copyright by susan blinderman carter 1980
TRANSCRIPT
THE PIANO MUSIC OF SAMUEL BARBER
t)y
SUSAN BLINDERMAN CARTER, B.M., M.M.
A DISSERTATION
IN
FINE ARTS
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Approved
May, I9b0
i
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Professors Thomas Redcay and Paul Cutter, members
of my dissertation committee, have given most generous
ly of their time, patience and helpful advice. For this
I should like to express my sincere appreciation. A
debt of gratitude is also due my dear friend, June
Garner -- typist and co-laborer, without whose help and
encouragement this project would scarcely have been
possible.
I would also like to thank Karl Micholson, a rep
resentative of G. Schirmer, Inc. for granting permission
to reproduce short musical examples from Barber's piano
music. Dates of publication are included in the bib
liography. The author is also indebted to G. Schirmer,
Inc. for kind permission to use general biographical
information contained in Nathan Broder's book Samuel
Barber (195^).
11
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
PREFACE iv
CHAPTER
I. THE MAN 1
II. ELEMENTS OF SAMUEL BARBER'S IVIUSICAL STYLE .. 25
III. EXCURSIONS 32
First Movement 33 Second Movement 38 Third Movement ^0 Fourth Movement ^5
IV. PIANO SONATA 50
First Movement 55 Second Movement 67 Third Movement 75
Fourth Movement 8^
V. NOCTURNE 101
VI. PIANO CONCERTO 108
First Movement 113 Second Movement 122 Third Movement 128
VII. BALLADE 139
VIII. CONCLUDING STATEMENT 1^7
APPENDIX 155
A. LECTURE RECITAL I56
B. DISCOGRAPHY 183
BIBLIOGRAPHY 18^
111
PREFACE
The study of Samuel Barber's piano music grew out
of a need for a performance guide to significant twen
tieth-century American piano repertoire. The five piano
compositions of Samuel Barber do indeed constitute a
major contribution to contemporary American keyboard
works.
This project is three-fold in nature: l) to pro
vide a current biography of the composer, 2) to furnish
stylistic analyses of the piano music, and 3) to include
comments concerning interpretive and technical perfor
mance problems.
As part of this study, a Lecture Recital was pre
sented and included a performance of the Piano Sonata.
Consequently, the discussion of the Sonata (Chapter IV)
includes a more detailed discussion of performance
problems.
The performer has much to gain by studying Barber's
piano music. In addition to becoming more involved with
the contemporary American musical culture, he can expand
his understanding of contemporary musical style in gen
eral, thereby improving his total musicianship.
iv
According to Aaron Copland, seventy-five percent of
performers now before the public have lost all contact
with contemporary music -- a situation which must be
overcome if the creative arts are to remain a vital part
of our society. The most effective means of conquering
the apathy towards contemporary music is by hearing and
performing new music that is accessible. Samuel Barber's
piano music provides an excellent source of accessible
twentieth-century music. It is the author's sincere
hope that this study will inspire teachers and perfor
mers to fulfill the need for a wider exposure of con
temporary American music.
Aaron Copland, Copland on Music (New York: W. W Nortor. and Co., I962) , p. 53.
v
CHAPTER I
THE MAN
To begin with, I was not meant to be an athelet I was meant to be a composer, and will be, I'm sure... Don't ask me to try to forget this... and go and play foot-ball. -- Please
Sometimes I've been worrying about this so much that it makes me madl (not very) Csic] .1
The eight-year old boy who left this note on his
mother's dressing table was indeed meant to be a compos
er. While his parents did not encourage their son to
develop his musical talent, amd would have preferred
that he participate in the activities of a "normal"
American boy, Samuel Barber soon proved that he could
succeed in his pursuit of a musical career. While only
in his twenties. Barber established a secure position in
the forefront of American composers. His many awards for
composition are eloquent testimony to his achievements:
the Beams Prize from Columbia University (1928), the
Prix de Rome (1935). a New York Music Critics Circle
Award (19^7) and two Pulitzer Prizes (1958 and I963)•
In addition, Barber has received many honors for
Nathan Broder, Samuel Barber (New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 195^). p. 9-
1
his overall contribution to American music, including
membership in the Academy of Arts and Letters (1935).
appointment as a consultant at the American Academy of
Rome (19^8) and the award of an honorary Doctorate from
Harvard University (1959).
