cover of dead corals of > 20 %(Fig. 13). Reefs of Region 1 also had higher cover of dead corals (~ 10 %) than live coralswhereas Region 2 reefs had similar levels of dead (~ 20 %) and live coral cover (Figs. 2 and 9).Highest cover of dead corals (> 40 %) occurred at P. Tidung (Region 2), P. Air and P. KotokBesar (Region 3, Fig. 13).

The increase in cover of dead corals may also be partly attributable to destructive fishingpractices (explosives in 1980's, poisons in 1990's, Djohani, 1994), temperature stress associatedwith ENSO events in the 1990's (Harger, 1995) and pollution form the inhabited islands (Table1). The coral-feeding gastropod molluscs Drupella spp. were also present on some reefs, in lowabundance. Much ofthe dead coral on reefs of Region 1 was likely to be caused by poor waterquality from Jakarta Bay, dredging of reef sediments for land-fill and associated effects onsedimentation and turbidity. Light penetration to the near-shore reefs was consistently poor(Tomascik et al, 1994; Harger et al, this volume), primarily because of very high concentrationsof phyto-plankton (distributed as a surface layer > lm thick) in the nutrient-enriched bay waters(Suyarso, 1995).

Regional - temporal comparisonsRegion 1

Reefs of Jakarta Bay remained in very poor condition in 1995, with little apparent changein coral cover since 1985 (Figs. 2, 3). Living hard corals covered < 5 % ofthe substrate and sand,rubble and algae were the dominant components of cover on most reefs. Water quality was verypoor, with high concentrations of plankton, flotsam and jetsam. There had been major increasesin strand-line litter since 1985 (see Willoughby et al, this volume), with likely coincidentincreases in other forms of pollution from Jakarta. Two ofthe near-shore islands had disappearedbelow sea level since 1985 and several others were eroding, probably through a combination ofdredging for land-fill and natural loss of sediments. High rates of bioerosion were apparent on theinner region reefs (Fig. 8), and there is little to no coral growth and reef accretion occurring tocounter these effects. Thus, further erosion of the reefs and islands is likely, particularly ifdredging continues.

At present, most ofthe Region 1 reefs can be considered to be functionally dead, from avariety of human impacts. Notably, the development of Jakarta was already having negativeeffects on at least one ofthe reefs closest to the mainland, P. Onrust, in the 1920's (Umbgrove,1928; Moll and Suharsono, 1986, Fig. I). However, reefs further offshore in Jakarta Bay were ingood condition. For example, Umbgrove (1939) described the then thriving coral communitiessurrounding P. Nyamuk Besar as "... a profusion of serene and fascinating beauty". In 1995, thisreef had little surviving coral, highlighting the deterioration ofthe near-shore reefs over the past50 years (also see Tomascik et al, 1994).

Region 2Reefs ofthe mid-region exhibited substantial variability in 1995, ranging in coral cover

from < 10 % (P. Tidung) to > 50 % (P. Dapur). Several reefs had increased in coral cover, othersshowed little change and one showed a major decline in cover (P. Tidung) over the decade since1985 (Figs. 2, 3), such that there was a minor increase in cover overall (Fig. 2). Althoughgrouped in Region 2, the reefs of P. Damar Kecil and P. Untung Jawa appear to represent thetransition zone ofthe major influence of Jakarta and the adjacent mainland on coral communities.Cover of living hard corals on these reefs was ~ 10 % in 1985 and 1995. By contrast, coral coverhad increased substantially on P. Damar Besar (~15 - 30%) and P. Dapur (~ 25 - 55%) in thedecade since 1985.

These 2 reefs are both < 25 km from Jakarta (Table 1, Fig. 1), indicating that water

quality at this distance is not inimical to coral growth and recovery at present. Indeed, P. Dapurshowed the greatest improvement in coral cover of all reefs surveyed in 1995, and was the onlyreef that could be considered to be in good - excellent condition (in terms of coral cover) byinternational standards. This reef is relatively isolated from the remainder ofthe reef tract (Fig.1), has only a small open reef flat and has no local human population, perhaps conferring someprotection from destructive fishing, temperature stress and local pollution. Nonetheless, the reefs

bordering Jakarta Bay may be affected episodically by large flood events, in the form of 'pulses'of waters of low salinity, enriched nutrients and other additives.

Erdmann and Sisovann (this volume) inferred a more widespread influence of Jakarta onthe distribution and abundance of reef flat stomatopod crustaceans than was apparent for coralcover. Their findings suggest that the stomatopods may be more sensitive to changes in waterquality than the corals, and thus may be of use as 'indicators' of pollution impacts of reefs.Species of shallow reef flats are usually subjected to the harshest physico-chemical regimes onreefs, being most influenced by surface flood plumes and temperature stress. Clearly, integrationof information from a range of biota and physico-chemical parameters will provide the bestunderstanding ofthe dynamics of reef communities and the effects of human and natural impactsthereon.

Surface current patterns in the Java Sea are influenced strongly by the monsoon winds(Tomascik et al, 1994; Suyarso, 1995). These winds cause surface waters from the vicinity ofJakarta to flow in a north-westerly direction across the reef tract during the relatively dry south¬east monsoon (April - October) and in a south-easterly direction towards Jakarta during the wetnorth-west monsoon (November - March). Importantly, these current patterns will tend to limitthe spread of polluted waters into the reef tract during the wet season, when coastal flooding is atits maximum.

Most ofthe Region 2 reefs are outside the major influence of Jakarta Bay, and impactsare likely to be both from more widespread (ENSO temperature stress) and more localisedsources (crown-of-thorns starfish prédation, pollution, fishing and gleaning from inhabitedislands). For example, major impacts to shallow coral communities around P. Pari occurredduring the 1983 ENSO event (Suharsono, 1990). Further ENSO events in 1991-92 (Harger, 1995)may also have caused mortality of shallow water biota, particularly on reefs with large semi-

enclosed reef flats where heated waters may remain ponded for extended periods (see Erdmannand Sisovann, this volume).

Region 3Most reefs ofthe outer region exhibited declines in coral cover since 1985, particularly in

corals ofthe genus Acropora on the reef slopes (3 m depth). The declines were most notable at P.Belanda, P. Jukung and P. Kotok Besar (Figs. 2, 3) whereas the declines were minor at P. HantuBesar, P. Hantu Kecil, P. Panjang and P. Sepa. P. Semak Daun exhibited a slight improvement incoral cover from 1985 to 1995. Djohani (1994) reported coral cover of- 30 % for a site on thesouth-east side of P. Semak Daun, suggesting that this reef has remained in moderate conditionduring the 1990's.

In 1985, the outer region supported highest cover of hard corals (~ 30 %), and there wasan overall improvement in reef condition (as indicated by coral cover and species diversity) withincreasing distance offshore from Jakarta (Brown, 1986; Harger, 1986; Moll and Suharsono,1986). However, blast fishing was occurring at the time ofthe 1985 surveys (Harger, 1986).There was no evidence of blast fishing in 1995, although poison fishing with cyanide wasreportedly occurring in the region (Djohani, 1994). Overall, there was a marked absence of largereef fishes and other taxa of commercial value (e.g. holothurian 'sea cucumbers') at most sites,and increases in the abundance of sea urchins, particularly Diadema sp., and crown-of-thornsstarfish Acanthaster planci (Fig. 8, and see Vail et al., this volume).

In 1985, A. planci was found on 2 ofthe 28 reefs surveyed, and was common on onlyone reef (P. Tidung). There was little evidence of starfish outbreaks, in the form of major coralmortality or characteristic scarring patterns on massive corals (DeVantier et al, 1986; Done,1987), during the 1985 surveys, apart from the population present on P. Tidung. Surveys in theearly I990's found outbreak populations of A. planci on several reefs (Soekarno, PiO-LIPI pers.comm.). In 1995, A. planci was present on 16 reefs in Regions 2 and 3 (~ 85 % of reefssurveyed), in moderate - high densities (Fig. 9). Thus the starfish appear to have been increasingin abundance in the Pulau Seribu reef tract since 1985.

Major population outbreaks of these starfish have devastated reef communities in manyother regions of the Indo-Pacific since the 1960's (Moran, 1986), and remain a majormanagement problem of coral reefs (Birkeland and Lucas, 1990). Causes ofthe starfish outbreaksremain the subject of debate amongst researchers. There are several likely causes ofthe increasesin abundance ofA. planci (and Diadema sp.) in the Thousand Islands. These include relaxation ofprédation pressure on the echinoderms, through reductions in fish and molluscan predatorpopulations, caused by over-fishing and collecting (Endean, 1973, 1976; Ormond et al. 1988;McClanahan, 1995; McClanahan et al, 1996). Other potential contributing factors includeenhancement of echinoderm larval survival through nutrient enrichment (Birkeland and Lucas,1990) and the ENSO events (L. Zann, Uni. Southern Cross, Australia pers. comm.).

Prognosisfor thefutureThe Indonesian island Arc is considered the "centre of diversity" for coral reef biota of

the Indo-Pacific region, as evidenced by the rich diversity of corals, fishes and other biota thatoccur there. For example, the Java Sea is one of few known areas where both the iridescent blueand red-green colour morphs of A. planci co-occur (Fig. 10), even though this species is one ofthe most widespread of all reef organisms (Moran, 1986). The archipelagic nature andocéanographie connectedness ofthe Indonesian reef system provide substantial resilience againstlong-term degradation, as evidenced by the extremely rapid recovery of a reef in the Banda Sea(eastern Indonesia) following volcanic disturbance (Tomascik et al, 1996). Nonetheless, thereefs are highly susceptible to degradation from chronic human impacts of pollution anddestructive over-fishing. In the latter case, the reduction in abundance of reef fishes in the PulauSeribu region (Tomascik et al, 1994) mirrors similar trends throughout much of east Asia,

caused in part by the increasing demands ofthe live reef fish trade (Johannes and Riepen, 1995).Apart from the direct loss of this important source of protein to local human populations, thereare likely to be secondary indirect effects on other elements ofthe ecosystem.

As with most other reef regions ofthe world (see e.g. Brown, 1987; Wilkinson, 1993;Ginsburg, 1994; Hughes, 1994; Tomascik et al, 1994), there is an urgent and growing need foreffective management and policing to redress increasing human impacts to the reef tract.Recruitment of juvenile corals was occurring on some ofthe denuded reefs in 1995, suggestingthat recovery of coral cover and community structure can occur over the next 1-2 decades,provided the destructive practices are controlled. Most importantly, human impacts of over¬fishing, sewage, other forms of pollution and dredging must be limited as much as is practicablewithin the framework of future development of the region. The recent instigation of a 'cleanwaters' program for Jakarta may lead to an improvement in the status of the near-shore reefs.Additionally, stocks of reef fishes and other taxa of commercial interest may be restored throughreef closures to fisherman and through effective enforcement of such closures. Opportunitiesexist for the development of large-scale mariculture operations, to supply both local and exportdemand and to restore natural populations.

Most reefs in the outer region of the reef tract form part of the Kepulauan SeribuNational Park and thus are afforded protection through their national park status. In 1995, thereappeared to be little enforcement ofthe park regulations (see also Alder et al, 1994; Djohani,1994). Such enforcement is crucial for the long-term sustainability ofthe reefs ofthe region.Similarly, some ofthe islands support resorts that can play a positive role in the management oftheir adjacent reefs, through minimising inputs of sewage and other pollution and maximisingsurveillance and deterrence of illegal fisherman.

Reefs ofthe Thousand Islands are connected oceanographically through surface currents,with both positive and negative effects. Positively, the reefs that remain in moderate - goodcondition can act as 'seed sources' for denuded reefs, via the planktonic dispersal of larvae offishes, corals and other reef species. In this respect, it is crucial that all efforts are made tomaintain the quality of those reefs, as recruitment and recovery will be slowed substantially if thelocal sources of larval supply are lost. This may best be achieved through regular monitoring,surveillance and enforcement. Negatively, most 'pest species' also have planktonic larvae thatwill coincidentally be dispersed in the surface currents, along with pollutants from the mainland,inhabited islands and shipping. In the latter respect, consideration should be given to theapplication of legislation governing discharge of ballast waters by vessels entering and leavingJakarta through the reef tract, in association with other measures to minimise mainland- andisland-based discharges.

Two ofthe most disturbing findings ofthe present study were that the near-shore (Region1) reefs remain in very poor condition, while many ofthe outer (Region 3) reefs have declinedmarkedly in condition since 1985. Positively, reefs on the border of Jakarta Bay have improvedsince 1985, and there is now wide recognition ofthe many problems to be addressed. Reefs ofthe3 regions are subjected to different impacts and disturbance regimes, with Region 1 reefs beingmost affected by poor water quality, Region 2 and Region 3 reefs by local population pressures,over-fishing and outbreaks of crown-of-thorns starfish. In this respect, a multi-faceted approachto rehabilitation, targeting each region separately, may be the best solution. Such an approachmust encompass continuing education campaigns and ongoing monitoring studies of reef status,as well as surveillance, policing and enforcement of regulations, as these are all essential parts ofthe medium- to long-term strategy towards sustainability.

There is a growing awareness ofthe urgent need to manage the living resources oftheJava Sea in a sustainable manner, fostered in part through programs such as this. The presentmultidisciplinary approach of concurrent studies of a range of reef taxa, island geomorphologyand physico-chemical parameters has provided important insights into the current status of thereef tract. The line transect-based protocol for assessing coral cover proved to be a cost-effective

monitoring method, although problems arose with inter-observer variability (DeVantier et al, inpress). Consideration should be given to the use of video-monitoring techniques for futuresurveys (DeVantier and Done, 1995; Oliver et al, 1995), providing a permanent visual record ofthe status ofthe coral communities. Annual monitoring of a selected sub-set of reefs and a shorterinterval between major surveys would also facilitate a better understanding of reef status. Forexample, a complimentary annual data set for several reefs indicated that there had been periodsof recovery and loss of coral cover in the decade since 1985 (Harger, in press).

Based on the results of these programs, and the prognosis for recovery from coralrecruitment in 1995, it is recommended that the next major set of surveys should be undertaken in1999 - 2000. Other major recommendations arising from the present study included expansion ofliaison among government decision-makers, user groups, island residents, resort owners andother stake-holders to improve management, expanded surveillance and policing of the marinepark, and dissemination of information to improve awareness of stake-holders and the public.With such initiatives, and the continued co-operation and goodwill ofthe various government andnon-government agencies involved, it may be possible in the medium to long-term to restore thereefs ofthe Thousand Islands to a similar status as their generally good condition during the timeof Umbgrove.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors gratefully acknowledge UNESCO (Jakarta, Indonesia and Paris, France), P:,0-LIPIand CRIFI (Jakarta, Indonesia), the Philippines Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, and theAustralian Institute of Marine Science for logistic support in the conduction of this research. In particular,we are grateful to Dr Robin Harger (UNESCO) and Dr Soekarno (P30-LIPI) for the conception andinitiation of this project and to Nuning Wirjoatmodjo (UNESCO, Jakarta) for her organisational skills.These surveys could not have succeeded without much hard work by the staff of UNESCO (Jakarta) andP-jO-LlPI, and the support of the Government of Indonesia. We also acknowledge the provision ofaccomodation on P. Bidadari (Region 1), the P3O-LIPI Research Station on P. Pari (Region 2) and P. Putri(Region 3) during the field surveys. Dr. Subagjo (P3O-LIPI) and Dr. Clive Wilkinson (AIMS) provideduseful comments on an earlier version of this manuscript.

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regional UNESCO (COMAR) workshop with advanced training Diponegoro University, Jeparaand National Institute of Oceanology, Jakarta, Indonesia. UNESCO Reports in Marine Science 40:164-173.

Harger, J.R.E. 1995. Air-temperature variations and ENSO effects in Indonesia, the Philippines and ElSalvador. ENSO patterns and changes from 1866-1993. Atmospheric Environment 29: 1919-1942.

Harger, J.R.E. (In press). How frequently must sampling be implemented to track changes in coral reefcommunities? Evidence from a "natural experiment" and a high-school-based sampling programfor coral reefs. UNESCO-IOC workshop on long-term coral reef data sets. Proc. 8lh Int. CoralReefSymp. Panama, 1996.

Hoeksema, B.W. 1992. The position of northern New Guinea in the center of marine benthic diversity: areef coral perspective. Proc. 7lh Int. Coral ReefSymp., Guam 2: 710-717.

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10

McClanahan, T.R. 1995. Fish predators and scavengers ofthe sea urchin Echinometra malhaei in Kenyancoral-reef marine parks. Environ. Biol. Fishes 43: 187-193.

McClanahan, T.R., A.T. Kamukuru, N.A. Muthiga, M. Gilagabher and D. Obura 1996. Effect of sea urchinreductions on algae, coral, and fish populations. Conservation Biology 10: 136-154.

Moll, H. and Suharsono 1986. Distribution, diversity and abundance of reef corals in Jakarta Bay andKepulauan Seribu. In: Brown, B.E. (ed.) Human induced damage to coral reefs Results of aregional UNESCO (COMAR) workshop with advanced training Diponegoro University, Jeparaand National Institute of Oceanology, Jakarta, Indonesia. UNESCO Reports in Marine Science 40:164-173.

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Ongkosongo, O.S.R. 1986b. Some harmful stresses to the Seribu coral reefs, Indonesia. Proc. MAB-COMAR Regional Workshop on coral reef ecosystems: their management practices andresearch/training needs. UNESCO, Jakarta, pp. 133-142.

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Tomascik, T., Suharsono and A.J. Mah 1994. Case histories: A historical perspective ofthe natural andanthropogenic impacts in the Indonesian Archipelago with afocus on the Kepulauan Seribu, JavaSea. In: Ginsburg, R. (ed.) Proceedings ofthe colloquium on global aspects of coral reefs Health,hazards and history. University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of. Marine and Atmospheric Science,pp. 304-310.

Tomascik, T., R. van Woesik and A.J. Mah 1996. Rapid coral colonization of a recent lava flow followinga volcanic eruption, Banda Islands, Indonesia. Coral Reefs 15: 169-175.

Umbgrove, J.H.F. 1928. De koraalriffen in de Baai van Batavia. Dienst Mijnb. Ned. Indie, Wetensch.Meded. 7: 1-69.

Umbgrove, J.H.F. 1929. The influence ofthe monsoons on the geomorphology of coral islands. Proc. 4lhPacific Sei. Congr. 2A: 49-54.

Umbgrove, J.H.F. 1939. Madreporaria from the bay of Batavia. Zoologische Meded. 22: 1- 64.

Veron, J.E.N. 1993. A biogeographic database of hermatypic corals species ofthe central Indo-Pacificgenera ofthe world. Australian Institute ofMarine Science Monograph Series 10, 433 pp.

11

Verwey, J. 1931. Coral reef studies. III. Geomorphological notes on the coral refs of Batavia Bay. Treubia13: 199-215.

Wallace, C. (In press). Separate ocean basin origins as the explanation for high coral species diversity inthe central Indo-Pacific. Proc. 8lh Int. Coral ReefSymp., Panama 1996.

Wilkinson, CR. 1993. Coral reefs of the world are facing widespread devastation: can we prevent thisthrough sustainable management practices? Proc. 7lh Int. Coral ReefSymp., Guam 1 11-21.

12

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19

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22

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23

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24

SAMPLING PERIODICITY FOR TRACKING CHANGE IN CORAL REEFS:

THE CASE OF PULAU SERIBU (INDONESIA)

J.R.E. Harger

Senior Assistant SecretaryUNESCO-IOC

Paris, France

Coral reefs in the vicinity of Jakarta have now been rather closely monitored for nearly

three-quarters of a century beginning in the 1930s. This period has seen a stunning decline incoral-cover progressively extending from the region adjacent to the City of Jakarta into the JavaSea. This includes the further reaches ofthe island chain making up the system we are concernedwith here, a distance exceeding 100 km from the mainland of Java.

In the 1930s Umbgrove reported a confusion of dense growth of hard coral within theconfines of Jakarta Bay. By the early 1980s coral growth was largely suppressed in Jakarta Baybut still remarkably profuse in terms of species representation and percent surface-cover from thesomewhere just beyond the mouth of Jakarta Bay outwards, particularly to the northwest. Earlierstudies were primarily focused on corals and fish but the present study also adds Stomatopods(Erdmann and Sisovann, this collection) as well as Echinoderms (Vail and Thamrongnasawat,this collection).

The reefs in Jakarta Bay up to the mouth or a bit beyond, not including Pulau Dapur, butcertainly Pulau Ayer Kecil, Pulau Ubi Besar, Pulau Rambut, Pulau Untung Jawa and those furthersouth are, as a group, the most southern islands in the Pulau Seribu chain. This group includesPulau Bidadari, Pulau Onrust and so forth. All these southern reefs, or islands, are relatively

depauperate, with reduced numbers of coral-species and limited cover. This is largely designatedas Group 1 in the DeVantier, Suharsono et al. paper in this publication. The next Group, 2, isnorth of Group 1 and it overlaps some ofthe islands listed above. This group may be viewed asfinishing in the region of Pulau Tikus and Pulau Pari. Group 3, is still further north and it extendsbeyond Pulau Pari to, in this case, Pulau Hantu. Coral cover increases (in general) along thisgeographical S-N gradient. The Group 1 reefs, the southern ones, are said by DeVantier et al.(this collection of papers) to be considered as functionally dead. These reefs were more or lessthat way in 1985 as well. All the other reefs studied are north of these reefs and although thefurthest reefs from Java that were examined in 1985 were, at that time, less diverse than the

middle reefs, none-theless the reefs to the north were still more diverse than the southern (Jakarta

Bay reefs). The 1995 survey found that the coral-cover was markedly reduced on the reefs in themiddle and on those further out (to Pulau Hantu = Pulau Pantara). This reduction occurredsometime in the period between the 1985 and 1995 surveys. High-school survey data indicatedthat this sharp reduction apparently took place around the beginning of 1995 or somewhat earlier,after a period of comparative stability between 1985 and 1994.

Plainly a period of 10 years is much too long an interval to enable an accurate long-termestimation of reef-health. A period of around one year appears to be adequate to encompass reefdestruction as the result of use-pressure and stress from pollutants arising from the humancommunity together with associated attacks by crown-of-thorns starfish in the case of PulauSeribu. An intermediate workshop conducted at Pulau Banda, in East Indonesia in 1994 showedthat significant settlement and growth of corals (tabulate Acropora measuring over 1.5 m indiameter) took place within a period of around 5 years, after the eruption ofthe volcano GunungApi which destroyed the fringing reef. These facts lead to the conclusion that a period of between

25

3-5 years should be considered as an adequate interval between surveys with a lower limit of oneyear being "ideal".

The above consideration of a maximum healing-interval for reefs in Indonesia is of

course predicated on the availability of adjacent stocks of living corals capable of providingbrood-stock together with the presence of clean waters carrying an adequate nutrient load.

The combination of pollution-induced stress arising from cities (see the article byWilloghby et al. in this volume) together with the pressure arising from fishing, tourism andassociated recreational activities is the major factor serving to depress coral growth in areasadjacent to cities. The majority of reefs in Indonesia are however, subjected to continuous andunremitting pressure arising from direct exploitation of the resources associated with reefs,particularly from over-fishing, blasting and similar destructive harvest-practices. All the reefs inIndonesia are subject to such pressures but still there remain comparatively unblemished tractssuch as that associated with Pulau Banda. Reefs in the vicinity of cities on the other hand are, as arule, severely degraded and constitute the major object of concern. These reefs can only recover ifadequate sources for the recruitment ofjuveniles from outside the areas of primary impact remainintact, at least to some degree. Active measures should be taken to protect the reefs that remainintact and to actively manage the resources within'the vast majority of debilitated and partlydegraded reefs lying between these two extremes. If this is not done, the blight of destructionrepresented by the areas adjacent to the cities will surly spread to include most of the coastswithin the Indonesian archipelago.

26

SAMPLING FREQUENCY IN RELATION TO DYNAMIC CHANGE INCORAL REEFS: RESULTS FROM HIGH SCHOOL FIELD SURVEYS

How frequent must a sampling be implemented to track changesin coral reef communities ? Evidence from a "natural experiment"and a high-school-based sampling program for coral reefs.

J.R.E Harger

Senior Assistant SecretaryUNESCO/IOC

Paris, France.

INTRODUCTION

The problem of determining a suitable sampling frequency over time to enable detectionof meaningful changes in the biological structure of coral reefs is a vexing one. Intervals betweensampling that are relatively short, say one month, impose a heavy cost in terms of human andtechnical resources. Long intervals, say 5 years between surveys, leave too much margin forsignificant change with the result that the underlying dynamics of observed differences from timeto time can only be crudely estimated.

LONG-TERM HIGH SCHOOL FIELD STUDIES

The approach used to determine the maximum interval required and outlined herein, hasbeen used to guide acquisition of field data concerning the health and structure of coral reefs inthe region outside Jakarta Bay, Indonesia, using a marine-module by high school students in theJakarta International School (JIS) for 1 1 years between 1984 and 1995. The field-activity grewfrom 30 advanced students in 1983 to cover 4 classes involving over 120 students in 1994. Duringthis time approximately 10 teachers have been trained by the author in this one school and theseteachers in turn are now engaged in transmitting the methodologies to colleges working in theInternational School System.

Micro-computer analysis and organisation ofthe data is a must for this approach to work.In the case of well-to-do schools such as JIS, the students take Macintosh computers to the study-site (a tourist-resort hotel) and analyse their data with "Excel". The approach has also been taughtat two teacher training field courses in the Pacific (Dravuni Island, University of the SouthPacific) on two occasions involving 12 Pacific Island high school teachers. Six of these teachers

were exposed to two sessions and some of these now act as teacher-trainers. One from PapuaNew Guinea take part in a "teachers of teachers" activities.

The most important consideration in establishing such a program lies in the training ofthe teachers. Most teachers associated with science programs have not been exposed to the

implementation of field studies and the wide array of factors that present themselves forexamination is often overwhelming. Teachers for the most part need to be shown how to conductfield studies, take environmental measurements and interpret the resulting data. Without a firmgrasp ofthe principals involved on the part ofthe teacher there is simply no way that the requireddiscipline in data acquisition can be passed to the students. The only way to ensure such trainingis to take teachers and teachers of teachers out into the field for intensive study exposure. Thetime required to convert a competent science teacher to a field-study and data acquisitioninstructor is around two weeks at initiation. This will cover the fundamental questions relating to

27

field technique etc. A further two week exposure at a much later date is required to promote theinstructor up the next step to competent field analyst. At this point the graduate can teach otherteachers and can also take part in the definition of data acquisition policy and advanced analysis.Both these skills are required to verify and moderate the acceptably high standards required forthe acquisition of environmental data that can be used over the long term.

The best way into existing curricula is to take the advice of science teachers who showinterest in the concept of environmental or global change studies. Such advice will indicate thepotential entry-points into currently used curricula but the required long-term changes must thenbe engineered. This kind of change is best managed by the teachers themselves

APPROACH AND SAMPLING METHODS

In general, field assessment of ecological communities is undertaken in order to gain aquantitative basis for associating ecological responses with the influence of physical factors bothnatural and human-induced. It is the intersection of a number of environmental variables at anyone location that determines community structure among living organisms and this is particularlyso in the case of coral reefs. In order to gain an adequate understanding of both the patterns oforganisms that might be expected to occur at a given location and to assess the actual occurrences

it is necessary to rely on the results of sampling programs or sampling strategies which may bethought of as providing "windows" into an otherwise complex and potentially confusing world.

There are several methods that might be considered for sampling coral reefs. Oneprocedure will be covered here and it can give a good representation of the distribution andstructure of coral reefs if carefully applied. This method is the line transect using simplified"growth-forms".

A line transect consists simply of a measuring tape or nylon line laid across the surface of

the reef in a particular orientation. In the case of small coral islands, this orientation is usually atright angles to the body of the island or in parallel with the shore-line. In the first case, thestructure ofthe reef from shallow to deep regions may be assessed and in the second, the reefstructure at a particular depth may be examined. The purpose ofthe line is to lend orientation tothe investigator and to control the area or extent of reef under investigation. The line itself maybe viewed as either one dimensional (length only) or two dimensional (length and width). Thelatter is more properly called a belt transect wherein all organisms are potentially assessed.

In the case of a line transect, it may be convenient to assess only organisms at particularpoints (say every meter) and this mode of evaluation is termed a "point intercept" line transectThe system recommended herein is the "line intercept method" wherein every organismintercepted by the line is potentially scored successively throughout the length. The datacollected take the form ofthe identity ofthe organisms concerned, the position on the line, andthe extent ofthe line which is intercepted by each successive individual, colony or target-group

The line transect method dealt with here makes use ofthe fact that different types of coralcolony formations may be seen as adaptive responses to environmental conditions. There arearound 400 species of corals world-wide and the differences between individual genetic forms aresometimes difficult to detect in field situations. The development of sufficient expertise in coraltaxonomy to detect the many individual species inhabiting any locale in an area containing thebroad representation shown in Southeast Asia requires considerable training. Although it may bedesirable to conduct detailed assessments at the species level, it is nevertheless clear that aconsiderable amount of ecological information can be collected if only growth-forms are studied.

Thus, it may be demonstrated on the one hand that in the "Pulau Seribu Island Chain",

conditions of exposure to the open sea and in positions facing directly to the east and south (eastmonsoon, strong) or to the west- (west monsoon, less strong), there is often considerabledevelopment of reefs dominated by large boulder-like coral colonies of which the genus "Pontes"

28

is the most prominent. Reefs developing in sheltered locations such as areas protected from directwave action by adjacent islands within a few hundred meters offshore, on the other hand, arecharacterized by high concentrations of delicate forms such as fine-branched stag-horns{"Acropora") and folióse corals such as some species of Montipora.

THE ENVIRONMENT FOR THE PULAU SERIBU SYSTEM

The outer aspect of coral reef margins often differs according to specific locations. Thetype of reef cross-section found in most South East Asian coral islands is characterised by agentle slope from the exposed outer reef-margin (often characterised by the formation oframparts) down to a depth of 30-40 meters or so in the more shallow seas such as the Java Sea.In Indonesia there are several locations such as those near Manado (North Sulawesi), adjacent todeep seas or trenches where the outer reef face simply drops away vertically to depths of severalhundreds of meters.

A particularly noteworthy feature associated with the reef crest is to be found in the"ramparts" which represent ridges of coral fragments that have been broken off in storms and areprominently developed away from the windward face. These formations are often exposed at lowwater and sometimes even protrude above the surface at high water. In many cases they serve to

protect the inner lagoon from "normal" inclement weather so that the inner reaches of the reefmay be quite sheltered.

Domination ofthe reefs close to the mainland by massive corals is a marked feature ofthe Pulau Seribu system and inshore reefs along the north coast of Java. On the outer PulauSeribu reefs, massive corals up to 5 m in diameter dominate the windward exposed reefs. Manysections ofthe exposed barrier reef on Dravuni Island, Fiji, in the Pacific are also dominated byenormous massive corals (Pontes) some of which are 20 m or more in diameter. As previouslymentioned, sheltered reefs in the Pulau Seribu system are dominated by fragile branching andfolióse forms.

In addition to difference in exposure experienced by coral communities on a small islandother factors such as the amount of sediment in the water can have a marked effect on the

development of coral reefs lowering diversity and cover as the influence of such factors increases.Similar trends can be expected whenever the physical variables important to reef maintenanceshift from the relatively restricted zones of tolerance. From this point of view pollutants act bychanging the physical components ofthe environment in relation to the organisms concerned, in a"negative fashion".

Coral distribution and abundance also varies with depth and one important aspect actingin association with this environmental variable is light intensity. Corals grow well atcomparatively high light intensities because ofthe photosynthetic requirements of their comensalpartners, the zooxanthallae. Zooxanthellae are microscopic dinoflagelates or "internal plant-cells"which are carried within the coral tissues. The nutrients released by the zooxanthallae appear to

assist both in coral growth (perhaps as much as 95% of nutritional requirements) and in theprocess of skeletal calcification carried on by the host. Corals will eject their zooxanthallae (coral"blanching" or "bleaching" is then said to take place, the colonies look very pale and whitishcoloured) when faced with physical stress such as that induced by increased temperatures. Unlessconditions become more favourable the colonies will soon die. Coral communities, like terrestrial

forests, change their structure in response to the effects of varying light intensities which can beinduced by depth of water, suspended silt etc.

In a field study the factor of depth may be controlled by laying the transect parallel to theshore-line or reef face and a systematic investigation can demonstrate the community changesinvolved. For snorkeling, depths of 1 m and 3 m are appropriate as testing regimes to examinesuch changes or variations. For SCUBA gear (not normally associated with unspecialised groups

29

or high-school classes), 10 meters or more may also be considered. To control for variability fromone place to another it is desirable to score no less than 3 transects per depth per station. If thetransect is laid out at right angles to the shore-line or reef-face, a depth profile will also berequired, preferably at 1 meter intervals.

The last major factor to take into consideration is the estimation of exposure. For thePulau Seribu system, this can usefully be done by considering the direction which the reef faces at

the sampling station in association with the distance to the next visible island. Reefs facing to thesouth or east (the "strong" east monsoon) with no islands intervening out to the horizon areusually the most exposed (exposure index = 4). Islands on the horizon reduce the index to 3, and

islands close by (up to 1 .0 km) reduce it to 2. Reefs facing north with several islands immediatelyin front to about 100 meters or less are the most protected (exposure index = 0). Islands beyond1.0 km increase the index'to 1 and islands on the horizon to 2. Reefs facing clear water to thehorizon would score 3 or perhaps 3.5 but not usually 4.

Percent living cover and percent cover by scleractinian are the two main parameters thatare estimated by the life forms method together with relative abundance of massive forms asopposed to folióse and branching. The resulting information can then be related to specificaspects ofthe reef such as the degree of exposure, the amount of disturbance, distance from themainland, water transparency and so forth.

The stations selected should be assessed with snorkeling teams of at least 3 students eachand not more than 5 by utilising three 20 m line intercept transects, parallel to the shoreline ateach of the two depths mentioned previously (1 m and 3 m). Results can be recorded on wet-slates. These can be made from white sand-scoured Formica affixed to a wooden base or from

roughened white PVC plastic sheeting. White PVC wide-bore water-pipe can be used by cuttinginto lengths of 20-30 cm long, slitting down one side and flattening with the aid ofthe steam froma kettle. For ease of recording, the life-form categories should be shortened into an easilyrecognised code. Thus coral-branching would be CB, coral-submassive CS and so forth . Acomplete account ofthe assessment techniques and pedagogical approaches used can be found inreferences (UNESCO, 1992) and (UNESCO, 1994 ), given below.

HIGH SCHOOL CORAL REEF SURVEYS

The Jakarta International School senior class has carried out coral-reef assessment on

three islands in Jakarta Bay since 1984. The islands are: Pulau Tikus (1984-1987), Pulau KotokBesar (1988-1991) and Pulau Pantara (1992-1995, ongoing). The method of assessment used is asimplified form of that proposed by the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS). Thisinvolves subdividing coral assemblages according to categories, based on criteria relating to thelife-form of the corals. Thus categories such as coral-massive, coral branching, algae etc. areused.

The array of hard-coral forms that can be scored may be conveniently summarised as: 1)encrusting, 2) branched (see Figure 1 b), 3) massive, 4) sub-massive, 5) tabulate (see Figure 1 a),6) folióse, 7) solitary (see Figure 1 c). Other organisms include: 1) algae, 2) soft corals, 3)sponges, 4) other forms. Physical conditions include: 1) coral-sand, 2) dead coral/ rubble. Dataare recorded by: 1) indicating the code ofthe life-form involved and 2) by specifying the positionon the tape intersected by the outer margin ofthe category concerned. From this information set,a number of community attributes can be calculated including individual life-form coverage inabsolute or proportional terms, coverage by all corals and so forth. Specific spatial information isalso available for mapping analyses. If required, the technique can be adapted to species-levelinformation or it can be focused on group information as all Acropora and so forth. The above 13categories for the procedure are a minimum subset of the factors that might otherwise be

30

considered. Table 1, shows a detailed list of some ofthe factors that might be considered whenscoring a life-form transect.

UNESCO CORAL REEF SURVEY

UNESCO and its Intergovernmental Océanographie Commission (IOC) together withP30-LIPI (The Indonesian Institute of Sciences) completed a second stage of a long-term coralreef monitoring program involving 28 islands in the Pulau Seribu area (Java, Indonesia) inSeptember of 1995. The first survey (Brown, 1986) under the program was carried out in 1985,10 years previously, and at that time it was found that reefs in the Jakarta Bay area had beenseverely degraded by discharges of sewage and other pollutants into the ocean (Harger, 1986). On1985 survey, it was also found that reefs beyond 20 km from Jakarta improved rapidly withdistance up to a point where they supported between 40%-50% cover of hard corals. In relationto the 1985 survey, the 1995 activity showed, among other things that:

1 . Cover exhibited by coral reefs in Jakarta Bay remains about the same as previously noted.2. The coral community in most outer islands declined dramatically, so that there is a near total

collapse ofthe ecosystems involved.

Thus coral cover for the outer islands changed dramatically over a period of 10 years. Animportant factor in evaluating the information for the second survey was the existence of field-

survey data, gathered annually by high school students at the Jakarta International School as partof its biology program for the International Baccalaureate Degree.

OTHER CHANGES IN CORAL REEF STRUCTURE

In 1989 the volcano Gunung Api, in the Banda archipelago, Banda Sea, East Indonesiaerupted pouring two sets of lava around 800 meters in width into the sea and destroying the coralreef. Following this event spectacular recolonization occurred in the next 3-4 years to the extentthat up to 20 species of hard corals could be recorded on a single square meter of lava. Growthhas also been extremely high by normal standards so that table-form corals have diameters of

over 1 meter in around 4 years or so. In Jakarta Bay for instance such growth may be a mere 2-4cm a year. Surrounding undamaged reefs are dominated by relatively few species but the exactrepresentation seems to change rapidly from one place to another in response to physicalconditions. Over 200 species have so far been recovered from the recolonized area giving somehope that similar healing can be coaxed into play in damaged areas next to major populationconcentrations if the primary mortality factors can be reduced. It is not known what exactcombination of conditions in the surrounding reefs leads to this "healing effect" although initiallack of predators and a complex substrate have something to do with it in terms of initial survival.It is perhaps not to be wondered at that the giant hump-head parrot fish (1 .5-2.0 meters in length),is also found in these "high diversity" waters.

The rapid reef-repair response noted in relation to the recolonization ofthe Gunung Apilava-flow of 1989 up to late 1994 when cover by hard-corals, dominated by tabulate Acropora,rated over 80%, shows that reefs in the natural state and in high-diversity areas, with no pollutantor over-fishing stress, posses very effective mechanisms for healing. Reefs under such conditionscan thus move from a barren state to a condition of high cover and diversity in a relatively shorttime, not exceeding 3-4 years.

31

RESULTS FROM HIGH SCHOOL FIELD SURVEYS

The high school classes were operated on four islands in the Pulau Seribu system overthe period 1 984- 1 985. The first, Pulau Pari will not play a part in this report as the activities therewere undertaken prior to the UNESCO survey of 1985 survey and involved differing samplingtechniques. Standard sampling was undertaken at Pulau Tikus, 41 km from Jakarta, in 1985 and1986 (Figs 1 and 2), Pulau Kotok Besar, 55.5 km from Jakarta, 1987 to 1991 (Figs 3 and 4) andthen at Pulau Pantara (Pulau Hantu Kecil), 67.47km from Jakarta, 1991 to 1995 (continuing), Figs5 and 6. Where the high school and UNESCO surveys overlapped, the percentage obtained byboth sampling efforts is plotted. The results are shown as the mean percentage coyer based onnumbers of transects (ranging between 10 and 30) for each point. The variance is shown as twicethe standard deviation (untransformed data).

When combined, the results of these surveys (at 1 and 3 meters depth) clearly show thatcoral cover on these islands if anything improved from 1985 to 1988 and then remainedsomewhat stable to April 1994 but by September 1995 had dropped sharply. These results,together with the recolonisation response at Gunung Api (Banda Naira) indicate that 1 0 years (oreven 5 years) is too long a period to consider seriously as an adequate sampling interval forassessing the structure and health of coral reefs and that it would be more appropriate to conductsuch surveys annually.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brown, B.(ed.). Human induced Damage to Coral Reefs, UNESCO, Place Fontenoy, Paris, France, 1986.UNESCO Reports in Marine Science No. 40 Edited by B. Brown.

Harger, J.R.E. 1986. Community structure as a response to natural and man-made environmental variablesin the Pulau Seribu island chain. Im Proceedings of MAB-COMAR Regional Workshop on coralreef ecosystems: their management practices and research/training needs, Bogor4-7 March 1986.UNESCO-Jakarta and Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Jakarta, Indonesia.

UNESCO 1992. Study No 3: Contending with global change, Field studies in the tropical marineenvironment: a programme for secondary school teachers. 1992, UNESCO-Jakarta, Indonesia.

UNESCO 1994. Study No 7: Contending with global change, The tropical marine environment: Fieldexercises for teacher training and class work. 1994, UNESCO-Jakarta, Indonesia.

32

Table I. Coral reef transect variables.

Geographical information

Reef name; site type; station id.; depth of transect; orientation; etc.

Meteorological information

Air temperature; wind rose; solar radiation (including UV); etc

Biological factors

Life-form Acropora: branching; tabulate; encrusting; submassiveLife-form non-Acropora corals: branching; massive; encrusting;

submassive; folióse; solitary.

Maximum number of coral species observed per stationMaximum depth with continuous cover of hard corals-Estimated coral cover (%)

Individual species records for scleractiniaMaximum number coral species found in given search-timeCoral diversity (where individual species are recorded)

Non coral life-forms: soft corals; gorgonians; sponges; other (general);Acanthaster planci; estimated cover by Diadema

Algae: macro; turf; coralline; Halimeda; film; blue film; algal assemblageFish fauna: total number fish species; number of Chaetodontidae;

number of Serranids; number of Lutjanids (species and individuals).

Physical factors

Non-living substrate: sand; rubble; silt; dead coral;number disturbance scars per 100 m

Island characteristics: distance to nearest land;

distance to Tanjang Priok (Jakarta's port);population on island; circumference of island.exposure index (per station)

Aquatic variables (physical): surface salinity; three meter salinity;surface temperature; three meter temperaturesurface oxygen; three meter oxygen (or profiles)

Pollution indicators

Drift-line material: all rubbish (per meter strand-line); plastic bags;polystyrene blocks; foot ware; etc.;

Water transparency: secchi disk extinction depth or transmissometer readings.Other direct assessment: heavy metals, toxic organics, sediment loading etc.

Note: add or subtract other variables as required.

33

% cover

52.50

i

42.00

1

1i i

31.50

1 1

1 1i

21.00

1

10

10.50 1

0.000

1985

Year of survey

Error = 2 x s

1986

1990

o

1995

o = UNESCO Survey * = School

Figure 1 . Jakarta Bay Survey, hard-coral coverPulau Tikus, 1 meter depth, exposed.

% cover

63.00

52.50

42.00

31.50

21.00

10.50

0.000

o

1986

o

1985

Error = 2 x s

o = UNESCO Survey* = School

1990 1995

Year of survey

Figure 2. Jakarta Bay Survey, hard-coral cover

Pulau Tikus, 3 meter depth, exposed.

34

% cover

1 00.0

94.50

84.00

73.50

63.00 '

52.50

42.00

31.50

21.00

10.50

0.000

1988 * 1991

o

o

1985 1990

Year of siurvey

1995

Error = 2xs

o = UNESCO Survey * == School

Figure 3. Jakarta Bay Survey, hard-coral coverPulau Kotok Besar, 1 meter depth, sheltered.

1988* * * 1991

o

% cover

100.0

94.50

84.00

73.50

63.00

52.50

42.00

31.50

21.00

10.50

0.000

1985 1990

Year of surveyError = 2 x s

o = UNESCO Survey * = School

o

1995

Figure 4. Jakarta Bay Survey, hard-coral coverPulau Kotok Besar, 3 meter depth, sheltered.

35

% Cover

94.5

84.0

73.5

63.0

52.5

42.0

31.5

21.0

* 1992

1991 * I * 1994

o Blast

¡ fishing

o

* Acanthasler

10..5

0.0

1985 1990

Year of surveyError = 2 x s

o = UNESCO Survey * = School,

1995

25 meter transects

Figure 5. Jakarta Bay Survey, hard-coral coverPulau Pantara, 1 meter depth, exposed.

% cover

100. - -

94.5

84.0

73.5

!*

1

I1991 * |

1992 |

*

1i

1994

63.0 -

1

1

52.5

42.0

31.5

21.0

10.5

- Blast

o fishing

Djohani x

May 1994

*

0

1

0.00

1

1985

Error = 2 x s

o = UNESCO S

1990

Year of survey

urvey * = School

1995

Figure 6. Jakarta Bay Survey, hard-coral coverPulau Pantara, 3 meter depth, exposed.

36

CHANGES OF DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF REEF FISH IN

JAKARTA BAY AND SERIBU ISLANDS

Suharsono15, Giyanto1*, Yahmantoro1* and A. J.Munkajee23

1) Research and Development Centre for Oceanology, LIP1, Jakarta2) Biology Department University of Papua New Guinea, Waigani NCD,

Papua Guinea

ABSTRACT

Fish visual census surveys were conducted at 22 islands of the Seribu Islands. A total of166 species of coral reef fish belonging to 36 families were observed from the surveyedsites. The Pomacentridae and the Labridae were the most common and being dominant inall sites. Comparison of correlation between general fish abundance and distance fromthe mainland, and between fish abundance and living coral cover of the 1985 surveywith those of 1995 exhibited little change, while correlation between individualabundance of chaetodontids and living coral cover changed and showed a negativevalue. Correlation analysis of reef fish abundance with distance from the mainlandshowed a significant positive value (r = 0.5479, PO.Ö1). Likewise, the correlationbetween general fish abundance and living coral cover was also positive (r = 0.5560,P<0.01).

INTRODUCTION

The Seribu Islands consists of one hundred and eight islands extending in north -northwest and south - south east direction across the Java Sea toward the Sunda Strait. Almost all

of these islands are surrounded by fringing reef with a single moat behind the rampart. TheSeribu Islands may be arbitrarily divided into three zones according to environmental gradient asone moves along from the inshore water of Jakarta Bay to the offshore water of the outer islands(Hutomo and Adrim, 1985). Zone 1 covers all islands within the Jakarta Bay ; Zone 2 includes allislands outside Jakarta Bay that may still be affected by the waste of Jakarta city and Zone 3covers all islands further north which enjoy clear water and are relatively unaffected by the waste

of the capital city of Jakarta. Jakarta Bay receive fresh water input from three major rivers i.e.Citarum, Cisadane and Kali Angke.

Fishing activities directly and indirectly impact coral reefs (Russ, 1991). Direct impactsinclude habitat damage due to destructive fishing practice such as the use of explosive, andcyanide as well as bubu (fish trap) . Indirect impacts can result from the removal of importantcomponents of the ecosystem. For instance, removal of carnivores and herbivores can changespecies composition, reduce population abundance and lower average fish size and age structure(Russ, 1991).

The relationship between reef fish communities and living coral cover have beeninvestigated in several different locations and the results have yielded conflicting conclusion.Several studies found positive correlation between species richness and abundance of fish withliving coral cover (Reese, 1981; Bell and Galzen, 1984; Gomez et al, 1988; Manthachitra andSudara, 1991). On the other hand, other studies showed that species richness and abundance didnot correlate with the living coral cover (McManus et al, 1981; Lim and Chou, 1991; Luchavez,1991).

37

The present study- was part of a long-term systematic survey on species richness andabundance of coral reef fish in the Seribu Islands. The first study was conducted in 1985 and the

second was done in 1995. The two surveys were intended to assess possible changes ofthe fish

community structure in the course of 10 years time. The first study was done by Hutomo andAdrim (1985). The results showed that there was a positive correlation between percent livingcoral cover and number of fish species, that is to say that the higher the percent cover of livingcoral the higher is the number offish species that inhabit it. The same holds true with the resultsofthe chaetodontid census where it showed a positive correlation between percent cover of livingcoral and abundance of chaetodontids.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Study on reef fish communities was conducted at 22 islands in the Seribu Islands. Onesampling site on each island was selected and the reef slope at this site was surveyed along the 3m depths (Figure 1). Quantitative data on the reef fishes were obtained using visual censustechnique described by Dartnall and Jones (1986). Three 50 m long transects were placed nearthe transect ofthe coral life form study. Scuba divers swimming along the 50 m transect taperecorded the species and number of fishes seen within 5 m distance at either side ofthe divers inthree replicate covering an area equivalent to a 1500 m"* .

The total area covered by the transect was 33,000 m". The fish observed were groupedinto three categories : indicator species, target species and major groups which were identified tospecies level. Data on percentage coral cover obtained from coral life form transect (coral reefstudy group) were correlated with coral reefs fish richness and abundance.

RESULTS

A total of 166 species of reef fishes under 36 families were recorded from the 22sites/islands and the number of individuals per species in each island are also given in Table 1.There was an increase in the number offish species and fish family encountered in 1995 ascompared to that in Î 985 (Figure 2). The dominant species in term of abundance and speciesrichness were mainly from the "major families". The species number of Pomacentridae andLabridae were the most common and being dominant in all sites.

The Indicator species (Chaetodontidae) consists of nine species; Chaetodonoctofasciatus was the most abundant and widely distributed. It was found abundantly at TidungIsland (29 individuals ), Belanda Island (24 individuals) and Kelapa island (22 individuals).Chelmon rostratas was the second most common species found in the Seribu Islands, while twoother Chaetodontidae, Chaetodon trifasciatus and Hemiochus accuminatus were rare andobserved only at Tidung Island.

The target species consists of 36 species belonging to 8 families. Of these 36 species, 13are economically important as source of income, while the rests are consumed locally. Thesethirteen species were composed of one species of Kyposidae, four species of Caesionidae, twospecies of Lutjanidae, one species of Siganidae and five species of Serranidae. Siganidae andSerranidae are among the economically important fishes which are in high demand forseafood restaurants in Jakarta. Most popular are the siganid species which make one of thefavoured dishes during the Chinese new year , and the price can be doubled during that time.

The dominant major families in term of number of species and number of individualswere Pomacentridae and Labridae. A total of 41 species of Pomacentridae were recorded , ofwhich eight species being dominant and were found in every island. Twenty two species of

38

labrids were recorded, in which Halichoeres hortulanus and Thalassoma limare being the mostabundance at all islands surveyed, *

Pomacentridae, Labridae, Pomacantidae, Scorpaeniidae, Centridae, Platacidae andChaetodontidae constitute the ornamental fishes. Several species of these families are the mostimportant group to be collected as aquarium fishes. They are captured with the help of sodiumcyanide which is widely practised by fishermen of the Seribu Islands. This practice ispontentially destructive and harmful to corals , fish, and associated invertebrates. In term ofspecies richness and abundance, Pomacentridae has always been significantly higher comparedwith that of other families at all islands surveyed.

There was a positive correlation between general fish abundance and living coral cover(r = 0.5560, PO.Û1) and correlation analysis between general fish abundance and distance fromthe mainland also showed a significant positive correlation (r = 0.5479, PO.01) (Figure 3).Likewise, correlation analysis carried out between data from live coral cover and distance from

mainland also showed a positive correlation (r = 0.5551, P<0.01). The relationship betweenindividual abundance of Chaetodontidae and percentage living coral cover was examined usingregression analysis. The results suggested that individual abundance of chaetodontids did notcorrelate with percent living coral cover.

The number of reef fish species per family from 22 stations was analysed using the Bray-Curtis dissimilarity index (Figure 4 ). The results showed that the islands can be clustered into sixgroups. Group one consists of six islands located in the northern part of Seribu Island. Theseislands are inhabited by local community except Belanda Island. Belanda Island is part of thecore area of the Seribu Island Marine Park, but it is also a popular weekend dive site. Thesecond group consists of three islands which are privately owned. Relatively small fishingactivities occur in that islands. The third group consists of four islands which are used as

commercial and recreational activities such as snorkelling, scuba diving, fishing and walking onthe reef edge during low tide. These activities may have impact upon coral reef fish. Touristresort can also be a source of pollution and littering. Meanwhile, anchor droppings from smallboats , especially plough anchor, are quite destructive. The fourth group consists of four islands ,two of which are situated within the Jakarta Bay, while the other two are located further north.

Ubi Besar Island , which is located within the Jakarta Bay, was severely damaged by dredging forsand mining giving result to severe abrasion and erosion. The two islands in the north seemed tobe affected by destructive fishing techniques. The fifth group consists of two islands, DamarBesar and Damar Kecil. These two islands are clustered separately in the dendrogram. Thisresults may be a reflection of differing effects of waste from Jakarta. Damar Besar is situated atthe north-east of Jakarta Bay at the edge ofthe open sea, hence it has a better flushing effect ofthe current during the east monsoon, while Damar Kecil situated inside the Jakarta Bay, hence isfully exposed to the waste of Jakarta city. The sixth group consists of three islands located closelyto one another and are situated north west of Jakarta Bay. These islands may be the mostaffected by the waste from Jakarta. Here the water clarity was poor and was thick with massivebloom of phyto plankton. Onrust Island showed the lowest value of live coral cover.

DISCUSSION

Comparing the results ofthe 1985 survey with that ofthe 1995 , it is noted that there isan indication of an overall improvement ofthe reef fish population. This indication was reflectedin the increased number of species and families of reef fishes. Some likely explanation for thisfinding are: a) possible miss identification offish species since no specimens were collected forverification; b) different sampling equipment and different reef zone examined, and c). differentsampling duration. In the 1985 survey, the samplings were done at 1 meter and 3 meter depths

39

without scuba, while in the 1995 survey it was done in 3 meter depth using scuba. During the1985 survey attention was especially concentrated to butterfly fishes.

Hutomo and Adrim (1985) found that chaetodontid abundance was positively correlatedwith live coral cover, whereas in the present study the correlation was significantly negative. Inthe 1985 survey, some 15 species of Chaetodontid were counted, while in 1995 it was only 9species. The changes occurred not only in the species richness but also in the speciescomposition. The relationship between individual abundance of chaetodontids and percentagecoral cover also changed. The changes might be due to the 10% decrease in coral cover(Devantier et al, this volume). Major characteristics of chaetodontid are: living in a small area ofthe reef, obligate coral feeder and responding to changes in coral quality and abundance bymaking adjustment in their abundance, distribution and behaviour (Reese, 1993).

Due to this characteristics, chaetodontids' resistance to fishing pressure are weak.

Consequently when the intensity of destructive fishing practice increases, the pressure on thisgroup of fishes will increase as well (Horrigan et al., 1988; Reese, 1993). Exploitation ofornamental fish using sodium cyanide in Seribu Islands might have increased with the increasingnumber of group fish collectors, accompanied by increasing area of fishing operation, althoughno spécifie study on this subject has been carried out."

Chaetodontids consist of several species and each species has its own preference to the

coral assemblages. They are intimately associated with and are permanent resident ofthe livingcoral. Chaetodon trifasciatus and Chaetodon trifascialis are used as indicator species for thecondition of coral reefs in Hawaii (Reese, 1993). They show changes in their abundance,

distribution and behaviour in response to condition of coral reefs. Abundance of Chaetodonoctofasciatus showed a positive correlation with the condition of coral reef in Seribu Islands(Adrim et al, 1991), and in the Gulf of Thailand (Mantachitra et al, 1991). While in the 1995

survey there was no correlation between Chaetodon octofasciatus and live coral cover.Chaetodon octofasciatus were the most abundance and common species of the chaetodontidfound in Seribu Islands, the Gulf of Thailand and Singapore water (Adrim et al, 1991;Manthachitra et al, 1991; Low and Chou, 1992). Chaetodon octofasciatus are abundantly foundin the relatively turbid water with low percent coral cover, and are relatively rare in the pristinearea with high percent coral cover (Adrim ,pers. com.)