Barber was bom on March 9, I910, in West Chester,
Pennsylvania, a small town near Philadelphia. Samuel's
father, a prominent community leader, was a physician and
president of the local school board. Barber's musical
influence, however, stemmed from his mother's side of the
family. His aunt, Louise Homer, was a famous contralto
who performed several leading roles at the New York Met
ropolitan Opera. Her husband, Sidney Homer, also a musi
cian, composed many songs which number among the more im
portant contributions to American music in the early 2
years of this century.
Young Samuel begaji his musical education at the age
of six with piano lessons. His mother, however, persuad
ed him to study the cello. Samuel determined to resume
his piano lessons and after a year, his wish was fulfil
led: for six years, he studied with West Chester's lead
ing piano teacher, William Hatten Green, former pupil of
Theodore Leschetizky. 2 H. C. Thorpe discusses this subject in "The Songs
of Sidney Homer," The Musical Quarterly. XVII (I931), ^7-52.
Barber's desire to compose music also appeared at an
early age. When once asked how he happened to becom-e a
composer, he replied, "I began writing music at seven and
I just never stopped."-^ His first composition, Sadness,
was a twenty-three measure piano piece. Barber soon be
came more ambitious, and by the age of ten, he had writ
ten an opera on a libretto by the Barbers' Irish cook,
Annie Noble. The Rose Tree featured Samuel as the hero
and his younger sister, Sarah, as the heroine. In addi
tion, a Gypsy chorus was included. Unfortunately, Annie
ran out of ideas, and only one act was completed. (The
world would have to wait until 1957 for Barber to compose
his next opera, Vanessa.)
Although West Chester was a small town, the group of
literary figures surrounding the novelist, Joseph Herge-
sheimer, provided some cultural stimulation for Samuel. A
fairly accomplished pianist, Samuel was active in communi
ty functions, playing for club meetings and organizing an
orchestra to entertain at social events and local dances.
At fourteen, Samuel became an organist at the West
minster Presbyterian Church in West Chester, earning one
hundred dollars per month. Barber's career as a church
organist was short-lived, however. Like another famous
organist, his playing displeased the authorities: "While
^ Eric Salzman, "Samuel Barber," Hi Fi/Stereo Review. October I966, p. 79-
Bach was reprimanded for confusing the congregation at
Arnstadt by playing 'many curious variations' during the
chorale, Barber lost his job in West Chester mainly be
cause he refused to play fermatas when none were indicated
in the hymns and responses."
During this same year (192^), Barber performed for
Harold Randolph, director of the Peabody Conservatory in
Baltimore. Quite impressed with Samuel's performance,
Randolph advised him to discontinue his public school ed
ucation and to devote all his time to the piano and com
position. Not surprisingly, his father rejected that
advice, finding instead an effective compromise; the
West Chester school board, headed by Dr. Barber, passed
a special rule permitting student composers to take Fri
day off to attend the Philadelphia Orchestra concerts.
This special ruling, probably unique in the history of
American education, allowed Samuel to attend these Friday
concerts as well as study privately at the newly organ
ized Curtis Institute of Music.
The Curtis Institute of Music was the creation of
Mary Louise Curtis Bok, daughter of the publisher Cyrus
H. K. Curtis and wife of the chief editor, Edward W. Bok.
(After Bok's death, she became the wife of the violinist,
Efrem Zimbalist.) In 192^, Mrs. Bok established the music
Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 12.
school with an endowment of $500,000. The original Curtis
faculty included Josef Hofmann, Carl Flesch, Marcella
Sembrich and Leopold Stokowski. In 1927. Mrs. Bok added
$12 million to the endowment fund and abolished all tui
tion fees. Barber enrolled at the Institute when it opened,
and remained associated with the school as a student
and teaching assistant for the next nine years.