REFERENCES

Adrim, M., M. Hutomo and S.R. Suharti 1991. Chaetodontid fish community structure and its

relation to reef degradation at the Seribu Islands reefs Indonesia. In : Regional Symp.Living Resources in Coastal Areas. A.C. Alcalá et al. (eds.), 163-174.

Bell, J.D. and R. Galzin 1984). Influence of living coral cover on coral reef fish communities.

Mar. Prog. Ser., 1 5 : 265-274.

Dartnall, A.J. and M. Jones (eds.) 1986. A manual of survey methods for living resources incoastal areas. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, 142 pp.

Gomez, E.D., W.Y. Licuanan and V.V. Hilomen 1988. Reef fish : benthos correlations in the

northwestern Phillippines. Proc. 6th. Int. Coral ReefSymp. Australia, 3 : 245-249.

Hutomo, M. and M. Adrim 1985. Distribution of reef fish along transects in Bay of Jakarta andKepulauan Seribu. In : Human Induced damage to coral reefs. Unesco Reports in Mar.Sei. 40: 135-156.

Lim, G.S.Y. and L.M. Chou 1991. Studies of reef fish communities in Singapura. In : RegionalSymp. Living Resources in Coastal Areas. A.C. Alcalá et al (eds.) pp. 1 17-128.

40

Low, J.K.Y. and L.M. Chou 1992. Distribution of coral reef fish in Singapore. Third ASEANScience and Technology Week. Mar. Sei. Living Coastal Resources, 6 : 139-143.

Luchavez, T.F. 1991. Aspect of coral reef fish benthos relationships at the central VisayasPhilippines In : Alcalá et al (eds). 2 : 25 1-253.

Manthachitra, V. and S. Sudara 1991. Status of coral reef fishes along the west coast ofthe Gulfof Thailand. Proc. Regional Sym. Living Resources in Coastal Areas, 129-134.

McManus, J.W.; R.I. Miclat and V.P. Palaganas 1981. Coral and fish community structure ofSombrero Island, Batangas, Philippine. Proc. 4lh Int. Coral ReefSymp. 2 : 271-280.

Reese, E.S. 1981. Prédation on corals by fishes ofthe family Chaetodontidae : implications forconservation and management of coral reef ecosystems. Bull Mar. Sei. 3 1(3) : 594-604.

Russ, G.R. 1991. Coral Reef fisheries : Effects and yields. In : The ecology of fishes on coralreefs. Sale. P.F. (eds). Academic Press. Inc. San Diego, 601-636.

41

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42

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ABCDEFGHI JKLMNOPQRSTUV

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Remarks :

A = Nyamuk Besar

B = Bidadari

C = Onrust

D = KeIor

E = Ayer

F - Damar Kecil

G = Ubi Besar

H - Damar Besar

I = Untung Jawa

J - Bokor

K = Lancang Besar

L = Tikus

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N = Semak Daun

O = Kotok Besar

P= Kotok Kecil

Q = Kelapa

R = Panjang

S = Belanda

T = Putri

U = Sepa

V = Jukung

Figure 2 : Comparison ofnumber offish family (a) and number offish species (b) from

visual eensus in 1985 and 1995 respectively.

43

Seribu Island, 1985

Y = 6.7290 + 0.4565 X

r = 0.6549 ; n = 28

0 10 20 30 40 50

Distance from mainland (km)

Seribu Tslands, 1995

Y = 10.299 + 0.449 X

r = 0.555 ; n = 22

10 20 30 40 50

Distance from mainland (km)

Seribu Island, 1985

Y = 12.3633 + 0.6669 X

r = 0.8222 : n = 22

10 20 30 40

Percent cover of living coral

50

Seribu Islands, 1995

Y = 42.142 + 0.774 X

r = 0.574 : n = 22

0 10 20 30 40

Percent cover of living coral

50

Seribu Island, 1985

Y = 1.2703 + 0.4424 X

r = 0.6785 ; n = 22

10 20 30 40

Percent cover of living coral

50 0

Seribu Islands, 1995

Y = 1.666 + 1.451 X- 0.031 X2

r*= 0.545 ; n = 22

10 20 30 40

Percent cover of living coral

50

Figure 3. (a). Comparison of linear regression of correlation between percent cover ofliving coral and distance from mainland in 1985 and 1995.

(b). Comparison of linear regression of correlation between number offish speciesand percent cover of living coral in 1985 and 1995.

(c). Comparison of correlation between number of individual Chaetodontidsand percent cover of living coral in 1985 and 1995.

44

22

13

14

17

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11

15

12

10

21

20

5

18

7

1

16

8

6

4

3

100 90 80 70 60 50

-r

40 30 20 10 0

Bray - Curtis Similarity (%)

Notes :

1 - Nyamuk Besar 2 = Bidadari

6 = Damar Kecil 7 = Ubi Besar

11 = Lancang Besar 12 = Tikus

1 6 = Kotok Kecil 1 7 = Kelapa

21 = Sepa 22 = Jukung

3 - Onrust 4 - Kelor 5 = Ayer Besar

8 - Damar Besar 9 = Untung Jawa 1 0 - Bokor

13 = Tidung 14 = Semak Daun 15= Kotok Besar

1 8 = Panjang 1 9 = Belanda 20 = Putri

Figure 4 : Dendrogram ofreef fish species abundance from 22 stasions.

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54

ECHINODERMS ASSOCIATED WITH CORAL REEFS

IN JAKARTA BAY AND KEPULAUAN SERIBU

Lyle Vail1* and Thori Thamrongnawasawat2)

1) Lizard Island Research Station, PMB 37, Cairns, Queensland, Australia2) Marine Scienee Department, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand

INTRODUCTION

In May 1985, UNESCO sponsored a survey of coral reefs off Jakarta Bay and includingthe Kepulauan Seribu (Thousand) Islands. These islands are a series of more than a hundred reefswhich extend about 80 km north-northwest of Jakarta and into the Java Sea. The survey includedreefs living in the heavily polluted coastal waters near Jakarta and the less polluted reefssurrounding the Seribu Islands. In general, the survey found many reefs in Jakarta Bay haddeclined in coral cover and diversity since earlier studies by Dutch scientists some 50 yearspreviously and that coral cover increased with distance from Jakarta Bay (UNESCO Report,1986).

During the 1985 survey it was noted that echinoderms, in particular crinoids, were adominant component of the macro benthic invertebrate community on some reefs. Cursoryobservation of the echinoderm community suggested that crinoids were more common on lesspolluted reefs and therefore they might be useful indicators of general reef health.

In September 1995, UNESCO sponsored another survey to the same reefs to determine iftheir condition had altered in the intervening 10 years. Although echinoderms were not a formalpart ofthe original survey, they were included in the latter one because of their potential as a bio-indicator of reef health. This report is about the diversity and abundance of four classes ofechinoderms found during the 1995 survey.

METHODS

During 12-19 September 1995, 26 islands with coral reefs were surveyed by teams ofdivers. Transects were positioned on the north-eastern side of each reef, in the same area assurveyed in 1985. The same transects were used to study different components of the reefcommunity by several teams of divers. Due to the number of reefs surveyed, only about one hourwas spent on each reef.

On the first three reefs, transects were placed at two sites on each reef; one on the reef flat

near the reef crest between 1-2 m depth and the second on the reef slope between 3-6 m depth. Ateach site, three replicate transects of 50 m length were haphazardly laid parallel to the reef crest.The area surveyed within each transect covered 100 m , a 1 m wide band on each side ofthetransect line.

At each site, species of echinoderms and their abundance were recorded while swimmingover the top ofthe transect area. Identifications of echinoderms were mostly made underwateralthough a few specimens of crinoids were collected and their identification confirmed in the labusing a dissecting microscope. Only four classes of echinoderms were recorded; crinoids,asteroids, echinoids, and holothurians. Ophiuroids were not counted since neither author wasexperienced enough to make field identifications. Counts oí Diadema were usually done by thejunior author while counts and identifications of other species were by the senior author. No

systematic attempt was made to locate cryptic species. However, some rubble was overturned inorder to get an impression of what cryptic species were present.

55

After surveying the first three reefs, it was decided to omit the reef flat survey because ofinsufficient time and because few echinoderms were being recorded from this zone. As acompromise, on the remaining twenty three reefs, a 5 -10 minute swim by the senior authorwas made in 1-2 m depth over the reef flat near the reef crest. Species of echinoderms wererecorded and an estimate of their abundance made using a rank abundance scale with: 1= 1individual, 2= 2-5, 3= 6-10, 4= 1 1-20, and 5= >20. For consistency in examining reef flat data,individuals counted on the reef flat on the first three reefs were converted into rank abundances.

Maximum diameter ofthe crown of thorns starfish {Acanthaster planci) was measured tothe nearest 5 cm. Measurements were made only on fully exposed individuals as time constraintsdid not allow semi-concealed specimens to be extracted from the reef. Measurements ofthe testdiameter of Diadema setosum were occasionally made but in no systematic manner.

RESULTS

The name, date surveyed, location, and zone number ofthe 26 islands surveyed is givenin Table 1 . Islands with the same zone number are in the same general east-west sector off shore

from Jakarta with increasing zone numbers progressively further offshore. Zone 1 reefs beginabout 4 km offshore from Jakarta and zone 5 reefs end about 53 km offshore. Figure 9.1 of Molland Suharsono (1986, p. 114) shows the relative position of each zone.

Echinoderms recorded during the surveys are shown in Table 2. Over all the reefs

surveyed, 32 and 19 species of echinoderms were recorded on the reef slopes and reef flats,respectively (Table 2). These values are minimal since some individuals could only be identifiedto genus and thus individuals lumped in a genus may contain more than one species and others,especially cryptic species, were undoubtedly missed. All reef flat species were also found on thereef slope except for the asteroid Nardoa novacaledoniea and the holothurians Holothuria atraand Stichopus chloronotus. Crinoids and holothurians were the most speciose classes on the reefslope and flat, respectively. Casual searches under rubble revealed few cryptic echinoderms onthe reef slope or flat. Most ofthe cryptic individuals were either ophiuroids or crinoids.

A comparison of species richness by zone is shown in Figure 1. The number ofechinoderm species was lowest in zones 1 and 2, intermediate in zone 3, and highest in zones 4and 5. Ofthe four classes, crinoids showed the largest shift in species richness between zoneswith only 1-3 species found in the two nearshore zones and 12 in the two offshore zones.

The number of species of asteroids also increased with distance offshore with onlyCulcita noveaguineae recorded in the two nearshore zones and 4-6 species in the two offshoreones. Species richness of echinoids and holothurians varied little between zones, ranging from 2-5.

Reefslope echinoderms

A comparison of number of individuals per class in each zone is shown in Figure 2.Values are sums of individuals in 3 x 100 m2 transects on each reef within a zone. Three trends

are apparent; crinoid abundance increased with distance offshore; echinoid numbers were

relatively high in each zone, and numbers of asteroids and holothurians were very low in allzones.

Abundance values for species of echinoderms on the reef slope are given in Table 3.Values are sums of counts for three transects on each reef.

The mean number of species per reef has not been given since most species were eitherabsent or occurred in very low numbers on many reefs. Two species of crinoids (Comanthinastelligera, Comanthina sp. A and one echinoid Diadema setosum accounted for 83% of all

56

25

20

H 15£3 10

0zone 1 zone 2 zone 3 zone 4 zone 5

Distance offshore increasing >

crinoid

holothurian

asteroid

total

echinoid

2000

zone 1 zone 2 zone 3 zone 4 zone 5Distance offshore increasing >

crinoid asteroid echinoid -o- holothurian

57

echinoderm individuals. On the reef slope, 1.5% (N = 12058) ofthe individuals seen could not

be identified below class level. All of these were found mainly at reefs 10-13 and 1 8 (Table 3).

For Comatella stelligera, Comanthina sp. A and D. setosum, a comparison of mean

number of individuals per reef within each zone is shown in Table 4. Comatella stelligera and

D. setosum were patchily distributed resulting in high standard errors in each zone.Comanthina sp. A was not found in zones 1 or 2, was uncommon in zone 3, and was abundantin the two offshore zones (Table 4).

Table 1 . Field data

Reff

No.1Island Name Date2

Chart Reference3

Lat° S Long0 EZone4

1 Nyamuk Besar 12/09/95 6.01.74 106,51.13 1

2 Damar Besar 1 2/09/95 5.57.29 106.50.44 3

3 Damar Kecil 12/09/95 5.59.02 106.50.72 3

4 Ayer Besar 13/09/95 6.00.05 106.46.78 2

5 Ubi Besar 13/09/95 5.59.61 106.44.42 3

6 Kelor 13/09/95 6.01.53 106.44.64 1

7 Onrust 13/09/95 6.01.93 106.44.00 1

8 Bidadari 1 4/09/95 6.01.9 106.44.78 1

9 Untung Jawa 14/09/95 5.58.45 106.42.19 2

Ï0 Rambut 14/09/95 5.58.30 106.41.20 2

11 Lancang Besar 1 5/09/95 5.55.99 106.35.49 3

12 Bokor 1 5/09/95 5.56.61 106.37.64 3

13 Tidung 1 5/09/96 5.48.04 106.31.54 4

14 Semak Daun 1 6/09/95 5.43.65 106.33.97 4

15 Air 16/09/95 5.45.65 106.34.69 4

16 Tikus 1 6/09/95 5.51.94 106.34.94 4

17 Kotok Besar 17/09/95 5.41.92 106.32.38 4

18 Kotok Kecil 17/09/95 5.41.37 106.31.98 4

19 Kelapa 1 7/09/95 5.39.30 106.33.55 5

20 Belanda 1 8/09/95 5.36.23 106.36.20 5

21 Sepa Besar 1 8/09/95 5.34.45 106.34.79 5

22 Putri 1 8/09/95 6.35.39 106.34.03 5

23 Panjang 19/09/95 5.38.59 106.33.58 5

24 Jukung 19/09/95 5.34.01 106.31.64 5

25 Hantu Kecil 1 9/09/95 5.32.18 106.32.00 5

26 Hantu Besar 1 9/09/95 5.31.74 106.32.31 5

1 . Numbers relate to chronological order in which reefs were surveyed.2. Date of survey.

3. Position according to Willoughby (1986, p. 160), from chart or GPS reading.4. Zones after Moll and Suharsono (1986, p. 114)

58

Table 2. Echinoderm species recorded during the surveys. Identifications after Clark and Rowe (1971),Hoggett and Rowe (1986) and Rowe et al (1986). Asteriks indicate whether species wererecorded from the reef slope or reef flat.

Class

Crinoids

Asteroids

Family

Comasteridae *

Himerometridae

Colobometridae

Antedonidae

Oreasteridae

Acanthasteridae

Ophidiasteridae

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

Echinasteridae

Echinoids Echinothuridae

Diadematidae

TemnopleuridaeParasalenidae

Echinometridae

Holothurians Holothuridae

Stichopodidae

Synaptidae

Species

Comatula solaris Lamarck

Capillaster multiradiatus (Linnaeus) *Comaster multifidus (J. Müller)Comatella stelligera (P.H. Carpenter)Comanthus alternons (Carpenter)Comanthus parvicirrus (J.Muller)Comanthina sp AComanthina nobilis (Carpenter)Oxycomanthus benneiti (J. Müller)Himerometra robustipinna (P.H. Carpenter)Colobometra perspinosa (P.H. Carpenter)Petasometra helianthoides A.H. Clark

Euantedon sp

Culcita noveaguineae Müller & TroschelAcanthaster planci (Linnaeus)Fromia milleporella (Lamarck)Gomophia cfwatsoniLinckia laevigata (Linnaeus)Nardoa novacaledoniae (Perrier)

Echinaster luzonicus (Gray)

Asthenosoma varium Grube

Diadema setosum (Leske)Echinothrix calamaris (Pallas)Mespilia globulus (Linnaeus)Parasalenia gratiosa A. AgassizEchinostrephus acicidatus A. Agassiz

Bohadschia argus Jaeger *Bohadschia graeffei (Semper) " *Holothuria (Acanthotrapeza) coluber SemperHolothuria (Halodeima) atra Jaeger *Holothuria (Halodeima) edulis Lesson *Holothuria (Mertensiothuria) leucosp ilota Brandt*Stichopus chloronotus BrandtStichopus cfvariegatus Semper *Synaptula sp. *

Number of species 32

Slope Flat

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

*

19

Note: "Comanthina" sp A - This species has been placed in Comanthina since it keys out closest to thisgenus using Hoggett and Rowe (1986) and Rowe et al (1986). Specimens in the field usually were alight yellow green in colour although some were dark green and some had black pinnule tips. Theywere found in branches of both live and dead coral. Arms during the day were always curled and

they were up to about 80 mm long. This group may represent a new species and possibly a newgenus. Voucher specimens are held in the Australian Museum, Sydney.

59

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Table 4. Mean density (SE, N) per reef of the three most abundant species of echinoderms on thereef slope. Values per reef are from the sum of three transects, each 50 m x 2 m. N = number ofreefs per zone. * = one record only.

C. stelligera Comanthina sp. À D. setosum

Zone 1 13.0 (-\4) 0(-,4) 462.3 (145.2,4)

Zone 2 83.0 (37.0, 3) 0 (-,3) 284.0 (148.6,3)

Zone 3 148.4 (82.5, 5) 1.4 (1.0,5) 297.6 (165.3,5)

Zone 4 17.0 (11.1,6) 20.1(8.3,6) 169.3 (44.0,6)

Zone 5 37.8 (16.0,8) 10.6(3.7,8) 232.0 (93.0, 8)

Reefflat echinoderms

Only a crinoid (Comanthina sp A) and two echinoids (D. setosum, Echinaster luzonicus)were highly abundant (abundance value of 5) on more than one reef (Table 5). Comatellastelligera, one ofthe most abundant crinoids on the reef slope, was never seen on the reef flat.

Sea urchins

The echinoid, D. setosum, was the most abundant eehinoderm observed (Tables 3 and 5).

Its distribution was clumped with some areas about 0.5 m x 0.5 m in size containing up to 20individuals. Casual observations suggest that small specimens of about 5-15 mm test diameterwere in tightly clumped groups more frequently than larger individuals. Maximum test diameterrecorded was 60 mm. Fewer individuals were seen on the lower reef slope (8-12 m) compared

to the upper reef slope during swims occasionally made over this area on some reefs.

Crown ofthorns starfish

A. planci was recorded on twelve reefs (Table 3). The maximum number seen on a reefwas 14 individuals on the reef slope of Untung Jawa reef. The diameter of 24 individuals wasmeasured: 1 individual x 10 cm diameter, 4 x 14-20 cm, and the remainder 22 - 36 cm.

Specimens ofA. planci were bright blue to purple in colour.

DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY

A 1985 study of scleractinian corals in Jakarta Bay and Kepulauan Seribu (Moll andSuharsono, 1986) found that the number of coral species, coral cover and average colony sizegradually increased with distance from Jakarta. This trend was attributed, in part, to increasedsedimentation in Jakarta Bay and to the detrimental effects of human activities such as destructivefishing, mining for coral, and dredging. Hutomo and Adrim (1986) studied fish in the same areasand found a similar pattern with fish species increasing on the more offshore reefs. They ascribedthe greater fish diversity to an increase in available habitat, especially in relation to increasing coralcoverage and complexity. They rated corals in Jakarta Bay as in poor to moderate condition (lessthan 1 0% cover), those outside Jakarta Bay as in moderate condition (20 - 30% cover), and reefsmuch further out being in variable condition with coverage ranging from less than 1 0% to morethan 40%.

A summary report based on preliminary findings of the resurvey of reefs in 1995 wasproduced by UNESCO. It stated that the condition of reefs in and near Jakarta Bay were inabout the same poor state as found 10 years earlier. The main change occurred to the offshorereefs where coral coverage and fish diversity had been greatly reduced. Although offshore reefshad deteriorated dramatically from 10 years previously, some were still in better condition than

61

the more inshore ones. The major cause of deterioration of the offshore reefs were attributed to

human activities resulting in an increase in polluted water well beyond Jakarta Bay, destructivefishing practices and coral harvesting.

Patterns of echinoderm diversity in the present study were similar to those noted forprevious investigations on coral and fish. For echinoderms, the increase in species richness withdistance from Jakarta was mainly due to crinoids and to a lesser extent asteroids. In general, therewas a staggering lack of echinoderm species and their abundance was low. The exception was thehigh abundance of D. setosum on many reefs.

in this study, a total of 35 species of four classes of echinoderms were recorded from 26

reefs. This value certainly underestimates the true species richness due to the low collectingeffort at each reef. It is, however, considerably lower than the approximately 1,000 species ofshallow-water echinoderms recorded from the Indo-West Pacific (Clark, 1976). For comparisonat a more localized scale, Lizard Island on the northern Great Barrier Reef has 171 species ofechinoderms, excluding the ophiuroids (Australian Museum records; crinoids - 57 species,asteroids - 37, echinoids - 26, and holothurians - 51).

Aziz (1981) studied echinoderms at the Pari Island Group of which Tikus (Island #16) inthe present study forms a part. Although the collecting effort of Aziz was greater, a comparison ofspecies found in the two studies is informative. For the reef slope survey (down to 6 m), Aziz(1981) recorded 40 species of echinoderms from four classes (14 crinoids, 9 asteroids, 5echinoids, and 12 holothurians). In contrast, this study at Tikus found only 13 species from fourclasses (7 crinoids, 3 asteroids, 2 echinoids, and 1 holothurian). These results suggest a decline inspecies number over about 20 years between the two studies with the decline being mostpronounced with holothurians since only 4 individuals of one species were recorded in the presentstudy.

Of the echinoderm classes studied, only crinoids have little to no economic value.Species of holothurians and echinoids are collected for food while some species of asteroids andechinoids are sold for the aquarium trade. Apparently, asteroids and holothurians have been rareor absent from the reefs off Jakarta for several decades due to over collecting (Sukarno, pers.comm.). Roberts and Darsono (1984) reported that in 1973 about 14,000 specimens of thecommercially valuable holothurian, Actinopyga miliaris, were harvested from Pari island.Because the ecology of holothurians and many other echinoderms is little understood, thesignificance of dramatically reducing their species richness and abundance is not known.

Crinoids may be appropriate for indicating reef health in this area as their abundance anddiversity varied between inshore and offshore reefs, presumably in response to differentenvironmental conditions. In addition, since they have no commercial value, temporal and spatialvariation in their abundance and diversity can not be attributed to removal by collecting.Comanthina sp. A is a particularly interesting species to monitor since 99% (N= 1547) werefound in the two most offshore zones, suggesting there are conditions near shore which limit theirsettlement or the survival ofjuveniles.

Although asteroids were almost non-existent in the reefs off Jakarta, the one requiringmonitoring is A. planci due to the impact of its feeding on coral cover. This starfish was observedonly on the more offshore reefs, except for two individuals seen at Lancang Besar in zone 3. A.planci had previously been recorded in low numbers on a few Seribu reefs in 1975 by Aziz andSukarno (1977), in 1982 and 1983 by Darsono (1988), and in 1985 during the initial UNESCOsurvey. However, an extensive survey of 64 reefs in the Seribu Islands between 1991 - 1993found A. planci on almost" every reef (Darsono and Soekarno, 1994), although no aggregationswere seen and numbers were considered "normal" or non-outbreak. Darsono and Soekarno ( 1 944)considered damage to coral by A. planci to be negligible, especially compared to damage beingcaused by destructive fishing and other human activities. In the present study, A. planci was seenon most offshore reefs but only in low numbers.

62

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Coral coverage on the inshore reefs Is probably already too Jow to support any sizeablepopulation of crown of thorns starfish (COTS). However, the decline of coral coverage on someoffshore reefs is, in part, due to the feeding of COTS since the pattern of damage to coral on thesereefs suggests it was caused by their feeding activity (Devantier, pers comm.). The apparentincrease in COTS numbers after 1985 may be following a general, apparently synchronous, pan-tropical increase in abundance which has been observed in other areas since late 1994 (Lassig andEngelhardt, 1994).

Whether increases in COTS numbers is natural, human induced or a combination of both is

still unresolved for any reef system. If increases in the population size of this starfish are caused byhuman activity then two favoured hypotheses may apply; increases occur through removing apredator, such as commercially valuable species of fishes, or by increasing food supplies for theirlarvae. Increases in the planktonic food supply for the larvae of COTS might enhance their survivalrate and thus result in more adults (Birkeland, 1982). Enhancement ofthe food supply can comeabout by increasing nutrients in the water through changes in water quality, a scenario which mightapply to the polluted waters of this region.

The only echinoderm found on all reefs and in moderate to high numbers on most reefs wasthe echinoid, Diadema setosum. These animals can be significant bio-eroders of reefs because of

their feeding behaviour (Birkeland, 1989). The reason for the high numbers of D. setosum is notknown but it may have been brought about by the removal of a predator such as a fish, as happenedto another species of Diadema on Caribbean reefs (Hughes, 1994). Since the accretion of newlimestone is virtually zero on many reefs, the feeding activity ofD. setosum is a significant factor inthe breakdown of reefs, especially in Jakarta Bay where echinoid density is high.

In summary, to a limited extent crinoids may be useful as indicators of reef health sincevariation in their abundance and diversity seems to be in response to changing environmentalconditions. Except for the coral eating crown of thorns starfish, asteroids are almost non-existentand this is probably from over collecting for the aquarium trade. Holothurian diversity andabundance are also extremely low and appear to have declined since an earlier study in the 1970s.Observations by other scientists suggest holothurians were common in the past and their decline ismost likely due to intensive collecting over a period of decades.

Two species of echinoderms which have significant impacts on reefs, the crown of thornsstarfish and the echinoid, D. setosum, were present in the areas investigated. The crown of thornsstarfish is responsible for the decline of at least a portion of coral cover on some offshore reefs. D.setosum ¡s most likely a major contributor to significant bioerosion on the reefs studied because ofits feeding behaviour and high abundance. To date, reef erosion has been most severe on theinshore reefs. However, erosion ofthe more offshore reefs may accelerate in response to a declinein the accretion of new coral and a possible increase in numbers of D. setosum. Continuedmonitoring of the distribution and abundance of both species should be done because of theirmajor impacts on coral reefs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to thank Dr J.R.E. Harger (UNESCO, Jakarta) for making our participation in thisworkshop possible. Our thanks are extended to Ms Nuning Wirjoatmodjo for her organising abilities and tothose at the Research and Development Center of Oceanology (Jakarta) who assisted with the project. Thesenior author wants to thank Dr Anne Hoggett (Lizard Island Research Station, Australia) for help withidentification of some crinoids.

64

REFERENCES

Aziz, A. 1981. Fauna Eehinodermata dari terumbu karang Pulau Pari, Pulau-Pulau Seribu. Oseano¬logi di Indonesia 14; 41-50.

Aziz, A. and Sukarno 1977. Preliminary observation on living habits of Acanthaster planci (Linnaeus) atPulau Tikus, Seribu Island. Marine Research in Indonesia, No 17: 121 - 132.

Birkeland, C. 1982. Terrestrial runoff as a cause of outbreaks oí Acanthaster planci (Eehinodermata:Asteroidea). Marine Biology 69: 175-185.

Birkeland, C. 1989. The influence of echinoderms on coral-reef communities. In: Echinoderm Studies,edited by M. Jangoux and J. Lawrence. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam Vol. 3: 1-79.

Clark, A.M. 1976. Echinoderms of coral reefs. In: "Biology & Geology of Coral Reefs", Edited by O.A.Jones & R. Endean, III: Biology 2. Academic Press, New York and London: 95-123.

Clark, A.M. and F.W.E. Rowe 1971. Shallow-water Indo-West Pacific echinoderms. London: BritishMuseum (Natural History).

Darsono, P. 1988. Pengamatan terhadap kehadiran bintang laut pemangsa karang, Acanthaster planci (L),di Pulau-Pulau Seribu. In: Teluk Jakarta, Edited by M.K. Moosa, D.P. Praseno and Sukarno,Puslitbang Oseanologi - LIPI, Jakarta: 48 - 54.

Darsono, P. and Soekarno 1994. The occurrence of Acanthaster planci (L) at Pulau Seribu, Java Sea,Indonesia. In: Proceedings, of the Third ASEAN-Australia Symposium on Living CoastalResources. Edited by S. Sadara, C.R. Wilkinson, and L.M. Chou. Vol 2 Research Papers,Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand: 87-92.

Hoggett, A.K. and F.W.E. Rowe 1986. A reappraisal of the family Comasteridae A.H. Clark, 1908(Eehinodermata: Crinoidea), with the description of a new subfamily and a new genus.Zoological Journal ofthe Linnean Society, 88: 103 - 142.

Hughes, T.P. 1994. Catastrophes, phase shifts, and large-scale degradation of a Caribbean coral reef.Science 265: 1547-1551.

Hutomo, M. and M. Adrim 1986. Distribution of reef fish along transects in Bay of Jakarta and KepulauanSeribu. In: UNESCO Reports in Marine Science - Human induced damage to coral reefs. Editedby B. Brown, pp 135 - 156.

Lassig, B. and U. Engelhardt 1994. COTS COMMS. In: Reef Research, Newsletter ofthe Research andMonitoring Section of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority. Edited by S. Hillman.Volume 4, No 4: 18-24.

Moll, H. and Suharsono 1986. Distribution, diversity and abundance of reef corals in Jakarta Bay andKepulauan Seribu. In: UNESCO Reports in Marine Science - Human induced damage to coralreefs. Edited by B. Brown, pp 1 12 - 125.

Roberts, D. and P. Darsono 1984. Zonation of reef flat echinoderm at Pari Island, Seribu Islands, Indonesia.

Oceanologi di Indonesia No 17: 33-41.

Rowe, F.W.E., A.K, Hoggett, R.A, Birtles and L. Vail 1986. Revision of some comasterid genera fromAustralia (Eehinodermata: Crinoidea), with descriptions of two new genera and nine new

species. Zoological Journal ofthe Linnean Society, 86: 197 - 277.

UNESCO 1986. Human induced damage to coral reefs, Edited by B. Brown. 108 pp.

Willoughby, N.G. 1986. Man-made flotsam on the strand-lines ofthe Thousand Island (Kepulauan Seribu)Jakarta, Java. In: UNESCO Reports in Marine Science - Human induced damage to coral reefs.

Edited by B. Brown, pp 157 - 163.

65

DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF REEF-FLAT STOMATOPODSIN TELUK JAKARTA AND KEPULAUAN SERIBU

Mark V. Erdmann0 and Ouk Sisovann2)

0 Department of Integrative BiologyUniversity of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA

2) Ministry of Environment, 48 Samdech Preah SihanoukTonle Bassac, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

INTRODUCTION

In order to evaluate the potential of several new reef assessment techniques, the 1995UNESCO-P30 LI PI resurvey of the Kepulauan Seribu reefs was expanded from its previousscope to include surveys of both stomatopod crustaceans and echinoderms. This expansion is inresponse to the recommendation ofthe 1994 UNESCO Coral Reef Assessment and EvaluationWorkshop (Harger, 1995a) that reef assessments should be more taxonomically-comprehensive inscope than is commonly practiced (i.e., "there is more to coral reef ecosystems than corals andfish," a concern articulated earlier by others who urged a "less myopic view of the reef(Dustan and Halas, 1987; Brown ,1988).

Stomatopod crustaceans are particularly well-suited for inclusion in large-scale, rapidcoral reef assessments. Reef-flat stomatopods are ubiquitous, abundant, and diverse in the Indo-Pacific, and their populations are easily sampled in an objective manner without the use ofSCUBA equipment (Erdmann and Caldwell, 1997). As stomatopods are an important componentofthe abundant mobile cryptofauna of coral reefs, study of their populations can offer insight intoreef processes which surveys offish and coral communities alone might miss.

Of particular relevance to the current survey, stomatopods have been shown to beexcellent bioindicators of marine pollution stress on coral reefs of the nearby SpermondeArchipelago in Sulawesi (Erdmann and Caldwell, 1997). Stomatopod abundance, diversity andrecruitment are strongly negatively correlated with sediment concentrations of petroleumhydrocarbons and certain heavy metals, and with surrogate measures of sewage andagrochemical runoff contamination (Steger and Caldwell, 1993; Erdmann and Caldwell, 1997).While neither the 1985 nor the 1995 Pulau Seribu surveys included chemical analyses of surfacewaters or sediments, Hungspreugs (1988) reports severe contamination of sediments in JakartaBay by the heavy metals Hg, Cd, and Pb, as well as the pesticides DDT and dieldrin. Likewise,Ongkosongo (1986a) describes frequent spills of petroleum hydrocarbons in close proximity tothe Pulau Seribu reefs. Both Sukarno (1987) and Ongkosongo (1986b) emphasize the lack ofprimary sewage treatment in Indonesia as a major threat to reefs, and Moll and Suharsono (1986)and Tomascik et al. (1994) consider marine pollution to be one ofthe major factors affectingcoral community structure in Jakarta Bay and Kepulauan Seribu. As stomatopod communities arenot adversely affected by many ofthe other threats to living hard coral (e.g, destructive fishingpractices and Acanthaster planci outbreaks), studies of their population structure can helpcorroborate the role of marine pollution as an important stressor of corals of the Pulau Seribureefs.

The purpose of the present study is to describe the distribution, diversity and abundanceof reef-flat stomatopods in Jakarta Bay/ Kepulauan Seribu (Fig. 1), and to examine the role ofvarious anthropogenic and ecological factors in maintaining cross-shelf patterns in stomatopodcommunity structure. Within the body of this article, a distinction is made between Jakarta Bayreefs (Fig.l, Zone 1) and the reefs of Kepulauan Seribu proper (Fig.l, Zones 2 & 3). Modern

66

colloquial terminology has often blurred this distinction, but we will follow historical precedentand consider these geographically separate.

METHODS

The stomatopod species surveyed in this study are shallow-water (<2 m) gonodactyloidswhich live in cavities in the dead coral rubble which is abundant on reef-flats of Indonesia. In

order to quantitatively sample these communities, a modification of the quadrat techniquedescribed in Erdmann and Caldwell (1997) was used. In that study, fourty 0.5 m2 quadrats(randomly placed along 8,25 m transects) were sampled from each reef site during each samplingperiod. In the present study, time constraints imposed by the program of sampling 27 reefs in 10days limited us to eight, 0.5 m2 quadrats per reef site (with the exceptions of 6 quadrats at UbiBesar and 1 1 at Kotok Besar). Additionally, these quadrats were not randomly-placed; in order tooptimize sampling effort, each reef flat was first visually surveyed using mask and snorkel, andquadrats were then placed in areas of preferred gonodactyloid habitat (i.e. seagrass beds strewnwith suitable, porous coral rubble (Caldwell, 1988). While not a truly representative sample, thismethod of "optimal sampling" provides estimates of maximum stomatopod densities which arecomparable between reef sites, and has been used before in similar large-scale, cross-shelf studiesof other taxa (cf. Williams, 1982). Sampling was standardized to the SW reef flat of each site,where sea grass beds were best-developed.

All rubble located within a given quadrat was collected in tightly-woven polyethylenerice sacks and transferred to shore, where each rubble piece was measured for volume estimationand carefully pulverized with a rock hammer, extracting all stomatopods. The live stomatopodswere later identified in the laboratory to species, sexed, and measured for total length (TL).

Individual species' distributions were described and compared to a previous taxonomicaccount of the stomatopods of Kepulauan Seribu (Moosa, 1975). Additionally, the number ofspecies per site was recorded. Standard ecological diversity indices were not calculated due to theoverall paucity of stomatopod species.

Individual species' abundances (average no. individuals/quadrat), as well as overall

stomatopod abundance were calculated for each reef site. Due to the deviations from normalityand unequal variances commonly encountered in this type of sampling (Steger and Caldwell,1993), statistical comparison of abundances between reef sites was carried out by Kruskal-Wallis1-way ANOVA (Wilkinson and Hill, 1994). In order to examine potential factors responsible forcross-shelf variation in stomatopod abundances, Spearman's rank correlation analysis was usedto determine if stomatopod abundances were significantly correlated with a number ofenvironmental variables measured in other studies of Jakarta Bay and the Pulau Seribuarchipelago.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Diversity and DistributionOverall, 471 stomatopods of 8 species (6 genera) were collected, including one

previously undescribed species of Haptosquilla (Erdmann and Manning, in press). These speciesare listed along with their site distributions in Table 1, following the generic nomenclature ofManning (1995). In comparison to a similar study in the nearby Spermonde Archipelago, thisspecies diversity seems quite low. That study yielded 21 species, with up to 15 species on asingle reef flat (Erdmann and Caldwell, 1997); the maximum diversity for a single site in thisstudy was 5 species at Lancang Besar. While this difference may be due in part to unequal

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sampling effort (the aforementioned study involved 2365 quadrats, as compared to 217 in thepresent one), it seems likely that it may reflect a more general multi-taxa phenomenon ofdecreased species diversity in Kepulauan Seribu when compared to Eastern Indonesia. Molland Suharsono (1986) report a similar trend for scleractinian coral diversity in general, andWallace (1997) reiterates this for the coral genus Acropora.

Comparison of our results with Moosa's (1975) taxonomic review ofthe stomatopodsof Pulau Seribu demonstrates that the present collection is indeed quite representative of thestomatopod fauna of this region. He describes 30 stomatopod species collected in the area, ofwhich 9 are reef-flat gonodactyloids; Chorisquilla brooksii, Gonodactylus chiragra, G.demanii, G. falcatus, G. platysoma, G. smithii, Haptosquilla glyptocercus, H. lenzi, andPseudosquilla ciliata.

Of these 9 species, 3 have habitat preferences which render them unlikely to becollected using the present sampling technique. G. platysoma and G. smithii prefer cavities inlive coral or under massive coral boulders, although juveniles are occasionally collected incoral rubble (Dingle et al, 1977). Additionally, P. ciliata frequently inhabit sand burrows(Dingle et al, 1 977); none of these 3 species were collected in the present study.

The remaining species listed by Moosa (1975) include several probablesynonymies. Moosa's G falcatus is likely the same as our G. mutatus; individuals of thisspecies group are notoriously difficult to separate on morphological grounds alone, with thecolor ofthe meral spot in live specimens one ofthe best distinguishing characters (Manning,1995). Additionally, Manning (1995) restricts G. falcatus to a Red Sea and Indian Oceandistribution. Likewise, Moosa's G. demanii may be our G. hendersoni; G. demanii is known

to occur only in the Indian Ocean and Manning (1995) synonymized several other SE AsianG. demanii records with G. hendersoni.

Finally, Moosa's G. chiragra likely incorporates specimens of both G. chiragra s.s.and Serene's (1954) G. chiragra var. viridis (listed herein as Gonodactylinus viridis). Both ofthese species were collected in the present study. Taking into account these probablesynonyms, our collection of 8 rubble-dwelling species is very similar to Moosa's (1975) listof 6 (7 including G. viridis) such species, with only 3 discrepancies: Moosa records H. lenzi,while our species list includes H. pulchella and a previously undescribed species named inhonour of Dr. Moosa, Haptosquilla moosai (Erdmann and Manning, in press).

An examination of species' distributions and relative abundances (Table 1) revealsthat reef-flat stomatopod communities in the region are heavily dominated by 3 species: G.viridis, G. hendersoni, and H glyptocercus, which together account for over 95% of theindividuals collected. Figure 2 summarizes the abundances of these 3 species at each site. Aninteresting pattern emerges from this analysis; G. viridis is generally present across the shelf,while G. hendersoni is found only in the Jakarta Bay reefs and H. glyptocercus is present onlyin Kepulauan Seribu proper. G. hendersoni and H. glyptocercus appear to ecologically replaceone another in these communities, each co-dominating with G.. viridis in turn, but never co-occurring except on one island, Lancang Besar.

Incorporating the other 5 species into this analysis, the 27 reefs surveyed in this studydivide naturally into 3 zones based on stomatopod distributions alone (see Fig. 1). The Bay ofJakarta reefs, which include Nyamuk Besar, Nyamuk Kecil, Damar Besar, Damar Kecil,Bidadari, Air, Ubi Besar, Onrust, Kelor, Untung Jawa, and Rambut are exclusively co-dominated by G. viridis and G. hendersoni. Bokor and Lancang Besar form a transition groupof reefs (the southernmost ofthe Kepulauan Seribu reefs) where species diversity rises from 2to 7 species. These two islands mark the only appearance of H pulchella, H. moosai,, andG. chiragra in the survey, and the first appearance of C. brooksii and H. glyptocercus.Moving further away from the mainland to the third group, the central and northernKepulauan Seribu reefs, species diversity drops again to 4 as H. glyptocercus replaces G.hendersoni as the co-dominant species with G. viridis, and C. brooksii and G. mutatus arefound sporadically.

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70

and then a decrease in richness in the outer Kepulauan Seribu reefs of zone 5. While the zone

of maximal coral species richness was slightly offset from that for stomatopods(Tikus/Tidung Kecil/Ayer/Kotok reefs versus Bokor/Lancang Besar, respectively), the overallpattern is very similar for scleractinians and stomatopods. Likewise, in a smaller-scale study,Brown et al (1983) detai.l the same phenomenon for the reefs ofthe Pulau Pari complex in thesouthern /central region of Kepulauan Seribu. Those authors show that the southernmostreef ofthe Pulau Pari complex have significantly higher coral diversity than do the northernones.

The processes responsible for this pattern of species richness have not yet been fullyexplained. Moll and Suharsono (1986) considered increasing human impacts (pollution,dredging, etc.) with proximity to the mainland to be of primary importance, and these seemimportant in structuring stomatopod communities as well (see below in General Discussion).However, this theory fails to account for the slightly decreased species richness in thenorthern Kepulauan Seribu reefs, which ostensibly suffer the least from human impacts.Brown et al (1983) conclude that the lower coral species diversity on the northern reefs maybe a result of increased exposure to high wave energy on those reefs. They based thisconclusion on the work of Umbgrove (1929), who showed that the east monsoon has a strongeffect on the reefs of this region, with consequent heavy wave exposure on the northeast tosoutheast sides ofthe islands. Umbgrove (1929) also showed that reefs in Jakarta Bay aregenerally sheltered from the effects ofthe east monsoon by a cape to the northeast of Jakarta,Tanjung Karawang (see Fig. 1). A natural extension of Umbgrove's theory is that the northernKepulauan Seribu reefs are the least sheltered by the mainland from the effects of exposure tothe east monsoon, and Brown et al (1983) postulate that this heavy exposure results in

decreased coral species richness on the northern reefs.A synthesis of these two explanations of the observed pattern of species richness

results in a variant of the "intermediate disturbance hypothesis," which holds that speciesdiversity is often highest in areas where intermediate levels.of disturbance act to "maintainlocal diversity by preventing the elimination of inferior competitors" (Conneil, 1978; Karlsonand Hurd, 1993). Jakarta Bay reefs seem strongly affected by human disturbances such as

marine pollution, dredging and sedimentation, and only pollution or sediment-tolerant speciesare able to exist in this zone. Likewise, the northern Kepulauan Seribu reefs may be stronglyaffected by wave exposure, which also limits species richness by excluding exposure-intolerant species. The southern Kepulauan Seribu reefs are affected by both human impactsand physical exposure, but apparently only in "intermediate" levels of both. This situationmay allow a larger number of species to coexist on the southern Kepulauan Seribu reefs.

The proximal mechanisms underlying this hypothesis are postulated in astraightforward manner for hard corals: pollution and sedimentation can kill or smother corals(e.g., Hatcher et al, 1989; Rogers, 1990) and high wave energy can severely damage coralskeletons, especially the more delicate life forms such as branching and foliaceous corals(Brown et al, 1983; Rogers, 1993). With stomatopods, the direct effects of pollution andespecially of exposure are less clear. Erdmann and Caldwell (1997) postulate that pollutionnegatively affects stomatopod recruitment, either through direct larval mortality or throughactive larval avoidance of polluted waters. Exposure may also affect stomatopods in severalways, including limiting the potential methods of prey-capture. Those stomatopod specieswhich live in high-energy reef zones seem restricted to ambushing prey from their cavityentrance, as opposed to the active "hunting" on the reef flat which is common in species thatlive in more calm, back reef environments (Caldwell and Erdmann, pers. obs.). Thisrestriction might be expected to limit the number (and size) of stomatopod species which existin high-energy zones, as prey capture may be considerably more sporadic when limited toambushing prey which pass near the cavity entrance. It should be noted that this intermediatedisturbance hypothesis is only speculative at this point; however, it is a plausible explanationof the observed pattern of highest species richness for both corals and stomatopods in thesouthern Kepulauan Seribu reefs.

71

Abundance

Individual species' abundances for the 3 dominant species are summarized in Table 2,and Figure 2 displays this data graphically for overall stomatopod abundance at each site.Overall stomatopod abundances ranged from 0-5.88 individuals/quadrat, with an average of2.1. These values are comparable, but slightly higher than the values obtained from theaforementioned study in the Spermonde Archipelago in SW Sulawesi, where overallabundance ranged from 0.06-4.96 individuals/quadrat, averaging 1.71. The slightly higherabundance values reported in this study are expected as a result of the "optimal sampling"protocol used. Table 3 summarizes the results of Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric tests forsignificant differences between sites for overall and individual species' abundances.Abundances of G. viridis, G. hendersoni, and H. glyptocercus, as well as overall stomatopodabundance were all highly significantly different between sites (p<.0005, df=26). Multiplestatistical comparisons were not attempted due to the large number of sites. However,Spearman's rank correlation analysis was used to determine if the differences between sites instomatopod abundances were significantly correlated with a number of environmentalvariables measured in other studies of the area. For the purposes of this paper, onlycorrelations between overall stomatopod abundance and the environmental variables will beexamined.

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Table 3. Results of Kruskal - Wallis- test, Chi - square approximation for significant differencesbetween site means for overall and individual species' abundance. Df=26**P<.0005.

Variable Overall Abundances Abundance Abundance

Abundance G. viridis G. hendersoni G. glyptocercus

X2 value 95.39** 75.54** 75.85** 147.64**

Table 4 includes values for a number of ecological/environmental parametersmeasured at various Kepulauan Seribu reef sites which are potentially important in structuringstomatopod communities. Distance from Jakarta and distance from the mainland (DISTJAKand DISTML), as well as the measure "mean number of pieces of strand line litter pertransect" (MNLIT) are as reported in Willoughby et al (this volume). The secchi diskreadings (SECC) and ÎM salinity (SAL1M) readings for the 1995 survey are also includedfor analysis. Finally, a number of water quality parameters reported in the OceanologicalAtlas of Jakarta Bay (Suyarso, 1995) were also used in the correlational analysis, includingsalinity (SALOA) and concentrations of suspended particulate matter (SESTOA),chlorophyll a (CHLOA), and saltwater and freshwater bacterial concentrations in surfacewater (BSWOA and BFWOA).

It is important to note that the Oceanological Atlas values are only for the Jakarta Bayreefs (extending out to Tidung Kecil), and are a 17-year average (1977-1994) for salinity and3-9 year averages from the late 1970's for the other parameters. While these limitationscertainly constrain the applicability ofthe data, no other data are available from more recentor geographically extensive studies of water quality parameters in the Kepulauan Seriburegion. Note also that all values are taken from the isoclines drawn for the NW monsoon, as

this is the rainy season when the 3 major rivers ofthe area (Cisadane, Citarum and Angke)debouch up to 80% of their annual sediment load and ostensibly have the greatest effect onwater quality (Moll and Suharsono, 1986). For all correlational analyses, sites with missingvalues for a particular variable were not included in the analysis for that variable.

Table 5 summarizes the results of Spearman's rank correlation analysis betweenoverall stomatopod abundance and the aforementioned environmental variables. The two

distance measures are the only variables with values for all reef sites, and both are highlysignificantly correlated with overall stomatopod abundance (p<.005). This result mirrors thatof Moll and Suharsono (1986), who showed that distance from land was highly significantlycorrelated with % coral cover, coral species diversity and number of coral colonies/transect.

Those authors conclude that coral community structure is most likely strongly affected byhuman activities which are most concentrated in Jakarta Bay, including inputs of sewage andmarine pollution, dredging, and sedimentation from soil erosion.

Likewise, Erdmann and Caldwell (1997) found that stomatopod abundances in theSpermonde Archipelago were highly significantly correlated with distance from the majorcity of Ujung Pandang, and negatively so with various pollution measures. However, overallstomatopod abundance in that study was not correlated with distance from the mainland,leading those authors to conclude that stomatopod communities in that region are structuredmore by the pollution gradient extending outwards from a major city than by generalecological gradients associated with distance from the mainland. The geographic layout ofthepresent study precludes an obvious separation of these effects using distance measures alone,as the distance from Jakarta (DISTJAK) is nearly the same as the distance from the mainland(DISTML) for most sites.

74

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75

Examination of the other variable's correlation coefficients support the assertion thatstomatopod communities in the Kepulauan Seribu area are strongly affected by marine pollution.The most significant (negative) correlations are for salt and freshwater bacteria and chlorophyll-aconcentrations in Jakarta "Bay (all p<.005). High bacterial concentrations are indicative ofdomestic sewage effluent, and high chlorophyll-a concentrations are likewise an indicator ofphytoplankton blooms caused by heavy organic inputs (Clark, 1992). Stomatopod abundance isalso significantly negatively correlated (p<.05) with suspended particulate matter concentrationsin Jakarta Bay. As many pollutants are often adsorbed to fine particulate matter, SESTOA can

also be considered a surrogate measure of pollution. Additionally, a significantly negativecorrelation (p<.01) is also demonstrated between stomatopod abundance and the amount ofstrand- line litter per reef (MNLIT).

Table 5. Spearman correlation coefficients between mean overall stomatopodabundance at each site and selected ecological/environmental parametersat those sites. Parameter abbreviations as described in text. . Sites with

missing values for a particular variable were not included in correlationalanalysis forthat variable. *P<.05, **P<.01, ***P<.005.

Variable DISTJAK DISTML MNLIT SALI M SECC SESOA SALOA CHLOA BSWOA BFWOA

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R2 .78*** .75*** .56* .55** .27 -67* .58* -79*** -.91*** -.81***

Both measures of surface water salinity, SALI M and SALOA, were also significantlycorrelated (p<.01 and p<.05, respectively) with stomatopod abundance. This is in contrast to thefindings of Erdmann and Caldwell (1997), who showed that overall stomatopod abundance in theSpermonde Archipelago was not correlated with salinity. One possible explanation for thisdiscrepancy is again related to the geographic layout ofthe present study. The Spermonde studywas carefully designed to test separately the effects of salinity gradients alone versus pollutioninputs from urban rivers, with reef sites located at varying distances from both urban, pollutedrivers and rural, relatively "clean" rivers. In the present study, the three major rivers in thearea (Citarum, Cisadane and Angke) are all considered heavily polluted (Ongkosongo, 1986b),and hence salinity and pollution inputs are themselves likely highly correlated.

Interestingly, seech i extinction depths (SECC) were not correlated with stomatopodabundance measures. This result is also contrary to the findings of Erdmann and Caldwell (1997)for stomatopod communities in the Spermonde. Those authors found overall stomatopodabundance highly significantly correlated with secchi depths, and concluded that this correlationwas probably due to the association of turbidity with the pollution gradient stretching outwardsfrom Ujung Pandang. Although we might also expect this correlation to hold in the present study,an examination of the secchi values in Table 4 show no distinguishable pattern of increasingsecchi depth with distance from Jakarta or the mainland. It should be noted that the 1995 secchi

dataset is limited to 1-2 readings per site, taken on different days at different times. Rogers(1990) has shown that turbidity measures such as secchi depths are highly dependent not only onamount of suspended particulate matter (SPM), but also on current velocity, wave energy andsediment resuspension rates, with the time of reading (ie, angle of incident sunlight) also animportant factor (Erdmann, pers. obs.). As these additional factors can vary significantly acrossthe shelf and between days and sampling times, it is difficult to draw any conclusions from thelack of significant correlation between secchi extinction depth and stomatopod abundance. As aside note, secchi readings from the 1985 survey (Scoffln, 1986) are highly significantly (p<.005)correlated with 1995 stomatopod abundances.

76

The results of the above correlational analyses, although generally suggestive of asignificant effect of marine pollution on stomatopod communities, must be considered withcaution. The variables examined were highly intercorrelated, and the data was often incompleteor quite old (up to 15 years previous to the current study). The most current dataseis (SECC andSAL1M) were one-time readings from September 1995; such "snapshots" of environmentalconditions often miss short-term "pulse" events which may have a significant effect on biologicalcommunities (Osenberg et al, 1994). Although data collection in both the 1985 and 1995UNESCO-P30 Pulau Seribu surveys has been limited by time and financial constraints, futuresurveys should perhaps include measurements of more environmental variables (eg, surflcialsediment analyses of heavy metals, petroleum hydrocarbons and other toxins). Additionally, a bi¬weekly or monthly sampling routine for such inexpensively-measured parameters as secchi depth,salinity, chlorophyll a, and SPM at the 27 reefs included in this study would be immensely usefulin determining the effect of these environmental variables on reef communities in the PulauSeribu region; such a sampling regime might feasibly be undertaken by P30-LIPI.

Size-frequency DistributionDuring the course of the field-sampling, an interesting pattern in size-frequency

distribution was revealed at a number of the offshore Kepulauan Seribu reefs. Beginning at thePulau Ayer site, we noticed a marked reduction in the average size ofthe stomatopods collected.This apparent size-class truncation was also observed at the reefs of Kotok Besar, Kotok Kecil,Belanda, Putri, Hantu Kecil and Hantu Besar, where all but one stomatopod collected were 30mm or less in total length. This phenomenon is most clearly seen when comparing G. viridissamples between sites, as this species is present at 24 ofthe 27 sites (and at all perturbed sites),and normally reaches a maximum length of 55 mm (Erdmann, 1997).

Figure 3 presents cumulative relative-frequency histograms for three groups of G. viridislength data: G. viridis from the above mentioned "affected" sites only , G. viridis from the non-affected sites, and all G. viridis collected by the first author during 3 years of fieldworkthroughout Indonesia (over 3500 specimens). The apparent size-class truncation in the outer reefsis quite striking. Length histograms for non-affected and Indonesia-wide G viridis dataseis arequite similar (mean lengths of 26.7 mm and 24.9 mm, respectively), while the affected-reefhistogram is obviously truncated, with a mean length of 20.4 mm. Results of a two-sample t-test(Wilkinson and Hill, 1994) confirm that the mean lengths of G. viridis at affected vs. non-affected reefs are highly significantly different (t=5.29, df=242, p<.0005). While this differencecould be an artifact of a relatively small "affected" sample size (n=72), this seems unlikely.Samples from each ofthe 20 non-affected reefs included G. viridis larger than 30 mm (and oftenlarger than 40 mm), even when sample size was as small as 1-3 specimens. Furthermore, the"optimal sampling" method used in this study is actually biased towards collecting larger animals,as quadrats are placed in areas of rubble with large, obvious cavities.

The cause of this size-class truncation is unclear, but may be related to a unique featureshared by all ofthe affected reefs: an elevated reef crest. During the sampling we noted that all 7of the affected reef-flats were at least partly isolated at low-tide from deeper waters by anexposed reef crest. This condition was augmented at the reefs of Ayer, Hantu Besar and HantuKecil by the accumulation of dredged coral rock along the crest. During periods of mid-day reefexposures with high solar insolation, isolated reef-flat waters such as these can be quickly heatedto temperatures of 40° C or more, lethal to most gonodactyloid stomatopods (Caldwell, 1988). In1991, a severe El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) warm phase produced the highest recordedair temperatures in over 120 years in Jakarta (Harger, 1995b).