After Barber graduated from high school in 1926, he
became a fulltime student at Curtis. During his first
year, he majored in piano, studying with George Boyle and
later Isabelle Vengerova, a Leschetizky student and for
mer professor at the Petrograd Conservatory. In his sec
ond year, Barber added composition as a second major area,
studying under Rosario Scalero, a violinist and composer
from Italy and former pupil of Eusebius Mandycewski, a
close friend of Johannes Brahms. During his third year.
Barber was allowed to study voice, becoming the first
student at Curtis (with an enrollment of 350" students) to
major in three areas. Barber's voice teacher was Emilio
de Gogorza, baritone and husband of 2mma Eames. Other
studies included conducting classes under Fritz Reiner
and several foreign language courses.
At the age of eighteen, Barber was one of Curtis's
most promising students. During his sophomore year, Sca-
" lero asked Barber to befriend a talented new student from
Italy. Although Barber spoke no Italian, both he and the
new student, Gian-Carlo Menotti, were able to communicate
through their common knowledge of French. Barber con
descendingly offered to help the new student, and thus
began their enduring friendship.
Although composition was to become his principal
area of emphasis, vocal studies were also important, in
fluencing his lyrical approach to composition as well as
the composition of many vocal works, including art songs,
choral works and opera. Barber even considered pursuing
a vocal career, presenting lieder recitals on NBC radio
as well as recording Dover Beach for voice and string
quartet.-'
After a brief flirtation with vocal performance.
Barber returned to composition. Scalero's teaching was
based on the rigorous Germanic tradition of strict coun
terpoint and form, combined with characteristically Ital
ian flexibility.
The first two years of Scalero's composition courses
were based on the study of counterpoint, beginning with
two-voiced composition and progressing to eight parts.
After strict counterpoint was mastered, students were
allowed to compose canons and fugues, variations, art
songs, and piano pieces in the smaller forms. Next came
larger works, based on the principles of sonata form.
• Barber's recording of Dover Beach with the Curtis String Quartet, RCA Victor 8998, has become a valuable collector's item.
7
While performers received the most attention during
the early years at Curtis, the composition students did
present an annual concert. Barber's contributions inclu
ded Serenade for String Quartet in 1930, and Dover Beach
and two unpublished Intermezzi for piano in 1932.
The year I928 was a landmark in Barber's career: he
won the Beams Prize, a $1,200 award sponsored by Colum
bia University. (The violin sonata which won the contest,
however, remains unpublished.) With the prize money.
Barber traveled to Europe. Writing to his parents, the
eighteen-year old revealed the impact of his first trip
abroad:
Our whole life is so unreal and so drenched by fantasy that I move around unthinking - unconsciously absorbing, but never collecting or arranging my reactions.^
Exploring new places and cultures has remained a
strong influence on Barber's romantic spirit throughout
his life.
After traveling in France, he went to Gresseney St.
Jean in the Italian Alps, visiting the Scalero family.
From there, he went to Venice and on to Vienna. While
there, he met George Antheil, who had just caused quite
a stir in Europe with his composition, Ballet-Mecanique.
Antheil's praise for Barber's compositions made a lasting
° Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 18.
8
impression on the young composer, who has occasionally
felt a lack of encouragement from his colleagues in
America.'
During this first eventful trip to Europe, Barber
also met another famous musician, Eusebius Mandycewski.
While Barber had not yet achieved much recognition in
America, his experiences in Europe were bolstering his
spirit with new feelings of confidence.
Barber returned to Europe in the summers of 1929 and
1930r both times visiting Italy with Menotti. He spent
most of his time with the Menotti family at Cadegliano, a
village on the Italian side of Lake Lugano. While in
Italy, Barber also made several trips to Gresseney to see
Scalero.