77

A. i-i

.5-

Mean = 20.4

SD=4.6

r

0

Jf12 24 36 48 60

B. H

.5-

Mean = 26.7mmSD = 9.3 ji

T"

0

J12 24 36 48 60

c 1 1

.5-

Mean = 24.6mm

SD = 9.8

r

0

jtf12 24 38

LENGTH (MM)

43

-~r

60

Figure 3. Cumulative-relative length frequency histograms for: G. viridis.A - "affected" Pulau Seribu sites only; B - "unaffected" Pulausites; and C - collected from previous extensive samplingsthroughout Eastern Indonesia

78

In 1992, this same ENSO event also resulted in three separate weekly sea surface temperature(sst) anomalies in Kepulauan Seribu which were >1.3° C above the 15-year mean for thoseweeks; these sst anomalies were even more severe than those posted during the 1982-83 ENSO(Moore, pers. comm.; IGOSS NMC weekly sst dataset). It seems likely that reef flat stomatopodpopulations on the affected reefs may have suffered very high mortality due to heat stress duringthis period.

The observed size-class truncation on the 7 affected reefs is consistent with this

hypothesis. Using life tables constructed by Caldwell (unpub.) for G. bredini, a Caribbeanstomatopod species of very similar morphology and maximum size to G. viridis, we estimate that30-36 mm G. viridis specimens (the largest collected on the affected reefs) are maximally 1.5-2years of age. If stomatopod communities were locally extirpated during the ENSO-relatedwarming in 1991-92, this hypothesis requires a 1-2 year lag in stomatopod recruitment to theaffected reefs. This is not an unreasonable assumption; bleached coral rubble (as might be

expected from such a heating event) requires a period of "conditioning" before stomatopods willrecruit to it (Steger and Caldwell, 1993). This phenomenon is probably related to the eventualgrowth of algae and other epiphytes on the rubble, which is necessary for further colonization ofthe rubble by the cryptofaunal molluscs and crustaceans on which stomatopods prey (Klumpp etal, 1988; Preston and Doherty, 1994). This period of rubble conditioning, combined with poorstomatopod recruitment the following year would account for the aforementioned 1-2 year lag.While this reef-flat overheating hypothesis is not easily tested, it is a reasonable explanation ofthe observed size-class truncation of stomatopods on the 7 perturbed reefs, and may be supportedby an apparently similar mass-mortality of hard corals on these reefs in the past several years(see below). Other possible explanations for the truncation, including smaller cavity sizes ordecreased food availability on the affected reefs, are not supported by the authors' personalobservations on these reefs.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

The patterns revealed in the above analyses of reef-flat stomatopod diversity, distributionand abundance are all highly suggestive of a major effect of marine pollution on the stomatopodcommunities of Jakarta Bay and Kepulauan Seribu. The overall gonodactyloid species diversityofthe region is quite similar to that reported by Moosa in 1975, with the apparent absence of//.lenzi and the addition of H. pulchella and H. moosai. Moosa's report gives no indication ofrelative abundances ofthe various species, so it is impossible to determine if the strong numericaldominance by the 3 species G. viridis, G. hendersoni and H. glyptocercus (accounting for over95% ofthe collection) is a recent phenomenon only. However, a "retrogression to dominance by afew opportunistic species" is a primary indicator of pollution stress on marine benthiccommunities (Gray, 1989). This seems quite plausible under the present circumstances.

Likewise, a comparison of our species' distributions to Moosa's records andobservations from other parts of Indonesia suggest that the stomatopod communities withinJakarta Bay have decreased substantially in diversity since the early 1 970's, probably due in partto increased marine pollution. Moosa (1975) reports G. chiragra, G. mutatus (G. falcatus), H.glyptocercus, and C. brooksii from Jakarta Bay sites , where none of these species appear tooccur today. According to Gray (1989), a reduction in species diversity such as this is anothertypical sign of environmental stress on benthic communities. In the first author's experience, H,glyptocercus and C. brooksii are typically mid to outer shelf species which seem intolerant ofthepollution usually associated with nearshore waters of larger Indonesian cities, while the formertwo species are found even in the quite heavily polluted waters of Ujung Pandang, Sulawesi.Assuming that these four species are indeed absent from Jakarta Bay reefs today, a rather drasticreduction in water quality is implied whereby Jakarta Bay deteriorated from a "healthy" state ableto support the relatively pollution-sensitive species of H. glyptocercus and C. brooksii to onewhich cannot even support the pollution-tolerant species G. chiragra and G. mutatus. It is an

79

unfortunate commentary upon the state of the Jakarta Bay reefs today that C. brooksii is nolonger found on the island from which it was originally described (Edam, presently Damar Besar)by De Man in 1 887.

Overall stomatopod abundance increased dramatically with increasing distance fromJakarta, from a low of 0.0 individuals/quadrat at Onrust island to a high of 5.88 indiv./quadrat atJukung. The complete absence of stomatopods at Onrust is not surprising, as the reef-flatvisibility was almost zero and the water there was particularly foul-smelling and tasting.Interestingly, Umbgrove (1928) excluded Onrust from his studies of corals in Jakarta Bay due to"anthropogenic influences" almost 7 decades ago (Moll and Suharsono, 1986).

Abundances at several other reefs require further explanation due to confounding factorswhich may have affected sample results. While most reef flats provided suitable stomatopodhabitat, there were several exceptions. The SW reef flat at Tikus was exceedingly shallow,perhaps explaining the very low abundance of stomatopods there (0.38 indiv./quadrat).Additionally, the reef-flats of Ayer and Kelapa were almost devoid of coral rubble, the humaninhabitants of those islands having collected it for construction of seawalls (Erdmann, pers. obs.).The few rubble pieces remaining were often aggregated in depressions in the reef flat and werefully occupied, with up to 5 adult stomatopods in" one 2800 cm3 piece (the highest densityrecorded in this study). This "overcrowding" effect seems to have compensated for the relativepaucity of rubble, as average abundances at these 2 sites were typical ofthe area. The effect of anelevated reef crest at 7 ofthe sites has been discussed above in relation to size-frequency data, butit seems likely that this may have had a slight effect on abundance as well. Finally, the very highabundance recorded at Jukung was exceptional. In collections from 93 other sites throughoutIndonesia, this was the highest abundance observed (Erdmann, 1997). One possible explanationrelates to the presence of a large mariculture operation on that island. Effluent pipes from theoperation discharge directly on to the reef flat, apparently having a fertilizing effect upon theincredibly luxuriant seagrass beds there. The density of sabellid worms on small Parités coralheads on the flat was likewise remarkable. It is possible that increased primary production on thatflat is indirectly responsible for the very high abundance of stomatopods there, through a resultingincrease in available stomatopod prey.

Despite these several exceptional cases, the general trend of increasing stomatopodabundance with distance from Jakarta is pronounced. As detailed in the above correlational

analyses, stomatopod abundance is highly correlated to a number of water quality parameters,many indicative of marine pollution. Although the environmental variable dataseis used in the

correlational analyses had a number of limiting conditions (e g, missing values for a number ofsites, intercorrelation of variables, old data), the fact that variables from three different datasets all

support the same conclusion provides convincing evidence of a true effect. Based upon thisevidence, we suggest that marine pollution is indeed a major determining factor in the structure ofreef-flat stomatopod communities in the Pulau Seribu Archipelago.

The highly interesting but unexpected result of size-class truncation of G. viridispopulations in the 7 outer reefs of Ayer, Belanda, Kotok Besar, Kotok Kecil, Putri, Hantu Besar

and Hantu Kecil is important in a wider context as well. The corresponding precipitous decline inlive coral cover at these same sites in recent years has been attributed to a number of factors,primarily Acanthaster planci outbreaks (see DeVantier et al, this volume). As reef-flatstomatopod populations are not dependent upon live coral, it is unlikely that they are affected byA. planci outbreaks. If we assume that the decline in live coral cover and the size-class truncation

of G. viridis at these sites are not entirely independent phenomena, then we must conclude thatanother stressor besides A. planci (such as the hypothesized ENSO-related warming describedabove) also played a major role in both events. This explanation is very tenable; a strong ENSOwarming event caused extensive coral bleaching and mortality throughout Kepulauan Seribu in1983 (Suharsono, 1990; Tomascik et al, 1994).

80

Furthermore, the two above mentioned hypotheses on the cause of the decline in live

coral cover at outer Kepulauan Seribu sites are not mutually exclusive, and in fact may supportone another. Glynn (1985a, b) has documented increased aggregation and coral-feeding activityofA. planci on reefs in the Eastern Pacific immediately following extensive coral mortality in thesevere 1982-83 ENSO event. Additionally, the 1991-92 ENSO may have produced theconditions described in the "larval recruitment hypothesis" explaining Acanthaster outbreaks andespoused by Birkeland and Lucas (1990). The record-high temperatures of 1991-92 werefollowed in late 1992 by a prolonged, high-precipitation wet season with extensive flooding inJakarta (Harger, 1995c); this would ostensibly produce the lowered salinity/ increased terrestrialrunoff (with consequent increased suspended particulate organic matter) conditions favorable toimproved survival of larvae ofA. planci (Lucas, 1975; Birkeland, 1982). Thus the 1991-92 ENSOevent may have augmented or even, caused the heightened densities of A. planci observed on theouter Kepulauan Seribu reefs.

Taking the above discussion into consideration, it seems plausible that the extreme hightemperatures associated with the 1991-92 ENSO may have contributed to both the recent coralmortality and the G. viridis size-class truncation described at the perturbed sites in NorthernKepulauan Seribu.

CONCLUSION

The above results "underscore the importance of examining a broad range of taxonomicgroups when assessing coral reef condition. Reef organisms such as stomatopod crustaceans areoften affected differently by various natural and anthropogenic stresses than are corals and fish,and can thereby provide additional insight into the nature of impacts on coral reef ecosystems.The results of this study affirm that marine pollution has an important structuring effect on coralreef communities in Jakarta Bay and Kepulauan Seribu, and suggest that heating of reef-flatwaters during the 1991-92 ENSO event may have been an important factor in the general declineof reefs throughout the archipelago.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express sincere thanks to the sponsoring organizations, UNESCO and P30-LIPI, for allowing us the opportunity to participate in this workshop, and especially to NuningWirjoatmodjo and JRE Harger for their inspired efforts in making the workshop run smoothly. Thanks arealso due to JRE Harger and N Willoughby for allowing us to use their data in our analyses. NSF DDIG9503060 and a grant from the UC Pacific Rim Research Program supported portions of this research. RLCaldwell, WP Sousa, WM Getz and A Mehta provided valuable comments on the manuscript. We alsothank MD Moore for invaluable discussion on ENSO effects in Indonesia and for providing SST data.

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Birkeland, C. 1982. Terrestrial runoff as a cause of outbreaks ofAcanthaster planci. Mar Biol, 69:175-185Birkeland, C.J.S. Lucas 1990. Acanthaster planci: major management problem ofcoral reefs. CRC Press,

Florida. 257 pp.Brown, B.E., M.C. Holley , L. Sya'rani and M. Le Tissier 1983. Coral assemblages of reef flats around

Pulau Pari, Thousand Islands, Indonesia. Atoll Res Bull, 281:1-14.

Brown, B.E. 1988. Assessing environmental impacts on coral reefs. Proc 6th Int Coral ReefSymp 1 :71-80.Caldwell, R.L. 1988. Interspecific interactions among selected intertidal stomatopods. In: Chelazzi G,

Vannini M (eds) Behavioral adaptation to intertidal life, Plenum, 371-385.Clark, R.B. 1992. Marine pollution. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Connell, J.H. 1978. Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science, 199:1302-1310.De Man, J.G. 1887. Bericht über die von Herrn Dr. G, Brooks im Indischen Archipel gesammelten

Dekapoden und Stomatopoden. Arch Naturgesch, 53: 571-583.De Man, J.G. 1887. Bericht über die von Herrn Dr. G. Brooks im indischen Archipel gesammelten

Dekapoden und Stomatopoden. Arch Naturgesch, 53: 571-583.

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De Vantier L., Suharsono, Wostenholme J., Ledesma, RG., Tuti, J., ïmanto, P. (this volume). Status ofcoral communities of Pulau Seribu, 1985 - 1995.

Dingle, H; R.L. Caldwell and R.B. Manning 1977. Stomatopods of Phuket Island, Thailand. PhuketMar Biol Center Res Bull, 20: 1 -20.

Dustan, P. and J.C. Halas 1987. Changes in the reef- coral community of Carysfort Reef, Key Largo,Florida: 1974 to 1982. Coral Reefs, 6:91-106.

Erdmann, M.V. 1997. The ecology, distribution and bioindicator potential of Indonesian coral reefstomatopod communities. PhD Dissertation, Univ. California, Berekeley, 290 pp.

Erdmann, M.V. and R.L. Caldwell, 1997. Stomatopod crustaceans as bioindicators of marine pollutionstress on coral reefs. In: Proc 8th Int Coral Reef Symp, Panama, 1996, 2: 1521 - 1526..

Erdmann, M.V; R.B. Manning (in prep). Nine new stomatopod crustaceans from coral reef habitats inIndonesia. Raffles Bull. Zool.

Glynn, P.W. 1985a. El Nino-associated disturbance to coral reefs and post disturbance mortality byAcanthaster planci. Mar Ecol Prog Ser, 26: 295-300.

Glynn, P.W. 1985b. Corallivore population sizes and feeding effects following El Nino (1982-1983)associated coral mortality in Panama. In: Proc . 5th Int. Coral Reef Congress, 4:

183-188.

Gray, J.S. 1989. Effects of environmental stress on species rich assemblages. Biol J Linnean Soc, 37:19-32.

Harger, J.R.E. 1995a. Coral reef-uses and assessmentfor sustainable development. UNESCO-IOC Report.Paris, 7 pp.

Harger, J.R.E. 1995b. Air temperature variations and ENSO effects in Indonesia, the Phillipines and ElSalvador. ENSO patterns and changes from 1866-1993. Atmosp. Environ, 29:1919-1942.

Harger, J.R.E. 1995c. ENSO variations and drought occurrence in Indonesia and the Phillipines. Atmosp.Environ, 29:1943-1955.

Hatcher, B.G.; R.E. Johannes and A.I. Robertson 1989. Review of research relevant to the

conservation of shallow tropical marine ecosystems. Oceanog Mar Biol Ann Rev, 27: 337 - 4 1 4.

Hungspreugs, M. 1988. Heavy metals and other non - oil pollutants in Southeast Asia. Amhio, 17: 178-182.

IGOSS NMC weekly sst dataset, Lamont Doherty Geological Observatory, Columbia University. Internetaddress: http:/Iola/ldgo.columbia.edu:81/SOURCES/.IGOSS/.nmc/.weekly/.sst/

Karlson, R.H. and L.E. Hurd 1993. Disturbance, coral reef communities, and changing ecologicalparadigms. Coral Reefs, 12:117-125.

Klumpp, D.W; A.D. McKinnon and C.N. Mundy 1988. Motile cryptofauna of a coral reef:abundance, distribution and trophic potential. Mar Ecol Prog Ser, 45:95-108.

Lucas, J.S. 1975. Environmental influences on the early development ofAcanthaster planci. In: Crown-of-Thorns Starfish Seminar Proceedings, Aust Govt Publ Serv, Canberra. 103- 121.

Manning, R.B. 1995. Stomatopod crustácea of Vietnam: the legacy ofRaoul Serene. Crustacean Research,Carcinological Society of Japan, Special No. 4, 339 pp

Moll, H. and Suharsono 1986. Distribution, diversity and abundance of reef corals in Jakarta Bay andKepulauan Seribu. In: Brown, BE (ed) Human induced damage to coral reefs. UNESCO Reportsin Marine Science No. 40. pp 1 12-125.

Moosa, M.K. 1975. Notes on stomatopod crustácea from Seribu Islands and adjacent waters with adescription of a new species. Mar Res Indonesia, 15:1-20.

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Ongkosongo, O.S.R. 1986a. Background to the study sites in the Bay of Jakarta and Kepulauan Seribu.In: Brown, BE (ed) Human induced damage to coral reefs. UNESCO Reports in Marine ScienceNo. 40. pp 56-79. ,

Ongkosongo, O.S.R. 1986b. Some harmful stresses to the Seribu coral reefs, Indonesia. In: Theproceedings of the MAB - COMAR Regional Workshop on coral reef ecosystems: theirmanagement practices and research/training needs. UNESCO. Jakarta. 133-142

Osenberg, C.W; S.J. Schmitt ; S.J. Holbrook; K.E. Abu-Saba and A.R. Flegal 1994. Detection ofenvironmental impacts: natural variability, effect size, and power analysis. Ecol App, 4: 16-30.

Preston, N.P. and P.J. Doherty 1994. Cross-shelf patterns in the community structure of coral-dwellingCrustacea in the central region ofthe Great Barrier Reef. II. Cryptofauna. Mar Ecol Prog Ser, 104:27-38.

Rogers, CS. 1990. Responses of coral reefs and reef organisms to sedimentation. Mar Ecol Prog Ser,62:185-202.

Rogers, CS. 1993. Hurricanes and coral reefs: the intermediate disturbance hypothesis revisited. CoralReefs, 12:127-137.

Scoffin, T.P. 1986. Banding in coral skeletons from Pulau Seribu as revealed by x-raysand u/v lightanalyses. In: Brown, BE (ed) Human induced damage to coral reefs. UNESCO Reports in MarineScience No. 40. pp 126-134.

Serene, R. 1954, Observations biologiques sur les stomatopodes. Mémoires de l'InstitutOcéanographique de Nhatrang (Vietnam), 8:1-93.

Steger, R. and R.L. Caldwell 1993. Reef flat stomatopods. In: Long-term assessment ofthe oil spill atBahía Las Minas, Panama, synthesis report, volume II: technical report. Keller BD, Jackson JBC(eds) OCS Study MMS 90-0031. U.S. Department of Interior, New Orleans, La., pp. 97-1 19.

Sukarno 1987. The effect of environmental trends and associated human damage on coral reefs in the

Seribu Islands, Jakarta. In: Coral Reef Management in Southeast Asia. Biotrop Spec. Publ. No. 29.111-121.

Suharsono 1990. Ecological and physiological implications of coral bleaching at Pari Island, ThousandIslands, Indonesia. PhD thesis, Univ. Newcastle upon Tyne, 279 pp.

Suyarso (ed) 1995. Atlas Oseanologi Teluk Jakarta. L1PI-P30, Jakarta, 160 pp.

Tomascik ,T; Suharsono and A.J. Mah 1994. Case histories: A historical perspective of the naturaland anthropogenic impacts in the Indonesian Archipelago with a focus on the KepulauanSeribu. In: Ginsburg RN (ed). Proc of Colloquium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs. Univ

Miami, pp 304-310.

Umbgrove, J.H.F. 1928. De koraalriffen in de Baai van Batavia. Dienst Mijnb. Ned. Indie, Wetensch.Meded. 7:1-69.

Umbgrove, J.H.F. 1929. The influence ofthe monsoons on the geomorphology of coral islands. Proc 4thPac Sei Congress, 2A: 49-54.

Wallace, C.C. 1997. The Indo-Pacific Centre of coral diversity re-examined at species level. In: Proc 8th IntCoral Reef Symp, Panama, 1996, I: 365 - 370.

Wilkinson, L. and M. Hill 1994. LZs-/«^ Systat, Version 6 edition. Systat Inc, Evanston, III.

Williams, D.Mc.B. 1982. Patterns in the distribution offish communities across the central Great BarrierReef. Coral Reefs, 1:35-43.

Willoughby, N.G; H. Sangkoyo and B.O. Lakaseru (this volume). Long term changes in strand line litteraround the Thousand Islands, Jakarta Bay, Indonesia.

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DESTRUCTIVE FISHING PRACTICES

IN THE PULAU SERIBU ARCHIPELAGO

Mark V. Erdmann

Department of Integrative BiologyUniversity of California, Berkeley

INTRODUCTION

During the course ofthe 1995 UNESCO-P30 LIPI resurvey ofthe Pulau Seribu reefs, aseries of observations on destructive fishing practices in the archipelago were recorded in order tocompare with observations made previously in the area. While not an exhaustive survey of thereef fisheries of Kepulauan Seribu, this technique of daily, wide-spread observations combinedwith limited fisher surveys is comparable to several other such studies of destructive fishingpractices (DFP) in eastern Indonesia (Erdmann, 1995; Erdmann and Pet-Soede, 1996) andtherefore permits a comparison of DFP in these two regions.

Although the author could find no comprehensive report of DFP in Kepulauan Seribufrom the 1985 survey, references to destructive techniques are scattered throughout the literatureproduced from that exercise (e.g., Table 1.1 in Brown, 1986; Sukarno et al, 1986; Hutomo andAdrim, 1986). The overall picture that emerges from these 1985 observations is one of primaryconcern over blast Ashing , particularly in the group of islands located N/NW of Pulau Air (Zone4 of Sukarno, 1987). Other major destructive techniques discussed in those reports include muro-ami fishing for yellowtail (caesionids) and cyanide fishing for ornamental fish. Brown (1986)also mentions the use of bubu fish traps (usually disguised by covering with live coral fragments)and Ongkosongo (1986) reports on potential bagan (lift-net) damage to corals, but these seemminor in comparison to the larger threats of blast, muro-ami and cyanide fishing.

The present study documents several differences in the state of Kepulauan Seribu DFPin 1995, and reveals major differences in DFP between Kepulauan Seribu and easternIndonesia. Below is a summary ofthe major destructive techniques observed, with comparisonsto pre- 1986 DFP in Pulau- Seribu and current DFP in eastern Indonesia, and commentary uponpossible reasons for the apparent differences.

BLAST FISHING

Blast fishing, the technique of using explosives to stun or kill fish, is an extremelydamaging practice which is widespread throughout Southeast Asia (Galvez and Sadorra, 1988;McManus, 1988; Jennings and Polunin, 1996). In addition to indiscriminately killing target andnon-target fish and invertebrates of all but the largest size classes, blasts commonly damage oroutright destroy the reef framework itself. Repeated blasting on the same reef can result in reefswhich are little more than rubble fields punctuated by an occasional massive coral head, and coralrecovery in these situations is unlikely given the unconsolidated, shifting nature of rubble as arecruitment substrate. While blast fishing is illegal in Indonesia, it is still quite commonthroughout the archipelago, particularly on remote, uninhabited reefs where the threat ofenforcement is reduced (Sukarno, 1987). This has resulted in the rather paradoxical situationwhere the reefs most distant from human habitation are frequently the most destroyed (Kunzmanand Efendi, 1994; Erdmann, pers. obs.).

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Although seemingly one of the most widespread and devastating of DFP observed in1985, blast fishing was neither observed nor heard during the 1995 survey. While this may appearto be a positive shift, the present author believes this is more a result of fishery collapse thanincreased enforcement and compliance. Blast fishing works best on dense aggregations ofschooling fishes (McManus, 1988), now an uncommon occurrence in Kepulauan Seribu. It seemslikely that blast fishing is simply economically unviable on the Pulau Seribu reefs today. Thissituation is certainly in sharp contrast to the status of DFP in eastern Indonesia, where blast

fishing is still ubiquitous. The situation in Kepulauan Seribu may unfortunately be a harbinger ofthe future of eastern Indonesia as well, unless proper management is put into effect soon.

CYANIDE FISHING

The use of sodium cyanide solution to stun fish for live collection is another widespreadDFP in Southeast Asia. Tablets of sodium cyanide are dissolved in sea water in squirt bottles, andthe resulting toxic solution is used by divers to stun fishes which are desired in live condition

(although some Filipino fishermen are now using large quantities of cyanide solution as a generalpiscicide - Johannes, pers. comm.). As with blast fishing, this is often an indiscriminate fishingtechnique, and large side kills of larval and juvenile fish and invertebrates are common. Cyanidesolution is similarly implicated in widespread death of corals in the Phillipines and Indonesia(McAllister, 1988).

Prior to 1990, the main targets of cyanide Ashing in Indonesia were ornamental fish andinvertebrates for the aquarium trade, and Sukarno et al (1986) report this practice fromKepulauan Seribu. However, in the years following 1990, a much more lucrative trade utilizingcyanide fishing infiltrated Indonesia - the live reef food fish trade (Johannes and Riepen, 1995).In this fishery, several select groups offish are targeted for live collection and eventual export towholesalers, primarily in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, and mainland China. These live foodfish are sold to upscale Chinese restaurants, where the fish are displayed in aquaria for selectionby diners. Consumers will pay phenomenal prices for these, the freshest offish: up to US$180 perkilogram for live Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus) or barramundi cod (Cromileptesaltivelis) (Johannes and Riepen, 1995). This price is 5-8 times the price of comparable, but deadfish in a Hong Kong restaurant. Large grouper (Epinephelus spp) and coral trout (Plectropomusspp) are similarly prized and fetch slightly lower prices. This "fishery is now omnipresent inIndonesia, and seems poised to wipe out remaining target species stocks (Erdmann and Pet-Soede, 1996). The financial incentives are compelling; a fishermen can receive for live grouper2-25 times the price of dead ones, and those regularly employed by the cyanide fishery can earnup to 3 times the monthly salary of a University lecturer in Indonesia (Erdmann and Pet-Soede,1996).

Despite these heady incentives, this fishery seems largely absent from KepulauanSeribu. Neither the large Hong Kong-based live fish tranport vessels (LFTV's) nor the smaller1-2 ton capacity "catcher" boats normally associated with the fishery were observed (althougha cyanide boat of unknown intentions, but replete with firearms, was reported in the vicinity bythe resort managers at Kotok Besar). As with blast fishing, the reason for theapparent absence of this fishery is probably best explained by an absence of targetspecies. A total of 12-13 serranid species observed during the 1995 fish transect surveys,and of these, only 2 species (Plectropomus maculatus and Epinephelus ongus) comprising 6individuals are considered targets ofthe live reef food fish trade. Similarly, only one specimenof the most prized species, Cheilinus undulatus, was recorded. Even in the 1985 survey,Hutomo and Adrim (1986) only report 6 target serran ids (P. maculatus, Epinephelussummana (synonym of E. ongus) and E. fuscoguttatus) as well as recorded observations ofCheilinus undulatus at Semak Dann, Kotok Besar, and Ayer. The implied low target species'

85

densities are probably inadequate to support a large scale live reef food fish trade. It should benoted, however, that muro-ami fishermen were observed placing a 20 cm P. maculatus they

captured into a bucket of sea water for eventual "export." It seems likely that any grouper caughtby more traditional methods are probably set aside by fishermen in hopes of fetching the higherprice for live fish, as observed in eastern Indonesia as well (Erdmann and Pet-Soede, 1996).

Cyanide fishing for ornamental fish and invertebrates was, in contrast to the grouperfishery, frequently observed in Kepulauan Seribu in 1995. Several fishermen were spotted withsquirt bottles in Jakarta Bay, collecting from the bases of bagan platforms. These fishermen hadin their possession several large angelfish (Pomacanthus spp), which they reportedly could sellfor Rp 17,000 each (~ US$8). On the reefs surrounding Pulau Ayer, groups of 6-10 fishermenwere thrice observed methodically combing the reef for ornamental species. These men each wereoutfitted with squirt bottle, goggles, small hand net, and an inflated innertube with a "holding net"suspended beneath, and they were spread out over the reef, diving amongst the mostly dead coralheads in search of any flash of bright color. These teams are apparently quite common; a surveyobserver from the WWF Indonesia Programme commented that there were over 20 ornamental

fish export companies in Jakarta alone (Lakaseru, pers. comm.).Unfortunately, cyanide fishing for ornamental fish may very well be the most destructive

practice observed in Kepulauan Seribu. In contrast to the live grouper fishery, which targets aselect, small number of fish species and hence uses cyanide solution relatively sparingly, theornamental trade pursues virtually every coral reef fish species, as well as a number ofinvertebrates. As a result, very large quantities of cyanide are used, often with daily-repeatedexposures. Johannes and Riepen (1995) describe "extensive collateral environmental damage"resulting from such exposures, including large-scale mortality of larval fish, reef cryptofauna, andmost alarming, the reef corals themselves.

This practice must be targeted as a priority problem for Kepulauan Seribu reef managers.Unlike the other destructive fisheries discussed herein, cyanide fishing for ornamental fish and

invertebrates is a small-scale, high value fishery with little capital investment required, renderingit impervious to economic overfishing. Such fisheries have the potential to persist almostindefinitely, or until the target species are completely extirpated (Vincent, in press). Again, thePulau Seribu situation may be an ominous foreshadowing of things to come in eastern Indonesia.While not a large problem in that region currently, the recent expansion of international airportsin Ujung Pandang and Manado may provide the efficient transportation infrastructure needed tobring the ornamental fish trade eastward.

MURO-AMI FISHING

Muro-ami is a drive-in net fishery whereby a line of fishermen in the water use scare-lines (typically a line with pieces of sheet and plastic tied off at regular intervals, with a weighton the end) to drive fish down a reef towards a bag net. The scare lines are rhythmically liftedand dropped into the reef framework, often breaking live corals while the fish are drivenahead. Jennings and Polunin (1996) describe operations involving 25-300 people, while Sukarnoet al (1986) report that a typical "unit" of muro-ami in Kepulauan Seribu consists of 49fishermen, with one motor boat and four canoes. The practice is historically widespreadthroughout the Pulau Seribu chain, with the main target being caesionids (Hutomo and Adrim,1986). This does not seem to be the case in much of eastern Indonesia, where muro-ami seemscuriously absent (Erdmann, 1995).

During the course of this study, only one large-scale muro-ami operation was observed,involving 1 large mother ship, 3 canoes, and 20 men in the vicinity of Pulau Panjang. This was amodified form of muro-ami, where, after setting the bag net, 8 divers on hookah air

86

support (2 compressors on board the mother ship) formed a scare line which drove fish thelength ofthe reef, roughly 400 meters. The divers used a wall of bubbles as their scare line, inaddition to banging upon the reef framework with hollow metal pipes. The yield from thisoperation, which took 3 hours from start to finish, was an amazingly paltry 30 kg offish, of whichonly about half were Caesio spp. The remainder were less valuable species, includingchaetodonts, juvenile scarids, pomacentrids, and synodonts; these the fishermen claimed wouldbe taken home for local consumption. The fishermen confirmed that this was a typical yield fortheir efforts.

Given the extremely low yield of this operation (15 kg offish for sale at Rp 2000/kg), itis amazing that these fishers still persist in this relatively high-cost fishery. If one assumes thatthis crew could perform this operation 4 times a day, the crew would maximally gross Rp120,000/day. Subtract from this the cost of renting the mother boat (reportedly Rp 1,000,000/month) as well as fuel costs for the boat and compressors (conservatively Rp. 15,000/day), andone is left with a net income of roughly Rp 50,000/ month/fisher (less than US$23/month), plusdaily portions of trash fish!

As implausible as this may seem, it is in keeping with the precipitous decline of thisfishery described by Tomascik et al. (1993). In following up a study by Subani and Wahyono(1987), they show a virtual collapse ofthe caesionid muro-ami fishery from a high of 1400 tonsreported in 1972 to only 100 tons reported in 1990. Likewise, they report an approximate muro-ami fisherman's salary of US $450/ year (less than US$38/month) in 1990. It seems likely thatthese figures will only continue to decline.

OTHER DESTRUCTIVE FISHING PRACTICES (DFP)

Bagan lift nets. Bagans are semi-permanent bamboo structures supporting a raisable small-meshnet. They are built in shallow water and designed to capture schools of small pelagics (mainlyanchovy, Stolephorus spp) by luring these fishes (often with kerosene lamps at night) intoposition above the lowered net, which is then raised, capturing the fish. The effects of these trapson the size-class distribution of Stolephorus is debated (see Willoughby et al. 1984), but

Ongkosongo (1986) mentions that they probably account for some coral damage during theirconstruction and repair on reef slopes and flats. Additionally, bagans which are left in placeduring the onset of rough weather in the NW monsoon have a high probability of tearing looseand crushing any branching or foliaceous corals as they are tumbled over the reef slope. Althoughillegal in Indonesia since 1977, bagans are still very much a part ofthe seascape in KepulauanSeribu, and may be expected to contribute (at least minimally) to reef damage.

Tridacnid fishery. Brown (1986) and Ongkosongo (1986) both point to Tridacna mining as asource of reef damage in Kepulauan Seribu in 1985, but this was primarily for fossilized shells forthe floor tile industry. While this practice was not observed by the present author, collectionof live Hippopus hippopus giant clams was observed at both Pulau Panjang and PulauKelapa. At Panjang, this involved 3 older men combing the reef flat, collecting 2-4 clams perhour. Interviews confirmed that these fishermen no longer find any of the larger Tridacna spp

(including T. gigas, T. squamosa and T. derasa), but that some fishermen collect the morecommon T. crocea or T. maxima by prying them out ofthe reef framework. All of these speciesare protected by Indonesian law, but apparently to little avail.

Resort Island Aquaria. Although not a fishery in itself , the large number of resort islands inthe Pulau Seribu chain which maintain aquaria/reef pens full of large predators is worthy ofmention. These pens are often densely packed with black-tip reef sharks, large reef rays,Cheilinus undulatus, carangids, and green and hawksbill turtles. While the source of these

87

animals is uncertain, it is reasonable to assume that these aquaria create a heavy demand fortarget fish/turtles caught in the immediate vicinity, further pressuring an already weakenedecosystem. Undeniably, there is a value of aquariums in educating the public, but the highlyunrealistic and unhealthy densities of predators maintained in these pens results in a number ofneedless deaths. In addition, overfeeding seems to be contributing to localized eutrophication; thereefs beneath these pens seemed more dead than the surrounding reef, and appeared to supporthigher densities of urchins and other bioeroders.

CONCLUSION

Destructive fishing practices continue to plague the reefs of Kepulauan Seribu, but are ofa vastly different nature than that seen on reefs of eastern Indonesia today. The situation in PulauSeribu seems to have moved to one of a post-apocalypsal nature, where fish populations are toodepressed to support the larger scale, more lucrative DFP such as blast fishing and cyanidefishing for the live reef food fish trade. Indeed, Tomascik et al, (1993) describe the reefs in theBay of Jakarta as "functionally dead," and document an overall ecological shift from reefsteeming with coral reef fish to those dominated by crabs.

Muro-ami was observed, but seems likely to become inviable in the very near future. Themost prevalent DFP observed was cyanide fishing for ornamental reef fish for the aquarium trade.As described above, this fishery has the potential to carry on indefinitely, or until the reefs ofPulau Seribu are reduced to barren carbonate skeletons supporting little more than a communityof bioeroders and algae. The long-overdue implementation of proper reef management inKepulauan Seribu, a national marine park, will hopefully avert such a disturbing denouement.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author would like to express thanks to Dr. J. R. E. Harger (UNESCO) for the invitation toparticipate in this workshop, and to Ms. Nuning Wirjoatmodjo (UNESCO) and the Indonesian Institute of

Sciences (LIPI) for their efforts in running the workshop. Thanks also to A. Mungkajee for providing the1995 fish survey results. Comparative research was supported through grants from NSF DDIG 9503060and the UC Pacific Rim Research Program. A. Mehta and P. Jutte provided valuable comments upon themanuscript.

REFERENCES

Brown, B.E. 1986. Background to reef damage in South East Asian waters and bordering Indo-Pacificregions. In: Human induced damage to coral reefs (B.E. Brown, ed). UNESCO Reports inMarine Science No. 40, pp 3-1 1.

Erdmann, M.V. 1995. An ABC guide to coral reef fisheries in Southwest Sulawesi, Indonesia. NAGA, theICLARM quarterly. 1 8(2): 4-6.

Erdmann, M.V. and Pet-Soede, C. 1996. How fresh is too fresh? The live reef food fish trade in Eastern

Indonesia. NAGA,.the ICLARM quarterly. 19(1): 4-8.

GaIvez,R. and M.S. Sadorra 1988. Blast fishing: a Phillipine case study. Tropical Coastal AreaManagement. 3(1 ):9- 1 0.

Hutomo.M. and M. Adrim 1986. Distribution of reef fish along transects in Bay of Jakarta and KepulauanSeribu. In: Human induced damage to coral reefs. (BE Brown, ed). UNESCO Reports in MarineScience No 40. pp 135-156.

88

Jennings, S. and N.V.C. Polunin 1996. Impacts of fishing on tropical reef ecosystems. Ambio. 25(1): 44-49.

Johannes, R.E. and M. Riepen 1995. Environmental, economic, and social implications ofthe live reef fishtrade in Asia and the Western Pacific. 81 pp.

Kunzman, A. and Y. Efendi 1994. Are the coral reefs along the coast of West Sumatra seriously damaged?In: Proceedings of the LIPI-IOC-UNESCO Symposium on Sustainability of the MarineEnvironment: an integrated scientific approach to Coastal Area Management. Bali. p.97.(Abstract).

McAllister, D.E. 1988. Environmental, economic, and social costs of coral reef destruction in the

Phillipines. Galaxea. 7, 161-178.

McManus, J.W. 1988. Coral reefs ofthe ASEAN region: status and management. Ambio. 17(3): 189-193.

Ongkosongo, O.S.R. 1986. Some harmful stresses to the Seribu coral reefs, Indonesia. In: The proceedingsofthe MAB-COMAR Regional Workshop on coral reef ecosystems: their management practicesand research/training needs. UNESCO. Jakarta. 133-142.

Subani, W. and M.M. Wahyono 1987. Kerusakan ekosistem perairan pantai dan dampaknya terhadapsumberdaya perikanan di pantai Selatan Bali, barat dan timur Lombok dan Teluk Jakarta. JurnalPen. Perikanan Laut. 42: 53-70.

Sukarno, 1987. The effect of environmental trends and associated human damage on coral reefs in theSeribu Islands, Jakarta. In: Coral Reef Management in Southeast Asia. Biotrop Spec. Publ. No.29. 111-121.

Sukarno, N. Naamin and M. Hutomo 1986. The status of coral reef in Indonesia. In: The proceedings ofthe MAB-COMAR Regional Workshop on coral reef ecosystems: their management practicesand research/training needs. UNESCO. Jakarta. 24-33.

Tomascik, T., Suharsono, and A.J. Mah 1993. Case histories: a historical perspective ofthe natural andanthropogenic impacts in the Indonesian Archipelago with a focus on the Kepulauan Seribu,Java Sea. In: Proceedings ofthe Colloqium on Global Aspects of Coral Reefs, (RN Ginsburg,compiler). University of Miami, pp 304-310.

Taufik, A.W. 1987. Coral reefs in Indonesia. In: Coral Reef Management in Southeast Asia. Biotrop Spec.Publ. No. 29. 169-174.

Vincent, A.C.J, (in press). Sustainability of seahorse fishing. In: Proc. 8th Int Coral Reef Symposium,Panama, June 1996

Wîlloughby, N.G., Zarochman, and A.Rosyid 1984. Preliminary studies on the bagan (lift net) fisheries ofJepara, Central Java. Oseanologi di Indonesia. 17: 13-24.

89

LONG TERM CHANGES IN STRAND LINE LITTER

AROUND THE THOUSAND ISLANDS,

JAKARTA BAY, INDONESIA

I) 2) 3)

N.G. Willoughby , H. Sangkoyo , and B. O. Lakaseru

Natural Resources Institute, Catham, Kent UK

and MREP Part B:3, CRIFI, Slipi, Jakarta2)

Planology Dept. ITI, Jakarta-s

WWF Indonesia Programme, Jakarta

INTRODUCTION

In May 1985 UNESCO organised a regional workshop on human induced damage tocoral reefs (UNESCO, 1986). Part ofthe field work for this took place in the Thousand Islandsarchipelago which stretches in a north-north westerly direction from Jakarta Bay. These islandsprovide a series of coral reefs ranging from those living in the polluted waters of Jakarta Bay tothose in the cleaner waters ofthe Java Sea.

More than 550 man-hours were spent in 1985 collecting data on the geomorphology andthe biological status ofthe surrounding coral reefs from Jakarta Bay to the outer-most ThousandIslands, some 80 km from the capital. One ofthe parameters measured during the 1985 surveyand related to the state ofthe coral cover and diversity, was the amount of man-made litter around

the shorelines ofthe islands (Willoughby, 1986a, 1986b).The workshop at the end ofthe 1985 survey emphasised the need for stricter control of

man-made interferences close to Jakarta (e.g. dredging restrictions and pollution control measure)and also the importance of regular monitoring of long term changes to the reefs. In response tothe latter recommendation, UNESCO itself funded a second coral reef evaluation workshop inSeptember 1995. Thus repeated many ofthe data sets originated" in 1985, with some ofthe datacollected by the same participants as in 1985.

The present report gives information of the strand line litter around most of the sameislands as were originally investigated, and also considers how and why the present results differfrom those found in 1985.

METHODS

The method used to assess the litter was similar to the one described in Willoughby(1986b). However, more categories (15) were used than in the 1985 survey in an attempt to takeaccount of changes in the composition ofthe litter. As in 1985, some categories were mergedafter collection ofthe litter, if insufficient numbers of items were found.

Eighteen ofthe twenty four islands which had been surveyed in 1985 were investigatedbetween 1 1-20 September 1995. Two ofthe islands not surveyed no longer existed in terms of astrand-line, following the death and destruction ofthe reefs and the consequent erosion oftheislands. An additional five islands were surveyed which had not been investigated previously.

A slightly wider definition ofthe 'strand-line' was chosen than in 1985 as a result of achange in the main item of litter. In 1985 this had been plastic bags, which do not blow awayfrom the strand line in significant numbers. In the present survey white polystyrene blocks weredominant, and being very light in relation to their volume were frequently blown some waybehind the strand line during storms. This could be for up to 20 m on shallow shelving back-

90

beaches. Where such litter was obviously derived from the sea, it was counted as part of thestrand line litter.

The 15 categories into which the litter was initially divided during this survey were:1 . plastic water bottles-'Aqua' bottles of one litre capacity2. other plastic bottles -frequently for soft drinks or empty cosmetics bottles3. glass bottles4. 'cups' - usually smaller individual "aqua' portions5. flipflops or 'thongs'6. shoes

7. white polystyrene block of more than 10 cm diameter along any axis8. brown 'polystyrene' (expanded resin) blocks of more than 10 cm diameter along any

axis

9. plastic bags10. tins - aerosols and anti-mosquito liquid tins the most abundant1 1 . tins - beer and soft drink tins

12. fishing gears - ropes, twine and netting - discarded or mislaid13. light bulbs, including flourescent tubes14. cartons - for soft drinks

15. others - not important numerically, but including ampoules/syringes etc withpossible drug connotations.

As with the 1985 survey, tar spots and tar bails were also noted, as these can have adisproportionate effect on tourist enjoyment or otherwise of clean beaches.

Where islands were already involved in the tourist trade, an effort was made to determineif any policy existed with regard to their disposal of strand-line litter.

Finally a sea surface rubbish count was made as the boat carrying the team returned toJakarta. These counts were made for 5 minutes at a time and recorded pieces of rubbish on the seasurface within an estimated 3 m perpendicular to the starboard side ofthe boat. As the boat wasmoving at a calculated 12 km/h, this means that the area surveyed during each five minute periodwas 3000 m2 .

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Key parameters ofthe islands visited during this 1995 survey are given in Table 1,together with information as to weather they were also visited in 1985.

Litter Abundance and Distribution

Ninety nine transects were carried out on the 23 islands visited, resulting in 33,903 itemsof strand line litter being counted (Table 2). The three most abundants items during this survey(White polystyrene, 38%; plastic bags, 27%; and flipflops, 13%) were the same as those found in1985, but in very different proportions (1985 figures; polythene bags, 42%; footwear, 28%;polystyrene blocks, 23%; (Willoughby, 1986b).

Maximum numbers of each category of strand line litter seen on a single transect aregiven in Table 3.

The frequency of occurrence of litter, in terms of the mean number of pieces of litter ineach category, is provided for the 23 islands in Table 4. The information on individual transectcounts is provided in Annex Table 1. A comparison of some ofthe higher mean transect countsseen in 1995 with those from 1985 is provided in Table 5.

91

This suggests that total litter on the shorelines has increased by a factor of about twoduring the last ten years. This is reinforced by data for maximum litter levels in a single transect.These only exceeded 1000 items per 50 m on one occasion in 1985, yet reached nearly 2,500/50m on Kelor in the 1995 survey and exceeded 1000/50 m on eight other occasions, involving atotal of 6 other islands (Damar Kecil, Onrust, Bidadari, Untung Jawa, Rambut and Bokor).

As in 1985, the evidence points to a large proportion ofthe litter coming from theadjacent Java coast. Much of this will be from urban Jakarta, though output from the RiverCisadane , to the west of Jakarta, obviously affects many ofthe western islands in the group.

To test the direction of litter movement, a series of 8 transects was carried out around

Tidung Kecil - an elongated island of east-west orientation, with its southerly side facing Java.Four transects along its southern coast yielded a total of 739 pieces of litter (mean 185: range127-3 1 8), while four along the north coast gave 343 pieces (mean 86: range 61-1 15). Many ofthesouthern beaches also had the fresh remains of the water hyacinth, Eichornia crassipes, alongtheir shores, mixed with the litter. It was absent from northern beaches. As this plant dies in saltwater, its presence provides convincing evidence that it was brought, together with the litter, fromsources of Java.

Social Change and its Effects on Strand Line Litter

In 1985 no category was included for drinking water bottles, and indeed, at this stage thenational market for bottled water was only in its infancy. Large numbers of Indonesians now usebottled water, and the litter so produced (1,600 such bottles) reflects this trend. Many oftheundamaged bottles were recycled and seen in use as marker floats on seaweed farms with thePulau Pari complex.

In absolute terms the number of polythene bags counted has declined from 9,000 to4,400, despite the total litter count increasing. The former reduction is not significant, and couldeasily be a result of sampling error, but the latter is more interesting and may indicate that peopleare taking better care of their footwear, and losing it less often.

Very little evidence was found of hard drug usage around the islands (as indicated bysyringes and ampoules) though several ampoules, including one still containing a whitish powder(still being analysed) were found on Rambut. These were more likely to have been brought byvisitors to this bird sanctuary island than by being sea-washed strand line litter.

The white polystyrene blocks are now everywhere within the islands, though their originis still obscure. It was thought in 1985 that most came from broken fishing floats, but this nowseems unlikely, and a more probable hypothesis is that it comes from general packaging ofelectrical goods and similar items sold in urban Jakarta. The brown resinous 'polystyrene' is aninsulating material rather than being used for packaging. Large quantities of this were found on asingle beach in Bidadari, and the hotel staff indicated that it had blown in from the south east -thedirection of Jakarta. As it is used in boat and refrigeration insulation, a source in the Jakartaindustrial areas might be anticipated.

Litter and Tourism

Staff at the islands which had hotels on them (tourism has expanded significantly over theten year period) indicated that their usual policy for disposing of strand line litter was to use it asland fill. In the case of hotels on the southern islands in the group, where erosion from the northwas a major problem, land-fill was invariably on the northern island faces. One hotel had a largeincinerator, in which hotel rubbish from the kitchens and rooms was burned, but the nature andmoisture ofthe strand line rubbish prevented burning. Many ofthe islands inhabited by a fewfamily groups showed frequent evidence of collecting and burning strand line litter, especially ofthe polystyrene and plastics.

92

Tar was less visible as a general feature ofthe southern islands than in 1985, though someof the more northerly ones had suffered from a light oil slick some 3 weeks before the survey.The remaining evidence of this - several hundred 0.5-5.0 cm soft tar/sand balls - was visible,particularly on the north west shore of Semak Daun.Invisible Litter

This survey has only measured large items of visible strand line litter, washed up fromseveral to many kilometers from its source. However, many items which are sometimesrepresented on the strand lines, may in fact be littering the sea bottom in even greater abundancebetween Java and the Thousand Islands. The brief survey of sea-bourne debris suggests thatneutrally buoyant items such as plastic bags may be more of a problem than is at fisrt apparent.

The survey of floating debris on the boat journey returning to Jakarta produced resultswhich are given in Table 6. All of the 256 items of floating litter seen within the 3 m widthsample area were plastic bags. Many of these were sub-surface, but were kept suspended near thetop ofthe water column by slight wave action. Four other items of floating rubbish were visibleat a greater distance (1 water bottle and 3 pieces of white polystyrene within about 30 m oftheboat). The fact that so much polythene is in the water, and the probability that much of it sinksbefore washing up on the shores of one of the offshore islands, suggests that the inshore seabottom around Jakarta is likely to be heavily inundated, if not totally carpeted, with plastic bags.

Self Cure

The items counted during this survey might reasonably be considered to be long termstrand line litter -some may even have been counted in 1985. Although some of them willundoubtedly be degraded over time by the action of sunlight and sand abrasion, little seems to beknown concerning possible rates of degradation. Plastic bags are probably the most easilydegraded ofthe major items counted, with the glass of bottles and light bulbs probably the mostresistant. The bags, and even flipflops, become very brittle after what is judged to be a 'long'period in the sun, and will I thus eventually degrade, though this would probably be over a timeframe of decades rather than years. If no more litter was even to reach the Thousand Islands fromJava, it would still be a very long time before a visitor would consider the beaches to be clean.

REFERENCES

UNESCO 1986. Human induced damage to coral reefs (ed. B. Brown). UNESCO-ROSTSEA. UNESCO Reports in marine science, No. 40.

Willoughby, N.G. 1986a. Man made flotsam on the strand lines ofthe Thousand Islands(Kepulauan Seribu) Jakarta, Java. In UNESCO Rep.Mar.Sci. 40: 157-163.

Willoughby, N.G. 1986b. Man made litter on the shores of the Thousand Islandarchipelagojava. Mar.PollBullll(5): 224-228.

93

Tabel 1. Islands Visited During Surveys of 1995 and 1985

Island

No.

(1995)

Island

No.

(1985

Island Name Lat(deg.S) Long (deg. E) Approx

circumf.

(km)'95

Approx resident

popn (house-holds)

'95

Distance from

mainland Java

(km)

Distance from

Jakarta (Ancol)

(km)

1 Nyamuk Besar 6.01.800 106.51.000 0 0 8 11

I 2 Nyamuk Kecil 6.00.300 106.49.850 0.2 I II 13

2 3 Damar Kecil 5.59.050 106.50.750 0.7 10 13 16

3 4 Damar Besar 5.57.500 106.50.600 2.2 20 15 18

4 5 Ayer Besar 6.00.200 106.46.800 1 10+ tourism 8 14

5 Kelor 6.02.100 106.44.200 0.4 0 4 14

6 8 Onrust 6.02.000 106.44.000 1 10 2 14

7 6 Bidadari 6.02.050 j 106.44.800 1.1 20+ tourism 3 13

77 Kayangan 6.02.400 106.44.050 0.6 10 2 14

8 10 Untung Jawa 5.58.500 106.42.250 2.5 100 5 21

9 Rambut 5.58.500 106.41.300 2.8 2 5 22

9 Ubi Besar 6.00.000 106.44.450 0.1 0 5 17

10 12 Bokor 5.56.600 106.37.850 1.9 0 10 30

11 13 Lancang Besar 5.55.700 106.35.000 3 0 13 35

11 Dapur 5.55.450 106.43.500 0 0 11 25

12 14 Tikus 5.51.800 106.35.400 0.7 1 17 36

13 15 Pari 5.51.600 106.37.000 4 too 18 35

14 16 Semak Daun 5.43.800 106.34.000 0.7 I 33 49

15 Tidung Kecil 5.48.300 106 31.000 3 0 23 46

16 17 Kotok Besar 5.42.050 106.31.800 2.9 20+ tourism 34 54

17 Kotok Kecil 106.31.500 0.3 0 35 55

18 18 Kelapa 5.39.300 106.34.000 2,5 L200 39 57

19 20 Belanda 5.36.400 106.36.000 0.3 0 45 60

20 22 Sepa 5.34.600 106.34.000 1.0 20+ tourism 49 64

21 19 Panjang 5.38.700 106.33.300 2.4 0 41 58

22 Jukung 5.34.300 106.31.200 0.4 10 50 67

21 Putri 5.35.700 1 06.33.000 l.I 20+ tourism 46 63

23 Hantu Kecil 5.31.500 106.32.200 1.6 40+ tourism 52 70

23 24 Hantu Besar 5.31.800 106.31 800 1.7 40+ tourism 53 70

NB: Islands

visited in 1985

only in smallfont

94

Table 2. Numerical Importance of Different Litter Categories

item

No.

item Description "Number Counted % of Total

1 White polystyrene 12,978 38.3

2 Plastic bags 9,144 27.0

3 Flipflops 4,397 13.0

4 Brown 'polystyrene 2,075 6.1

5 Aqua' bottles 1,595 4.7

6 Other plastic bottles 832 2.5

7 Light bulbs 749 2.2

8 Cups' 677 2

9 Tins/aerosols 275 1.7

10 Fishing gear 393 1.2

11 Shoes 135 0.4

12 Tins/beer 121 0.4

13 Glassbottles 107 0.3

14 Cartons 89 0.3

15 Others 36 0.1

Total 33,903 100.0

Table 3. Maximum Numbers of Each Category of Rubbish Recorded in One 50 m Transect

Item Maximum Number

per 50 m Transect

Island Name Beach Orientation

Water botte Is 135 Nyamuk Kecil West

Other plastic bottles 83 Nyamuk Kecil South

Glass bottles U Kelor North-east

Cups 69 Damar Besar South

Flipflops 654 Rambut South-west

Shoes 45 Rambut South-west

White polystyrene 1060 Damar Kecil South-west

Brown 'polystyrene' 456 Bidadari East

Plastic bags 755 Kelor South-west

Tins/aerosols 64 Kelor South-west

Tins/beer 10 Damar Kecil West

Fishing gear 5 Nyamuk Kecil &:Rambut

East

South-east

Light bulbs 297 Rambut South-west

Cartons 8 Onrust North-east

Highest Total Litter 2448 Kelor South-east

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Table 5. Higher mean transects counts seen in 1995 and 1985

ISLAND 1995 1985

Rambut 1,450 Not measured

Kelor 1,199 Not measured

Bokor 1,112 521

Onrust 882 336

Nyamuk Kecil 768 525 (single transect)

Untung Jawa 761 522

Damar Besar 706 206

Table 6. Rubbish count during traverse Rambut-Jakarta fishing harbour 18/9/95

SamplePlastic

BagsComments

2 2 S ofRambut going SE

1 4 W ofRambut going S

3 6 S ofUntung Jawa going SE 10.05

4 12 S of U J going towards Bidadari. 2 white poly 20 & 30 m away

5 5

6 1 10.18

7 1 1 bit white poly 20 m away

8 85 N ofOnrust, S of Kopor, towards Bidadari

9 6 Close to Bidadari

10 25 S of Bidadari. Green tide slick NE/SW. No rubbish associated

11 16

12 50 Bit of slick, and some Eichornia

13 22 11.04

14 6

15 1 Water looking grey

16 11 1 water bottle 15 m away. Opposite red and white power station

17 3 Green tide almost everywhere. No rubbish associated

Arrived harbour entrance 11.32

256 Total Rubbish

Note: Start 9.47am

Finish 11.32am

5 minute sample periods

Checking up to 3 m from starboard side of boat.

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10

1

CORAL REEF EVALUATION WORKSHOP

SERIBU ISLANDS, JAKARTA BAY, INDONESIA11-20 SEPTEMBER 1995

Working group recommendation to UNESCO

1 . The workshop was very successfully organized, coordinated and run by UNESCO and P30-LIPL The participants express their sincere thanks to all organizers. The workshop broughttogether experts and students from 1 1 countries, allowing regional discussion.

2. Achievements: 28 island reefs were resurveyed in 8 days using the same, replicated methods

(with some additions) to those employed in 1985. The reefs ranged from within Jakarta Bay inclose proximity to Jakarta to the outer group of islands and the Pulau Seribu chain.

3. The surveys detected a significant decline in the status of coral reefs in the outer island group,caused by a variety of human and biotic disturbances.

4. The major findings have immediate relevance to the future planning and management of theregion, and on a global context, in relation to the Global Coral Reef Initiative (GCR1) and

Year of the Reef (YOR) programmes, from the organizational, procedural and analytical viewpoints.