Returning to Philadelphia in 1930, Barber received
his first, and rather strange, commission. Edward Bok com
missioned a set of pieces for a huge, pink marble carillon
at the Mountain Lakes bird sanctuary in Florida. The re
sult, which remains unpublished and which Barber prefers
to ignore, was a suite, performed by a carilloner imported
from Belgium.
The following year, 1931i Barber produced more im
portant compositions, including the Overture to the School
for Scandal, and Dover Beach, and in 1932, the Sonata for
Cello and Piano. Although Barber copied out the orches-
^ Ibid., p. 19.
9
tral parts for the Overture and worked diligently to have
it performed at Curtis, it was not until 1933, when Bar
ber was once again in Italy, that the Overture finally had
its premiere. While Barber was not especially encouraged
as a composer at Curtis, he was hired by the Institute as
a piano instructor for the two year period 1931 to 1933'«
Barber left Curtis after the spring of 1933 (receiv
ing his Bachelor of Music degree at the 193^ commencement
exercises). Although he had always aspired to devote his
life to composition, economic conditions prevented this
luxury. His father had lost a great deal of money after
the stock market crash in 1929, and Barber was compelled
to earn a living by singing professionally and teaching.
Many years would pass before Barber achieved the rare
position for an American composer: to support himself
solely from the money earned by his compositions, royal
ties and commissions.
Returning to Europe in the summer of 1933, Barber
once again spent a great deal of time in Cadegliano. In
spired by the view of Lake Lugano, he composed Music for a
Scene from Shellev.
While in Italy, he learned of the recent performance
of the Overture to the School for Scandal by Alexander
Smallens and the Philadelphia Orchestra. This was the
first performance of Barber's music by a major orchestra.
Feeling confident from this exciting news, Barber and
10
Menotti decided to visit Arturo Toscanini at his home on
an island in Lake Maggiore. In a letter to his parents
dated August 11, 1933, Barber described the visit:
We got out of our boat and trembled up the footpath to the house, not having the slightest idea whether they would receive us or not, for we had not written or phoned that we were coming. We asked if Mme. Toscanini was at home, saying we were friends of Max Smith; then a long nerve-racking wait, while the servant seemed to be hunting in the garden for her and our hearts sank; and then he returned saying, 'Madame Toscanini is too busy to see you now, but the Maestro is coming to receive you.' My heart still beats faster at the thoughtl Soon he appeared, coming up the path with Zirato, the manager of the Philharmonic, and greeted us. He was the nicest thing you could imagine, took us around to a terrace with a heavenly view, and there we sat and talked... Then... we had tea and talked some more, and left in a daze of enthusiasm for him and his house.8
This important meeting would later prove to be a signi
ficant influence on Barber's career.
After spending the summer of 1933 in Italy, Barber
and Menotti went to Vienna. Fortified with another
$1,200 Beams Prize for the Overture to the School for
Scandal. Barber was able to afford singing and conducting
lessons. With the help of Karl Geiringer, Barber made his
conducting debut in Vienna on January 4, 193^. Included
on the concert were works by Corelli, Vivaldi, Haydn,
Sibelius and Menotti. Subsequently, Barber has directed
many concerts throughout Europe. It was not until 1951,
Broder, Samuel Barber, pp. 2k-25.
11
however, that Barber made his conducting debut in the
United States with a performance of his Second Symphony by
the Boston Symphony Orchestra.
With the clouds of war mounting in Europe, Vienna was
unsafe, and Barber returned to the United States in 193^-
Spending the summer at the estate of Mrs. Bok, near Rock-
port, Maine, Barber wrote the song Bessie Bobtail and also
presented a voice recital in the nearby town of Cambden.
The next October, Barber presented some of his com
positions to Carl Engle, president of the music publish
ing company, G. Schirmer, Inc. Following the hearing,
Schirmer became Barber's sole publisher, and has remained
so ever since. This important connection opened doors for
the aspiring young composer. Carl Engle introduced Bar
ber to Werner Janssen, conductor of the New York Philhar
monic. Janssen not only conducted the Music for a Scene
from Shelley on March 23, 1935» but also arranged an all-
Barber radio program the same year. The broadcast inclu
ded the song. The Daisies, the Cello Sonata. Dover Beach
and the Serenade for String Quartet. Carl Engle introduc
ed the broadcast with the following remarks:
...I have a feeling that I am taking no undue chances in declaring that the occasion of this broadcast might easily turn out to have been --well -- an event of considerable musical importance .
There is nothing more calamitous for youth than to be tagged with prophecies of future greatness. I am not going to indulge in anything like the resounding flourish with which
12
Robert Schumann so justly hailed the publication of Chopin's Opus 2, or -- some years later -- acclaimed the advent of young Johannes Brahms... I should merely like to say ... that it affords me great satisfaction to have the privilege of prefacing with a few remarks the first broadcast ... of a whole program of musical compositions by Mr. Samuel Barber.9
Barber's recognition continued to grow, and in the
spring of 1935, he received another important award: a
$1,500 Pulitzer Traveling Scholarship for study abroad.
In the same year, Barber won the Prix de Rome with the
Cello Sonata and the Music for a Scene from Shelley. The
prize included a stipend of 2,500 and optional free hous
ing in Rome. In late August, 1935, Barber settled at
the Academy in Rome. There he finished his First Sym
phony and composed six songs to texts by James Joyce.
Through mutual friends, he was introduced to the con
ductor of the Augusteo Orchestra in Rome, Bernardino Mo-
linari. Molinari was particularly impressed with Bar
ber's Symphony and included it on a concert the following
season (December 13, 1936). At this time. Barber received
another prestigious honor: he was awarded the Pulitzer
Scholarship once again, becoming the first person to re
ceive this award twice.
In May, 1936, Barber met Menotti at Lake Lugano,
where they began a leisurely journey to Salzburg. The
^ Broder, Samuel Barber, pp. 27-28.
13
picturesque setting inspired Barber to compose the chorus
Let Down the Bars. 0 Death, the song I Hear an Army and
the String Quartet.
Returning to Rome in November, Barber was honored by
two important performances: Molinari conducted the First
Symphony and the Pro-Arte String Quartet performed the
String Quartet. Barber's music was also being performed
in America, including concerts in New York and Cleveland
of the Symphony, conducted by Rodzinski, and an all-Barber
program at Curtis, in March, 1937, which included the Ser
enade . the String Quartet. Dover Beach, the Cello Sonata,
and a group of songs.
Barber resumed his travels after a brief return to
Rome. Following a short visit to London, where he per
formed the Cello Sonata with Salmond at Wigmore Hall, Bar
ber went to Salzburg, where he was honored by a perfor
mance of the Symphony, conducted by Rodzinski, at the Fes
tival in July. There, an event of great importance to
Barber's career occurred. Toscanini, the chief conductor
of the Festival, was looking for a new work by an American
composer. The NBC Symphony Orchestra had recently been
organized for Toscanini, and he wanted to include an Amer
ican composition on the coming season. Following Rodzin
ski ' s suggestion that he consider a work by Barber, Tos
canini examined Barber's newly composed Essay for Orches
tra and the now. famous orchestral .arrangement of Adagio
1^
from the String Quartet. Hearing no reply from Toscanini,
Barber was insulted and refused to go with Menotti the
following summer to visit the Maestro. Toscanini surmised
the reason for Barber's absence and sent a message back to
Barber, via Menotti, that he was in fact planning to pro
gram both works. He had not asked to see the scores again,
until a day before the first rehearsal, because he had al
ready memorized them. Toscanini's premiere of the Adagio
and the First Essay for Orchestra, on November 5, 1938,
firmly launched the career of Samuel Barber.
Early in 1939, Barber was in Switzerland, working on
his latest commission, the Concerto for Violin and Orches
tra, a work which would reveal a new stylistic direction.