5. The finding indicate that there is an urgent need to improve/maintain the condition of reefs in

the area so that the remaining healthy reefs can act as 'seed' sources for recovery of damagedreefs. The recommendations is in accordance with, and supportive of, UNESCO's missionstatement for the region.

6. We recommend expanded liaison with decision makers, government bodies, user groups,NGO's and resort owners re the management and policing of the P. Seribu marine parkincluding workshops for resort owner in the islands.

7. We recommend a follow-up workshop to discuss the results of the 10 year comparison in 2years time, possibly in association with the GCRI and YOR.

8. The 10 year data set represent one of very few medium-long-term studies on the status of coralreefs on a. regional scale and can act as a model to other areas for the future assessment andmonitoring of their work.

9. We recommend a further set of field surveys in or 5 year's time (2000) to assess reef statuscondition, recovery or lack thereof. This time scale is particularly relevant in relation to thereproductive development of recruits.

10. The 1985-1995 workshops have had a substantial positive input to the establishment ofmonitoring networks on the regional and global scale as evidenced by the ASEAN-Australiancooperative programme and other subsequent initiatives both in the training of localpractitioners and sharing of knowledge/expertise.

1 1 . We recommend the continued involvement and participation of the media to facilitatedissemination of information to the public and to generate a campaign for public awareness.

102

Annex 1,1.

REPORT

Suharsono

Chairman ofthe Organizing Committee

The Vice Chairman ofthe Indonesian Institute of Sciences

The Director of UNESCO-ROSTSEA

The Director of Research and Development Center for OceanologyDistinguished Guests and Participants

It is indeed my pleasure to greet you with "Selamat Datang" or Welcome to the CoralReef Evaluation Workshop.

This workshop is attended by 19 participants from 1 1 countries and for some of them thisis the first visit to Indonesia. We will work together in the next 9 days and we will work hard tocover more than 25 islands in the Seribu Islands. Our three base-camps will be in Bidadari Island,Pari Island and Putri Island. We have a quantitative data base which was taken 10 years agoduring a UNESCO (COMAR) sponsored regional workshop on the effects of antrophogenic oncoral reefs.

Ladies and gentlemen,In the next 9 days of the field works, this workshop will provide us with a good

opportunity for all participants to get to know one another better. This is one of the importantaims of the meeting namely to strengthen the ties between scientists in the region working oncoral reef resources.

Ladies and gentlemen,Finally I would like to express my gratitude to Professor Stephen Hill, Director of

UNESCO Jakarta for his effort in bringing our friend Dr. Robin Harger from Paris. I also wouldlike to thank to Dr. Hashizume of UNESCO Jakarta for assisting us in the preparation of this

workshop.The local organizing committee tries to do their best but we also realize that what we

have done is not perfect. Please accept my apology for any shortcoming you may encounterduring the workshop. At last allow me to wish you an enjoyable stay and successful workshop.

Thank you.

103

Annex 1.2.

WELCOMING ADDRESS

Professor Stephen HillDirector, UNESCO, Jakarta

Prof. SoegiartoDr. Nontji

Distinguished guests and participantsLadies and gentlemen,

It is an honour and privilege for me to extend to you the greetings and best wishes for asuccessful workshop of Professor Frederíco Mayor, Director-General of UNESCO. We aredelighted to support the workshop because it is both very important and very timely.

The workshop, ladies and gentlemen, is very important for a number of reasons. First, itis not just a discussion about what should happen to preserve coral reefs - although, of course,such discussion will be occurring over the next ten days. Instead, the local business of the

workshop is on measuring what has happened to the most beautiful and fragile of nature's worldsover the last decade as a direct impact of human civilization and development pressures. The

workshop therefore will give clear information of direct use to local authorities about the level ofimpact on the environment of pollution from industrial effluent and domestic waste and ongoingeconomic activities along the northern Javanese coast. The workshop will provide an evaluationof the level of threat that industrialization has to the Seribu Islands and the tourist income that

resorts close to Jakarta can generate. The workshop also gives us strong indicators of the impactback on the people who live in and around the city of Jakarta ofthe environmental degradationthat rapid development ofthe city may be creating.

Second, the workshop will be employing and further testing a methodology developedout of UNESCO's initiation of a major assessment program to evaluate the state of reefs adjacent

to population centres. The "growth-forms protocol" being used here, associated with a "line-intercept" technique is now the global standard. Developed by the Australian Institute of MarineScience, it was first tested in the precursor of this workshop, the benchmark assessment of thePulau Seribu reefs ten years ago, in 1985.

Third, the workshop is international. UNESCO is supporting the participation ofscientists from 1 1 countries, therefore both drawing together expertise from across the globe, andalso providing the platform for wide dissemination of what is learnt during the next 10 days.

The workshop is timely, ladies and gentlemen, because, conducted as it is on the eve ofUNESCO's 50th Anniversary, this is both the "Year ofthe Reef and the 50th Anniversary ofIndependence, and therefore of autonomous development, of Indonesia. Symbols of time such asthese engage public and media attention-in this case, to the environmental imperative that todaymust be obeyed for the continuous growth and prosperity of Jakarta, and cities like Jakarta, to besustained.

The challenge ofthe workshop, is the challenge to develop a format of survey outcomesthat allows the scientists involved here to portray the key dimensions of change with confidence,and therefore to be able to anticipate realistically what environmental impact future developmenttrends will cause-before it is too late S

The challenge, ladies and gentlemen, is to provide realistic expectations as the basis forstimulating the enforcement of environmental laws and regulations over the next decade so thatJakarta can continue to live, breathe and grow in a sustainable environment.

UNESCO is therefore delighted to be able to assist in such an important task. I lookforward to seeing the results of this workshop. I am sure that the processes that produce them will

104

be both highly fruitful and enjoyable for participating. As a person who is at least qualified as ascuba diver, I rather envy scientists whose work involves diving around beautiful coral reefs. But

perhaps the most important outcome will be the use of the 10 days to produce increasedcollaboration amongst the scientists ofthe region and field officers from the various Indonesiangovernment agencies who will be involved. This is fundamentally UNESCO's mission - toempower people, the real wealth of nations, through knowledge, education, communication andcross-cultural understanding.

In conclusion then I congratulate the organisers, the P30-LIPI, Center for OceanologicalResearch and Development ofthe Indonesian Institute of Sciences for the work they have done inputting this workshop together, and wish each ofthe scientists here, both good diving, and what Iam sure will be highly stimulating scientific experience over the next 10 days.

Thank you

105

Annex 1.3.

OPENING ADDRESS

Aprilani SoegiartoVice Chairman ofthe Indonesian Institute of Sciences

Prof. Hills, Director UNESCO-ROSTSEA, Jakarta

Dr. Robin Harger, I.O.C. UNESCO, ParisDistinguished guests and ParticipantsLadies and gentlemen,

Please allow me first of all, on behalf of LIPI (the Indonesian Institute of Sciences), to

greet you with "Selamat Datang", welcome to this workshop. I appreciate it vey much that youhave been willing to spend your valuable time to attend this gathering, to discuss and to exchangeideas and experience on a current important topic concerning the coral reef. I understand, thatmost of you come from a number of countries from other parts ofthe world, or from several partsof this big country of Indonesia, and have made long journey from your home town to themetropolitan city of Jakarta. Therefore, I indeed grateful for your participation and hope that with,your positive contributions this workshop will really produce fruitful results.

Ladies and gentlemen

Coral reefs has become a current world's concern. It is a unique and complex tropicalecosystem which is known to have high organic productivity and support the life of very highdiversity of marine organisms. They provide important resources for many purposes, such as forfood and fisheries, raw material for building construction, and pharmaceutical industries. Theyalso provide marine tourism, educational, and research opportunities. Beside that the coral reefalso provides strong protection to the shore from the wave action. Yet we are all know that in thelast decades the situation of the coral reef in many parts of the world becomes increasinglydegraded directly or indirectly due to human activities. In many instances the situation of thecoral reef becomes so destructed that recovery is almost impossible. People ofthe world has to gohand in hand in saving this invaluable heritage to mankind.

Ladies and gentlemen,

In Indonesia, coral reef also plays important role not only for the national economy butalso as part of our physical environment. Indonesia has one ofthe longest coastline in the world,namely about 80,000 km, and it is estimated that about two thirds ofthe Indonesian coastline are

bordered with coral reefs with various structural formation such as fringing reef, barrier reef andatoll. Indonesia is the centre of coral distribution in the Indo-Pacific where approximately 350species of stony coral has been recorded.

Despite its importance, Indonesian coral reefs are also under great pressure from humanactivities. Short term economic benefit orientation is probably the most determinant factorunderlying the rapid destruction of our coral reefs. Excessive extraction of marine resources tomeet the increasing demand on the resources has been widely practised on the expense of thesustainability ofthe resources. The situation becomes worse as destructive fishing techniques areapplied, such as the use of explosives and poisonous chemicals. Tourism activities to some extentalso contribute to the destruction of coral reefs e.g. by walking over the reefs, anchor dropping, orcollecting of organisms for souvenir and curios. Pollution, land-based and ship-based, is anotherfactor affecting the degradation ofthe coral reefs.

106

Ladies and gentlemen.

Recent surveys carried out by RDCO (Research and Development Centre forOceanology-LIPI) at more than 300 stations in more than 30 locations of coral reef scattered inIndonesia, indicated that only about 6 % ofthe reefs are still in excellent condition of coral cover,22 % in good condition, 28 % in fair condition and 43 % in poor condition. It is, therefore,mandatory that sound management ofthe coral reefs should be implemented. The basic idea ishow to make the best use ofthe coral reef resources on sustainable basis. This is not an easy taskas it needs integrated, multidisciplinary, multisectoral approach right from the planning stage.Many problems should be anticipated such as: lack of information, lack of coordination andintegration among technical agencies dealing with coral reefs, lack of capable human resources atall management level, low environmental awareness, poverty stricken coastal community, poorlaw enforcement capacity, and unclear spatial planning for the coastal zone.

Responding to these problems the Government of Indonesia has taken an initiative tolaunch a multisectoral and multidisciplinary project entitled Coral Reef Rehabilitation andManagement Project (COREMAP). The primary objective of the proposed COREMAP is toimprove the management ofthe coral reef ecosystem and rehabilitate degraded coral reefs for theprotection of biodiversity and the sustainable use of marine resources. This would beaccomplished through: (a) public awareness and participation, (b) strengthening the humanresources capacity, (c) strengthening institutional coordination and integration, and (d)establishment of coral reef information centre and network. The project will be implementedunder support of much donor agencies in 36 pilot sites in various parts of Indonesia, in particularthe eastern part of Indonesia. We will try to formulate and implement the "community basedmanagement system" on coral reefs.

Ladies and gentlemen,

As 1 mentioned before, information is important to base a sound management, and thismay be gained through scientific research and investigation. Allow me now to elaborate the casestudy on Jakarta Bay and Seribu Islands. Coral reefs studies in this part ofthe world was initiatedby Verwey, a Dutch scientist, in 1920s when the sea in the area was still in much better condition

compared to that of today. Beside several sporadic studies which have been carried out by LIPIsince 1960s, the intensive coral reef monitoring on many islands in this region was carried outjointly by LIPI and UNESCO in 1985 and it produced an important milestone. It has beendemonstrated, for instance, the occurrence of gradual effect of land-based pollution on the waterquality and the condition of the coral islands from the shore outward. After a lapse of time ofabout 10 years, it will be an excellent opportunity now to return to the previous coral islands torecord the changes that may occurs. I understand that participants of this present workshop willbe involved in this endeavor. I hope that our knowledge gained from this joined effort willcontribute meaningful results for both Indonesia and the rest ofthe world's scientific community.

Ladies and gentlemen,With this brief remark, may I once again express my greatest appreciation to all of you

for participating this coral reef workshop. My special gratitude goes to UNESCO, without itssupport this workshop could not be realized. 1 also would like to thank the local organizingcommittee which has worked hard and will have to work harder in arranging the logistics inorder to make this workshop a success. On behalf of the organizing committee may I also offerour heartfelt apology for the shortcomings in our services to all of you.

Once again I wish you to have a fruitful and successful deliberation in the workshop. At

last, allow me now with Bismillahir rahmanir rahim to declare this workshop officially open.

Thank you.

107

Annex 2.

CORAL REEF EVALUATION WORKSHOP

SERIBU ISLANDS, JAKARTA BAY, INDONESIA11 - 20 SEPTEMBER 1995

PRESS RELEASE

UNESCO and its Intergovernmental Océanographie Commission (IOC) together withP30-LIPI completed the second stage of a relatively unique long-term coral reef monitoringprogramme involving 28 islands in the Pulau Seribu area between September 1 1-20, 1995. Thefirst survey under the programme was carried out in 1985, 10 years ago and at that time it wasfound that reefs in the Jakarta Bay area had been severely degraded by discharges into the

ocean of sewage and other pollutants. On the early survey, ¡t was also observed that reefsbeyond around 20 km from Jakarta improved rapidly with distance up to point where theysupported between 40-50 % coral cover Experts from Indonesia, Australia, the Netherlands,United Kingdom, USA, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Cambodia as well as fromUNESCO took part in the operation.

The resurvey presented an entirely different picture with the inner Jakarta Bay reefswhich had not changed appreciably in coral cover although species richness appeared to havedeclined in some cases. The reefs marginal to Jakarta Bay itself however, appeared to have

improved somewhat.A great surprise awaited the survey teams when they looked at coral cover, fish

inhabitants, starfish, sea lileys and other organisms in that reefs beyond the 20 km mark werefound to display a heart-breaking simplification and a gross reduction of coral cover andrepresentation by fish species. By far the majority of islands now show coral cover andrepresentation by fish species. By far the majority of islands now show coral cover equivalentto that previously found only in Jakarta Bay i.e. less than 5 % ofthe reef area was occupied byliving hard corals. The remainder were either dead and still in place or had been broken bywave action into rubble-banks. In concert with this startling ecosystem collapse (?), fishspecies were reduced in numbers and representation by individuals and larger predators such asthe Napoleon Wrass were almost entirely absent

The major factor accounting for the reduction was found to be an increase in pressuresprimarily of a human related nature particularly over fishing and over-use. Other elementsplaying a part were held to be global-warming as manifested by increased frequency andduration of El-Nino warm events which lead to long hot" dry -season" in Indonesia.Apparently these events heat shallow reef-flat waters which may then spill-out over the reef-face as toxic increased salinity discharges helping to kill sensitive corals. Rubbish on islandstrand-lines was double that observed in 1985, thereby leading researchers to conclude thatpollutants carried within the water column itself had also increased. Presumably the dead coralhad also exacerbated an already sorry condition by contributing an increased load of finecalcium carbonate particles helping to reduce penetration of the sun light which corals musthave to survive and grow.

The last and most immediate causal agent ofthe destruction was found to be the crown-of-thorns starfish which was present in outbreak numbers on at least one island and inapparently declining populations on all those showing the most massive destruction.

108

In this regard, the dynamics ofthe destructive event are as follows:

First, human populations remove large predatory fish as food items. Following this smallstarfish usually eaten by the predatory fish are able to survive more readily with the result thatmore and more corals are killed. "Crown-of-thorns" eats living coral animals leaving only thedead skeleton. As a concurrent event, the increased pollution load has probably also resulted inenhanced survival of predatory starfish since the larval stages of the starfish are heavilydependent on their planktonic food source which is itself elevated in response to higher nutrientconcentrations.

A most important factor contributing to the ability ofthe regional experts to pin-point theonset ofthe destruction (not earlier than mid 1991 and perhaps as late in some cases, as thelatter point of 1994) was provided by continuous assessment records produced by students ofthe Jakarta International School.

On the bright side, numerous juvenile coral colonies were seen but again it is feared thesemay merely provide food for a second round of starfish outbreaks. It was furthermorepostulated that if the comparatively healthy island reefs were to proceed in the same way astheir less fortunate neighbours then the complete coral-reef system in the Pulau Seribu regioncould be replaced by sea-urchin and algal associations growing on bare carbonate platforms andthat this alternate ecological state, the product of and response to over-use and abuse, could last

for many years and might even become quasi-permanent.The group recommended that immediate steps be taken to preserve the few remaining

good reefs as seed-banks for promotion of reef recovery and that resort owners and managersbe "workshoped" to enable them to both understand the situation and to react in an appropriatemanner. The situation should also be continuously monitored.

Coral reefs in the east of Indonesia (Banda) are known to be capable of a rapid recoveryin response to destruction (4 years or less) but this is only possible under optimal conditions.The condition in the Pulau Seribu area is now far from optimal and recovery time could stretchbeyond 7- 1 0 years or even more.

The project was joined by members of the Earthwire-ASEAN Training workshop forenvironmental reporters for the last two days. The reporters cross-examined the scientistsextensively with regard to their findings and interpretation.

109

Annex 3.

CORAL REEF EVALUATION WORKSHOP SERIBU ISLANDS

JAKARTA BAY, INDONESIA11-20 SEPTEMBER 1995.

TIME SCHEDULE

Day/Date

Sun. Sept. 10- 1 995Mon. Sept. 11 -1995

Time

09.30-10.00

Programme/ActivitiesArrival Jakarta

Opening- Report ofthe organizer- Welcoming address

- Address and opening by theChairman of LIPI

Venue

P30-LIPI

Tue. Sept. 12- 1 995

Wed. Sept. 1 3- 1995

Thurs. Sept. 14-1995

10.00-10.30 Coffee Breaks P30-LIPI

10.30-12.00 Introduction P30-LIPI

12.00-13.00 Lunch

13.00-15.00 Departure to Bidadari Island15.00-17.00 Explanation ofthe Project and - Meeting Room

Methodology - Bidadari Island

17.00-19.00 Rest - Bidadari Resort

19.00-20.00 Dinner - Bidadari Resort

20.00-21.30 Discussion Plan

for the coming days- Bidadari Resort

07.00-08.00 Breakfast - Bidadari Resort

08.00-12.00 Field Survey - Nyamuk Besar- Nyamuk Kecil

12.00-13.00 Lunch (box)13.00-17.00 Field Survey - Damar Besar

- Damar Kecil

17.00-19.00 Rest - Bidadari Resort

19.00-20,00 Dinner - Bidadari Resort

20.00-21.00 Discussion - Bidadari Resort

07.00-08.00 Breakfast - Bidadari Resort

08.00-12.00 Field Survey - Onrust

- Kelor

12.0-13.00 Lunch (box)13.00-17.00 Field Survey - Ubi Besar

- Ubi Kecil

17.00-19.00 Rest - Bidadari Resort

19.00-20.00 Dinner - Bidadari Resort

20.00-21.00 Discussion - Bidadari Resort

07.00-08.00 Breakfast

Field Survey - Untung JawaOn the way to Pari - Rambut

110

Fri. Sept.15-1995

Sat. Sept. 16- 1995

Sun. Sept. 1 7- 1995.

Mon. Sept. 18- 1995

Tue. Sept. 1 9- 1995

13.00-14.00 Lunch (box)14.00-17.00 To P. Pari

17.00-19.00 Rest

19.00-20.00 Dinner

20.00-21.00 Discussion

07.00-08.00 Breakfast

08.00-13.00 Field Survey

13.00-14.00 Lunch (box)

14.00-17.00 Field Survey17.00-19.00 Rest

19.00-20.00 Dinner

20.00-21.30 Discussion

07.00-08.00 Breakfast

08.00-13.00 Field Survey13.00-14.00 Lunch (box)14.00-17.00 Field Survey17.00-19.00 Rest

19.00-20.00 Dinner

20.00-21.30 Discussion

07.00-08.00 Breakfast

08.00-12.00 Field Survey on the wayPari base camp.

toP

12.00-13.00 Lunch (box)13.00-15.00 Field Survey15.00-16.30 To P. Putri base camp16.30-19.00 Rest

19.00-20.00 Dinner

20.00-21.30 Discussion

07.00-08.00 Breakfast

08.00-13.00 Field Survey

13.00-14.00 Lunch (box)14.00-17.00 Field Survey

17.00-19.00 Rest

19.00-20.00 Dinner

20.00-21.00 Discussion

07.00-08.00 Breakfast

08.00-13.00 Field Survey

13.00-14.00 Lunch (box)14.00-17.00 Field Survey

17.00-19.00 Rest

19.00-20.00 Dinner

20.00-21.00 Discussion

P. Pari base campP. Pari base campP. Pari base campP. Pari base camp

LancangBokor

- Tikus

- P. Pari base camp- P. Pari base camp- P. Pari base camp

- P. Pari base camp

- Tidung

- Ayer

- P. Pari base camp- P. Pari base camp- P. Pari base camp

- P. Pari base camp- Kotok Besar

Kotok Kecil

P. Pari base campP. Pari base campP. Pari base campP. Pari base camp

P. Putri Resort

Kelapa

Panjang

Belanda

P. Putri

P. Putri Resort

P. Putri Resort

P. Putri Resort

P. Putri Resort

JukungSepa

Hantu Besar

Hantu Kecil

P. Putri Resort

P. Putri Resort

P. Putri Resort

111

Wed. Sept.20-1995 07.00-08.00 Breakfast08.00-12.00 Discussion & Recommendation - P. Putri Resort

1 2.00- 1 3.00 Closing - P. Putri ResortLunch - P. Putri Resort

13.00-14.00 On the way to Jakarta14.00-14.30 Arrival - Marina Beach, Ancol

Free Evening

Thurs. Sept.2 1 - 1 995 Departure to home country

112

Annex 4.

CORAL REEF EVALUATION WORKSHOP

SERIBU ISLANDS, JAKARTA BAY, INDONESIA11-20 SEPTEMBER 1995

LIST OF PARTICIPANTS

1 . L. Devantier

AIMS, PMB#3

Townsville MC, Queensland 4810AUSTRALIA

Tel.: (077) 534 399

Fax.: (077) 725 852E-mail: L. Devantier (ak AIMS. Gov. AU.

2. Lyle VailLizard Island Research Station

PMB 37, Cairns, QLD 4870AUSTRALIA

Tel/Fax.: +61 70 60-3977

6. Boyke O. LakaseruWWF-lndonesia ProgrammeJl. Kramat Pela No. 3

Jakarta

INDONESIA

Tel.: 720 3095

Fax.: 739 5907

7. Otto OngkosongoResearch and DevelopmentCentre for Oceanology-P30-LIPlJl. Pasir Putih 1, Ancol TimurJakarta Utara

INDONESIA

3. J. Wolstenholme (Ms)

Museum of Tropical Queensland70-84 Flinders Street

Townsville Q 4810AUSTRALIA

8. Hendro SangkoyoPlanology DepartmentIndonesian Institute of Technology (ITI)Jakarta

INDONESIA

Tel.: (077) 21 1662

Fax.: (077) 21 2093

1 Ouk Sisovann

Ministry of Environment48 Samdech Preah Sihanouk

Tonle Bassac, Phom PnehCAMBODIA

Tel.:(855)23 2 7894

Fax.: (855) 23 2 7844

5. J.R.E. HargerSC/IOC, UNESCO

1 Rue Miollis

75732 Paris cedex 15

FRANCE

Tel.:(331)405 69 316

Fax.: (331)405 69 316

Tel.:(62 21)722-2068Fax.:.

9. Suharsono

Research and Development

Centre for Oceanology-P30-L1P1Jl. Pasir Putih 1, Ancol Timur

Jakarta Utara

INDONESIA

Tel.:(62 21)683850

Fax.: (62 21) 681948

10. Sukarno

Research and Development

Centre for Oceanology-P30-LI PIINDONESIA

Tel.:(62 21)683850

Fax.:(62 21) 681948

113

1 1. Josephine Tuti (Ms)Research and Development

Centre for Oceanology-P30-LIPIJl. Pasir Putih 1, Ancol Timur

Jakarta Utara

INDONESIA

Tel.:(62 21)683850

Fax.: (62 21) 681948

15. R.G. Ledesma

Bureau of Fisheries & Aquatic Resources860 Quezon Avenue

Quezon CityPHILIPPINES 3008

Tel.: (632) 96-54-98

Fax.: (632) 98-78-71, 98-85-17or c/o 83 1 8873

12. Philip Teguh ImantoMarine Resources Evaluation & PlanningProject - MREP, CRIFI,"Jl. K.S. Tubun, Gg. Petamburan VIP.O. Box 50

Slipi, Jakarta 11410AINDONESIA

Tel.:(62 21)570 9160

Fax.: (62 21) 570 9159

1 6. Thon ThamrongnawasawatMarine Science DepartmentKasetsart UniversityBangkok 10330THAILAND

1 7. N. Willoughby348 Loose Rd. Maidstone Kent

UNITED KINGDOM

Tel.: 622 761 790.

3. Bert W. Hoeksema

National Museum ofNatural HistoryPostbus 9517 23000 .A. Leiden .

THE NETHERLANDS

Team Leader, MREP Part B: 3 Marine

Resources Evaluation Sc Planning Project-MREP

CRIFI, Jl. K.S. Tubun, Gg. Petamburan VI

P.O. Box 50, Slipi, Jakarta 1 1410AINDONESIA

Program Buginesia Hasanuddin UniversityP.O. Box 1624 Ujung Pandang, IndonesiaTeI.:/Fax.:26 4II 449681.

14. Augustine J. MungkajeeBiology Department

University of Papua New GuineaP.O. Box 320

Waigani NCDPAPUA NEW GUINEA

Tel.: 267 210

Fax.: 260 369

1 8. Tran Van HungOcéanographie InstituteNational Centre for Scientific Research

C/o Vietnam National Commission for UNESCO

Hanoi

VIETNAM

Tel.:

Fax.; (84 4) 230 702.

19. M . Erdmann

Department of Integrative BiologyUniversity of CaliforniaBerkeley, CA 94720Berkeley, CA 94720U.S.A.

114

Annex 5.1.

INDONESIAN OBSERVER

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 13, 1995

RI reefs under

increasing threat

JAKARTA (Agencies) -

Indonesia's renowned cora! reefs

are increasingly threatened byexplosive-wielding Fishermenand tourists, one of the country'sleading scientists has said.

. Aprilani Sugiarto, deputychairman of the Indonesian In¬

stitute ofSciences (LJPI), blamed"the irresponsible acts of partieswho do not care about the envi¬ronment" when he addressed an

international conference on coral

that opened here Monday."Only six per cent (of coral

reefs) were now still in a soundstate," he was quoted as sayingby Antara yesterday.

"The irresponsible partieswere frequently found to becatching fish by usirtg explosives

or poisonus chemicals. Other ac¬tivities, including a few in thetourism sector, were also con¬tributing to the deterioration ofthe country's coral reefs."

With more man 17,000 islandsspread over 5,000 kilometers,Indonesia is considered a divers'

paradise.Sugiarto emphasized the im¬

portanceofthe reefs in the tropicaleco-system. "All the relevantgovernment as well as privateagencies should take an activepart in efforts to prevent the stillexisting coral reefs from fallingvictim to destructive acts byman," he said.

THE INDONESIA TIMES

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 21, 1995

Jakarta bay'secosystem near

total collapse:Scientists

PUTRI ISLAN0, JAKARTACoral communicaties near

most outer islets of the'Seribu

islands in the Bay of Jakartahave deteriorated dramaticallyand brought the bay's marineecosystem to the verge of"total collapse," coral "reefscientists said.

According to a joint state¬ment issued at the end of their

nine-day workshop of coralreef evaluation here onWednesday, the scientists at¬

tributed the deterioration ofcoral communities m pollution,poor water quality, increasedtemperature, coral harvests,coral disese, and dredging.

They also noted that destruc¬tive fishing practices usingcyanide and increase in coralpredators, such as crown of

thorny or gastropods, had alsocontributed to the destructionof coral communities.

Th*ë; increase in coralpredators was mainly causedby the declining population ofNapoleon fish, A kilogram ofNapoleon fish is now priced atRp.200,Q0 (almost US$.100).

Earlier, Dr. J.R.E. Harger,senior assistant to theUNESCO Director General forOceanology, said the high priceof Napoleon fish had en¬couraged the Icoal populace tocatch Napoleon fish.

(Ant/ANtiX)

115

EARTH WIRE, SEPTEMBER 15, 1995

RI's CORAL REEFS THREATHENED WITH

EXTINCTION: SCIENTIST

Jakarta,Coral reefs in Indonesia

are being threatenedwith extinction by

among other things theirresponsible acts of parties whodo not care about the environ¬

ment, a noted scientist said.The latest research on

the conditions of Indonesia's

coral reefs had shown that onlysix percent of them were nowstill in a sound state while the

rest was in either fair or bad

condition, Deputy Chairman ofthe Indonesian Institute of

Sciences (LIPI) Prof Dr AprilaniSocgiarto said at a seminar oncoral reefs in Indonesia here

Monday.

According to Aprilani,Indonesia was predicted to have60,000 square meter areas ofcoral reefs.

The irresponsible partieswere frequently found to be

catching fish by using explosivesor poisonous chemicals, Aprilanisaid.

Other activities,including a few in the tourismsector, were also contributing tothe deterioration ofthe country'scoral reefs.

Soegiarto said apart fromoffering beautiful under-water

sceneries, coral reefs also play asignificant role in the marine

ecosystem of shallow tropical

waters. Therefore, all relevantgovernment as well as privateagencies should take an active

part in efforts at preventing thestill existing coral reefs fromfalling victim to destructive actsby man.

Besides functioning as asupporting factor in the marineecosystem, coral reefs were alsothe habitat of many marine

animal species of economic andscientific importance, the LIPIscientist said.

Coral reefs could also

protect coastal land from the

eroding effect of sea waves and

hurricanes, Soegiarto said.Meanwhile, Prof Stephen

Hill, head of UNESCO's Jakarta

office, in remarks at the seminar

stressed the importance oftaking immediate preventivemeasures againr.t furtherdamage of coral reefs.

Hill expressed the hopethat the seminar could giveinputs on the latest conditions

of Indonesia's coral reefs,especially those located in the

area of the Seribu island groupin the Bay of Jakarta.

According to Hill, theinputs from the seminar wouldserve as basic reference material

in making further decisions onthe preservation of the coral

reefs.

He said the seminarshould not only discussmeasures to protect coral reefs

but also make an assessment ofhow this natural endowment

was being affected by changesin the global climate and humanactivities.

In order to be able to

meet these expectations,seminar participants would bespending a considerable part oftheir time doing field researchin the Seribu island group, hesaid.

Scheduled to end on

September 20, the seminar isbeing held at the initiative ofLIPI and UNESCO and

attended by oceanologists fromthe United States, Britain,Australia, France, theNetherlands, Thailand, thePhilippines, Cambodia andVietnam. (T.UF/TN02/AJMyHN02)

116

THE INDONESIA TIMES

MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 18, 1995

Coral reef degradation linkedto global warming: Expert

JAKARTA, -- A noted In¬donesian marine biologist to¬day said global warming coupl¬ed by industrial and unpredic¬table human activities havecontributed much to the

degradation of the world'sprecious marine resources par¬ticularly coral reefs.

Dr. Malikusworo Hutomo,director of the Research and

Development Center forOceanology Indonesian In-stitutuc of Sciences told the

ASEAN journalists who arecurrently here attending theANEX workshop/attachmentprogram for environment

reporting.Hosted by ANTARA, the

workshop participant.« comefrom the ASEAN member

countries Thailand, In¬donesia, Malaysia, Brunei,Singapore, Vietnam and thePhilippines.

According to Huto*r»o, cor¬

al reef is a rich source of

biodiversity, and due to itscomplex ecosystem, thousandsof vetable and animal specieslive and are usually thrived onit-

Aside from its ecological aneconomic value, Hutomo said

coral reef also plays a vital role

such as producing a beautiful

submarine landscape in theworld for underwater touristindustry.

Coral reef also serves as

breakwaters against theviolence of the sea notablycyclone and tsunamis, henoted, adding that it also pro¬

duces the rate species of fishand other marine lives.

Pollutants

During his lecture for theworkshop participants,Hutomo also noted that the ex¬

tensive discharge of pullutantslike industrial and human

waste was the main culprits inthe degradation of the coralreefs in Jakarta Bay.

He added that "blast or

dynamite fishing," instigatedby unscrupulous fish chatcher

has become already a problemin Indonesia specially aroundthe coast of Java and a result

of this, coral reefs in this areaare now being damaged.

Hutomo emphasized that ittakes about five to six years fora badly-damaged coral reefs torë-generate and return to its

normal and originalconditions.

"Once a coral reef is

destroyed, fishes and othersforms of animal and micro-

living organism in that reef aregone.lt usually takes about 5 to6 years or more for coral reefto be restored and returned to

its original form, " he noted.Hutomo also said the un¬

predictability of the currentworld's climatic conditions

caused principally by the so-called "El Nino" and globalwarming phenomena hasadversely affected the condi¬tions of the world's remaining

coral reffs.

Marine experts claimed thatthis global warming has alreadydone "irreparably" damaged"to the coral reefs of the tropicalcountries which has dubbed as

"coral bleaching."They claimed that this coral

bleaching wis linked to usual¬

ly high sea or oceantemperatu'.e.

Thev insisted the increase

mass coral bleaching wouldhave a serious impact onmarine biodiversity, fisheries,tourism, on-shore protection,and the ability to adopt the ris¬ing sea level in the more than100 countries where coral reefs

are major natural andeconomic resources,

"If the sea temperature in¬crease by one or two degrees

" centigrade from its normal

level, the consequences couldbe disastrous to the coral

reefs," they claimed.The recent phenomenon of

mass coral bleaching is veryserious, unexpected (like theozone hole) and showed thattropical coral reef eco-systemare extremely sensitive even to

tiny increase in oceantemperature, Dr. Lou Eldrige,executive member of thePacific Sciences Association,said.

Dr. Clive Wilkinson, anAustralian marine scientist,claimed that climate changear?d contamination will destroy

one thirds ofthe world's coral

reefs within 20 years.Wilkinson said that coral

reefs in the Philippines, theJava "island of Indonesia,Thailand, Malaysia, the Carib¬bean, East Java and Florida ofthe US will be gone within the20 year period.

Meanwhile, coral expertsbelieve that coral reefs may bedeteriorating faster than theworld's tropical forest.

Many scientists warned thatthe loss of biological diversitycan in principle have major im¬pacts on the global bio-geochemical system.

(Ant/Pna/Anex)

117

ANTARA NEWS BULLETIN

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 20, 1995

14. JAKARTA BAY'« ECOSYSTEM NEAR TOTAL COLLAPSE: SCIENTISTS

Putri r s Land, Jakarta, Sept 20 (ANTARA/ANEX) - Coralcommunities near most outer islets of the Seribu islands in

the Bay of Jakarta have deteriorated dramatically and broughtthe bay's marine ecosystem to the verge of "total collapse",coral ree f seien t i s ts said .

According to a joint statement issued at the end of theirnine-day workshop on coral reef evaluation here on Wednesday,the scientists attributed the deterioration of coralcommun i t i es to pollution, poor water quality, increasedtemperature, coral harvests, coral disease, and dredging.

They also noted that destructive fishing practices usingcyanide and increase in coral predators, such as crown ofthorns or gastropods, had also contributed to the destructiono f co r a l commun i t i e s .

The increase in coral predators was mainly caused by the

declining population of Napoleon fish. A kilogram of Napoleonfish is now* priced at Rp200,000 (almost US$100).

Earlier, Dr J.R.E. Harger, senior assistant to the UNESCODirector General for Oceanology, said the high price ofNapoleon fish had encouraged the local populace to catchNapoleon fish.

"Ten years ago when J dived, 90 percent of coral reefswere in good condition but now the figure has dropped to five

percent only." Harger said. mAccording to the joint statement, the quantity of rubbish

discharged into Jakarta Bay increased 34 times over the lastten vears«

Only one island, lying in a geographically isolatedlocation . still has very good reefs, the statement said.

In view of the proportions of the coral reef damage » thescientists underlined the need to communicate the workshop'smajor findings to the public and decision makers.

They also recommended that the government raiseenvironmental fees on reef users.. maintain seed reefs andgenerate public pressure with the help of the press,non-governmental organisations to protect reefs.

The government was advised to address human populationpressures either in the medium or long run.

(T.HN02/AJM/hn01 )

118

WARTA BERITA ANTARA

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 20, 1995

11. KERUSAKAN TERUMBU KARANG KEPULAUAN SERIBU KIAN PARAH *

Jakarta, 20/9 (ANTARA) - Kerusakan terumbu karang dikawasan Kepulauan Seribu, Teluk Jakarta, kini semakin parahdibandingkan kondisi beberapa tahun sebelu'mnya, kata pàkaroseanologi UNESCO DR. J.R.E. Harger.

"Sepuluh tahun lalu, ketika saya menyelam di sekitar 30pulan yang termasuk kawasan Teluk Jakarta kondisi terumbukarangnya 90 persen bagus.. Kini, kondisinya merosot menjadisekitar lima persen saja yang bagus," katanya di Pulau Putri,Teluk Jakarta, Rabu.

Asisten Utama Direktur Jenderal Organisasi Pendidikan dan

Kebudayaan Dunia (UNESCO) di Paris itu mengemukakan, 27 pakarIce 1 autan dunia yang mengadakan peneiitian dengan metoda"scubatic" (penyelamán laut) di Teluk Jakarta, 11- 20'September 1995, menemukan sejumlah permasalahan penyebabkerusakan dan punahnya terumbu karang tersebut.

Beberapa . faktor ,penurunan jumlah terumbu karang di TelukJakarta adaiah pencemaran air laut, pemakaian sianida dan borauntuk penangkapan ikan, pencurian terumbu karang, penyakityang terjadi secara alami, serta meningkatnya pertumbuhan'penduduk.

"Berkurangnya populas i ikan Napoleon yang menjadi pemangsa'crown of thorns' (bulu seribu) juga dapat menjadi penyebabkerusakan terumbu karang. Oleh karena, 'crown of thorns'merupakan jenis satwa yang menimbulkan, kematian terumbu'karang," katanya.

Harger yang berkebangsaan Selandia Baru menjelaskan,kerusakan terumbu karang itu menjadi bagian permasalahan

sosial " karena berkaitan dengan sejumlah sikap manusiamemperlakukan sumber daya alam secara semaunya.

la mencontohkan, para pakar keláutan dari Australia, PapuaNugini, Amerika Serikat, Kamboja, Thailand, Vietnam, Filipina,Belanda, Inggris dan Indonesia menemukan fakta bahwa sarnpahdari kawasan Jakarta sèperti botol 'minuman mineral danlimbah buangan oli turut menjadi faktor pencemar di kawasanTeluk Jakarta.

"Pada saat ini masyarakat kawasan Teluk Jakarta perlu pulamenjaga kelestarian terumbu. karang yang masih bagus, sepertidi Pulau Kotok Besar dan Pulau Putri," tambahnya.

119

WARTA BERITA ANTARA

WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 20, 1995

Sulit diperbaruiDR Soekarno, peneliti utama Pusat Peneiitian dan

Pengembangan Oseanologi Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia(P30 LIPI), menyatakan, pelestarian terumbu karang memerlukanperhatian khusus karena spesies ,tersebut sang,at àulitdiperbarui . ' .

. Ia mengemukakan, kehidupan terumbu karang yang menjadihabitat dan sumber pangan ikan di laut memerlukan kondisikhusus, antara lain suhu dan kualitas air yang stabil, sertatidak mengalami guncangan karena mudah patah.

"Kondisi khusus ini senantias-a terabaikán, karena sebagianbesar masyarakat menganggap terumbu karang sekedar hiasan dilaut yang bisa diper lakukaa. semaunya, " ujar Soekarno.

Sebagai contoh, menurut dia,, banyak kawasan wisata tamanlaut di Indonesia yang tidak memiliki pemandu selam, sehinggawisatawan yang melakukan penye laman bawah permukaan lautsering bertindak semaunya saat menyaksikan terumbu karang.

"Padahal para penyelam di kawasan taman laut memerlukanijin khusus atau harus dipandu penyelam ahli. Oleh karena,selama ini ada kecenderungan para penyelam amatir menginjakterumbu karang dengan sengaja," tambah Soekarno yang jugapeserta aktif lokakarya di Pulau Putri.

Para pakar kelautan internasional yang bergabung dalamLokakarya Terumbu Karang Teluk Jakarta itu membuat rekomendasitentang upaya memasyarakatkan potensi terumbu karang kepadamasyarakat luas, termasuk para pemegang keputusán.

Selain itu, mereka merekomenkasikan pula bahwa pelestarianterumbu karang berkaitan erat dengan peningkatan kese jahteraanmasyarakat kawasan pesisir, ¡serta perlunya kebijakan pengenaanbiaya khusus bagi mereka yang memanf aatkannya termasuk parawisatawan di kawasan taman laut.

"Biaya pemanfaatan lingkungan itu untuk membiayai kembalipelestarian lingkungan," demikian salah satu bagianrekomendasi tersebut. (T-SP04/17 ; 25/B/DN02-20/09/95 17Î.2.5/RÙ3)

120

REPUBL1KA

THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 21, 1995

Hanya 5% Terumbu Karang diKep. Seribu yang masih Bagus

JAKARTA Terumbu ka- hat langsung kondisi terumbu nahkan terumbu karang.rang di sekitar perairan Kepula- karang dan habitat lainnya. Dari peneiitian dengan meng¬uan Seribu dalam kondisi me- Pemantauan yang, anlara lain, gunakan sampel terumbu mati,ngenaskan. Peneiitian oleh tim dilakukan di Pulau Puiri, Pulau tim menyimpulkan beberapadaii Organisasi PBB bidang Pen- Pantara, Pulau Kotok Besar, dan faktor penyebab kerusakan. Po-didikan, llmu Pengetahuan, dan Pulau Panjang menunjukkan be- lusi menjadi faktor utamanya.Kebudayaan (UNESCO), yang" tapa terumbu karang yang menu- Menumt Suharsono, penelitibekerja sama dengan Lembaga tupi 90 persen perairan dalam dari Pusat Pengembangan danllmu Pengetahuan Indonesia kondisi sangat mengenaskan. Peneiitian Oceanografi LIPI, po-(LIPI), mendapati hanya sekitar Temuan ini, menurut Harger, lusi di Kepulauan Seribu dise-lima persen yang masih bagus. amat mengejutkan dan "mem- babkan faktor alam dan faktorSisanya mati, atau rasak. buat kami prihatin*'. Alasannya, manusia. Faklor alam: kenaikan

Dr. J.R.E. Harger, peneliti peneiitian yang dilakukan 10 ta- suhu. Faktor manusia; penggu-UNF.SCO yang mengepalai tim, hun lahi iflk menunjukkan hukti naan zat kimiayCfntuk inenangkap'menjelaskan kemarin bahwa da- kerusakan yang begitu parah. ikan, penangkapan ikan secaralam peneiitian yang dilakukan Hasil peneiitian juga menun- berlebihan, pengambilan terum-pada 1 1-20 September di sejum- jukkan habitat perairan di sekitar bu karang, menjamumya kawa-lah pulau dalam gugusan Kepu- tumbuhnya terumbu karang me- san wisata di Kepulauan Seribu.lauan Seribu diketahui kerusakan nyusut. Contohnya: ikan jenis Menumt Harger, bila masalahberlangsung selama setahun ter- Napoleon Wrasse, yang tergo- itu tak segera diatasi, terumbuakhir. Kerusakan terparah, me- long langka dan mahal, dan la- karang sebagai penyedia makan-nurutnya, justm terjadi di kepu- zim dijadikan obat kuat di Je- an bagi habitat laut akan musnahlauan yang terletak jauh dari pang, sulit ditemui lagi. sama sekali. Dan, pada akhimya,pinggir pantai Teluk Jakarta. Menyusutnya populasi Napo- katanya, keanekaragaman hayati

Tim peneliti UNESCO dan leon, yang berfungsi sebagai pe- yang hidup di laut akan ikutLIPI, yang terdiri atas 27 orang, mangsa (predator) Bulu Seribu, musnah. Manusia, sebagai kon-memantau beberapa pulau yang parasit terumbu karang, menye- sumen, disebutnya menjadi pi-terletak jauh dari Teluk Jakarta, babkan Bulu Seribu tak hanya hak yang paling dlrugikan.Mereka menyelam untuk meli- merajalela. Tapi juga memus- Beta

121

THE JAKARTA POST

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 23, 1995 PAGE 3

Garbage destroyingSeribu Islands reefsJAKARTA (JP): Trash 30 meters deep in the Seribu

dumping by Jakartans has Island waters and the conditioncaused the pollution of Jakarta of the corals was still 90 percentBay and destroyed coral reefs good. Now» only about 5 per-around the Seribu Islands, an cent is still good," Harger wasoeeanologist has said. quoted by Antara as saying.

"These conclusion have been "The decrease in the popula-proved by experts from tion of the Napoleon fishAustralia, Papua New Guinea, species, which eats Crown ofthe U.S., Cambodia, Thailand, Thorn fish, also causedVietnam, the Philippines, the destruction," he said.Netherlands, the United "Only the reefs aroundKingdom and Indonesia," Kotok Island and Putri IslandJ.R.E. Harger of UNESCO said are still in good condition,"on Wednesday. Harger said.

As many as 27 experts from Meanwhile, an Indonesianall over the world met in expert from the IndonesianJakarta, from Sept. 11 to Sept. Institute of Sciences,20, to research the problems of Soekarno, said that specialcoral reef destruction in the measures must be taken to pre-Jakarta Bay and its surround- serve the reefs because theing islands. populations of the species are

He added that the destruc- difficult to restore,tion of the reefs could lead to "The coral needs certainsocial problems since it was conditions, especially withrelated to human attitudes in regard to temperature andtreating natural resources. quality of the water, to be a

Harger said the condition of suitable habitat," he said,the reefs around the Seribu Soekarno said he was con-Islands was getting worse cerned that diving activities inbecause the waters were also the area also contributed to thebeing polluted by cyanide and destruction process,dynamite, used for catching "Many amateur divers de-fish. Pilfering of corals and the stroy the corals because they doincrease in population were not know how to treat them,"further factors contributing to he said, adding that specialthe damage. licensees should be required to

"Ten years ago I dived about dive in the area. (01)

122

SUNDAY OBSERVER

SUNDAY, SEPTEMBER 24, 1995

Jakarta Bay's ecosystem neartotal collapse: scientists

PUTRI ISLAND - Coral They also noted that de-communities near most outer structive fishing practices us-islcts of the Seribu islands in ing cyanide and increase inthe Bay of Jakarta have dete- coral predators, such as crownriorated dramatically and of thorns or gastropods, hadbrought the bay's marine eco- also contributed to the de-syslem to the verge of "total struction of coral communi-collapse", coral reef scientists ties,said. The increase in coral

According to a joint state- predators was mainly causedment issued at the end of their by the declining population ofnine-day workshop on coral Napoleon fish. A kilogram ofreef evaluation here recently, Napoleon fish is now priced atthe scientists attributed the de- Rp200,000 (almost US$ 1 00).terioration of coral communi- "Ten years ago when Ities to pollution, poor water dived, 90 percent of coral reefsquality , increased temperature, were in good condition but nowcoral harvests, coral disease, the figure has dropped to fiveand dredging. percent ony," Harger said.

123

REPUBLIKA

SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 30, 1995

RESONANSI

Pulau Seribu

AirituberwamahitampekaL . _ ara-kiralima menit setelah perahu motor cepat itu melesat meninggalkanMarina Ancol, tiba-tíba mesinnya mati. Penyebabnya, baling-balingmesin terlilit sampah. Setelah itu, masih di wilayah Teluk Jakarta,perahu yang tampak masih bam itu bementi dua kali fagi. Penyebab¬nya sama: sampah.

ltulah promosi awal yang buruk bagi Pulau Seribu sebagai tujuanwisata. Selepas Marina, air laut memang tampak biru, tapi apa isinyatak banyak orang yang tahu.

Setelah satu setengah jam pelayaran, sampailah saya dan 20wartawan ASEAN ke tempat tujuan: Pulau Puteri. "Welcome toYour Island. ..." , begitu terpampang kata sambutan. Pulau itu luasnyasekitar 6,5 ha dan tampak dilata apik. Harap maklum, pulau itu telahdijadikan resort atau tempat peristirahatan.

Air laut dipinggirpantai yang dangkal tampakjernih. Sementara,dari dalam Nautilus, perahu berbentuk setengah kapal selam yangberdinding kaca, tampak pemandangan isi laut yang indah. Peman¬dangan sempa bisa cUmkmatilewat''nr üaqur am" (akuarium

xa^ ,\lahahlibahwa

i, berdwifungsi:i.si IkanHias In-

karang. Turis

lasoreharinya.

terowongan) dan "snorkeling". Betterumbu karang adalah hutan trop is

Temyata, pengelola Pulau Puteri, j .orang LSM dan pengusaha. la adalahdonesia. "Sayaberusahamenyelamadatang ke stni untuk melihat alam' ' , kalaiiy t .

Kegembiraan saya atas pemandangan itu mPenyebabnya, paparan hasil survai 24 ahli te'." " t> m karang dari de-lapan negara yang diprakarsai UNESCO. Peneiitian selama 10 hariatas terumbu karang pada sekitar 28 pulau di Ke- allanan Seribu itumenyimpulkan: sekitar 90 persen terumbu ko., ng lusak. "I amshocked", kata Robin Harger dari UNESCO Paris. Seorang ahlidari Thailandjuga geleng-geleng kepala ketika menyampaikan hasiltemuannya. Menurut dia, apa yang disakstkannya di perairan PulauSeribu, termasuk sekitar Pulau Puteri, yang terbunik. Pak Soekarnodari LIPI mengangguk.

Oleh Paml Had)

Yang mengagetkan, kemsakan beratjusteru terjadi semakinjauhdari Teluk Jakarta. Terumbu karang di Teluk Jakarta sendiri tidakberubah keadaanya. Masih sepertilO tahun lalu ketika dilakukansurvai pertama. Itu artinya tetap jelek, yakni tinggal empat persensaja. Menurut Pak Suharsono dari LIPI, keadaan sekarang sudah ti¬dak bisa lebih buruk lagi. Terumbu karang yang tinggal itu adalahjenis yang bisa bertahan pada keadaan lingkungan tercemar berat

Penyebab utama kemsakan terumbu karang yang menjadi tempathidup ikan itu adalah ulah manusia. Penangkapan ikan yang berlebih-an dengan racun sianida dan bahan peledak, pengerukan, eksporkarang dan ikan nias serta limbah pulau-pulau wisata.

Hendro Sangkoyo dari 1TI (Institut Teknologi Indonesia) me-nuding para pengelola pulau-pulau wisata. Katanya, trickle downeffects (dampak tetesan manfaat) pulau-pulau itu untuk rakyat setenvpat kecil. Tidak banyak penduduk setempat yang dipekerjakan de¬ngan alasan kurang terampil. Dan, perahu rakyat tidak boleh merapatke pulau-pulau wisata itu. Hasil tangkapan ikan nelayan setempat.turun drastis. Banyak pulau yang dikelola atau dimiliíd oleh peng¬usaha atau orang-orang penting. Satu-dua pulau telah hilang, karenatanahnya dikeruk untuk menguruk pantái.

Saya gembira mendengar péringátan Pak Harto bahwa pem-bangunan KWT (Kawasan Wisata Terpadu) seluas 8.000 ha di Pan¬tai Kapuk Naga* Tangerang, hams menguntungkan 72.000 nelayanyang akan tergusur. Separuh dari KWT itu akan berasal dari leklama-si pantai. Saya takut membayangan apa yang terjadi dengan PulauSeribu dan keanekaragaman hayati di perairannya setelah KWT ituselesai tahun 2015. Alangkah indahnya kalau KWT seperti itu bisadibangun di KTI (Kawasan Timur Indonesia). Di samping demi pe¬lestarian lingkungan, itu akan menunjukkan komitmen kita untukmembangun KTI,

124

THE INDONESIA TIMES

RI trying to recover10 mln hectares of

lost mangrovers

JAKARTA - Indonesia,host to Asia's most extensive

mangrove forests, is carryingout rehabilitation projects torestore millions of hectares oflost mangroves.

Its 81 ,000-km coastline usedto be adorned with 13 millionhectares of mangrove forests,

making it the country with thelushet seaside sceneries in theworld. But this gloriousmangrove era is now gone."

Concerns about Indonesia'slost mangroves have been rais¬ed many times. EnvironmentMinistry Sarwono KUsumaat-madja reiterated warnings that

the degradation of naturalresources would cause further

damage to mangroves.Calls on the media to help

disseminate information on the"hell" of mangrove damagehave also been frequentlymade. Such a call was onceagain made by Minister Sar¬

wono on Thursday.He asked journalists to help

impart and increase publicawareness of the importance ofpreserving the country'smangroves .

Speaking at the opening ofan ASEAN News Exchange(ANEX) Workshop on En¬

vironmental Reportingorganized by ANTARA NewsAgency in cooperation with theASEAN Committee on Cultureand Information ÍCOCI). theminister said that Indonesia'smangroves forests beforeWorld War II covered 13million hectares but now it haslost some 10.5 million hectaresdue to excessive exploitation.

By Andj Abdussatam

Scientist Dr AprilianiSoegiarto of the Indonesian In¬stitute of Sciences (LIPI), who

also spoke at the ANEXworkshop, said that damage tomangroves had been caused byindiscrimanate exploitation bylocal people living in thecoastal areas. He said that

about 60 percent of the popula¬tion (¡w.Y «»buut 190 million)live in coastal areas because of

the economic benefits ob¬tainable in these areas. But thehigh intensity at which thenatural resources in these areas

were being exploited had caus¬ed damage to mangroveforests.

Indonesia's mangroves areparticularly extensive on the

east coast of Sumatra, east andsouth coasts of Kalimantan

and Irian Jaya.According to Soegiarto,

these mangroves have also beendamaged due to indiscriminatecutting by the locals to makeway for fish or prawn shrimpculture, fuel wood and timber

ventures, .

Realizing the fact that it haslost over ten million hectares ofits mangroves that used to serveas filters of coastal water andbreeding grounds for fish andother bio-diverse species, In¬donesia is launching differentkinds of rehabilitation projects.

Minister Sarwono told the 21journalists attending the 10-dayANEX workshop that one ofthe the rehabilitation projectswas located in Indonesia's

tourist resort island of Bali.The 6,000-hectare rehabilita¬

tion poject had succeeded inimproving the quality of Bali'scoastal waters, the ministersaid.

He said that some of the

rehabilitation projects were be¬ing carried out based on

community-based rehabilita¬tion schemes such was was be¬ing done in South Sulawesi andJava.

Reference to the rehabilita¬tion projects in Java was madefor the first time by ministerSarwono at a function observ¬ing Environment Day in East

Java recently.With the community-based

concept, the government pro¬vides local people with freesaplings to be planted in theirrespective areas.

The program to plant "man-made" mangroves was startedalong Java's northern coasts

where mangrove conditions arethe worst in Indonesia. Thisnorthern coast hosts 4,500 hec¬tares of the country's remain¬ing 2.5 million hectares of

mangroves.

To provide support for theprogram, district heads are

briefed on how to encouragethe locals to take part in theplanting of mangroves."District heads whose areas areincluded in the rehabilitationprojects in Java will be invited

for the briefing," the ministersaid.

Madura island and Probol-inggo district in East Java havelost thousands of hectares off

mangroves. Therefore, EastJava concentrates its rehabila-

tion projects on the two areas.Will Indonesia be able to

restore ten million hecares of

its damaged mangroves?(Ant)

125

Annex 5.2.

LEMBAGA 1LMU PENGETAHUAN INDONESIAIndonesian Institute of Sciences )

PENEIITIAN DAN PENGEMBANGAN OSEANOLOGITASIUN PENELITIAN PULAU PARI

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WELCOMEREEF EVALUA« WORK» PALPANTS

20. 1995

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127

On the way to Puteri Island

128

Enjoying the scenery of the underwater tunnel aquariumon Puteri Island

Some participants are interviewing a resource personafter a lecture/discussion

at the Indonesian Research and Development Center for Oceanology

129

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