At this time, however, the work was progressing slowly,
and Barber hoped that a move to Paris might rejuvenate his
creativity. Shortly after the move, however, all Ameri
cans were advised to leave, and Germany invaded Poland as
Barber sailed for home in the fall of 1939.
The music from the next period of Barber's life shows
a new maturity, influenced by world events, as well as
by his father's death. The Violin Concerto. reflecting
this maturity, was finally finished after his return to
America in 1939- Unfortunately, the proteg^ who commis
sioned the work declared the Finale unplayable. As a re
sult, Barber had to return half the fee, and the violinist
had to relinquish the right to premiere the work. The
15
Concerto was finally premiered in 1941, by Albert Spalding
and the Philadelphia Orchestra, under the direction of
Eugene Orraajidy, becoming an important contribution to
twentieth-century violin repertoire.
Barber returned to Curtis from 1939 to 19^2, teaching
orchestration ajid conducting a madrigal group. During
this time, he composed the Second Essay for Orchestra for
Bruno Walter and the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, pre
miered in New York on April l6, 1942.
In 1943, Barber was inducted into the United States
Army, and after a brief period of time in Special Ser
vices, was transferred to the Air Force. He was encour
aged to continue composing, and in 1943, the Army Air Force
Band performed his Commando March. While stationed at the
Fort Worth Army Airfield, Barber was commissioned by the
Army Air Force to compose a symphony, an unprecedented act
in the history of the American military. He was permitted
to work at home, but was required to make reguQar progress
reports to an officer at West Point. This officer sugges
ted that since the Air Force was so technically advanced,
the symphony should also be modern. Barber compromised by
adding an electronic tone generator to simulate the sound
of an aviator's radio beam. The machine never did work
properly, however, and Barber's attempt at "modernity" was
stifled at a rehearsal when the conductor. Serge Kousse-
16
vitsky, shouted, "Throw the damn thing out."^^ The Sym
phony Dedicated to the Army Air Forces, was performed,
without a synthesizer, by Koussevitsky and the Boston Sym
phony Orchestra on March 3, 1944.
After Barber's discharge from the army in September,
1945, he returned to Capricorn, a home he had purchased
with Menotti in 1943, near Mt. Kisco, New York. Most of
Barber's works from 1945 until the sale of the home in
1974, were composed here. Barber's early years in Mt.
Kisco were prolific, including such compositions as the
Cello Concerto (winner of the 1947 New York Critics Circle
Prize); the ballet Cave of the Heart, later retitled Me
dea, commissioned for Martha Graham; Knoxville: Summer
of 1915. for soprano and orchestra, commissioned for and
premiered by Eleanor Steber with Koussevitsky and the
Boston Symphony in 1948; the Piano Sonata, commissioned
for the twenty-fifth anniversary of the League of Compos
ers and premiered by Vladimir Horowitz in 1950; Melo
dies Passagres. a song cycle based on poems by Rainer
Maria Rilke and premiered by Pierre Bernac and Francis
Poulenc at Town Hall in 1952; Hermit Songs, based on
medieval Irish texts, commissioned by the Coolidge Foun
dation ajid premiered by Leontyne Price; and the Pravers
of Kierkegaard for soprano, chorus and orchestra, pre-
10 Salzman, "Samuel Barber," p. 84.
17
miered by Charles Munch and the Boston Symphony with Leon
tyne Price in 1954.
Although Barber worked diligently at Capricorn, he
also resumed his travels after the war. A Guggenheim
grant permitted him to go to Europe in 1945. He also re
turned to the American Academy in Rome in 1948 and 1949,
but this time as composer-in-residence. Touring Europe
in 1950, Barber conducted concerts of his works in Den
mark, Germany and Italy. He also received an offer to
record some of his recent works for the London Gramaphone
Corporation, an opportunity which had not been afforded
him by the American recording companies. The London re
cordings, which Barber conducted, included the Cello Con
certo . orchestral excerpts from Medea, and the Second Sym
phony.
Wanting freedom to devote his time to composition.
Barber declined several offers for importajit university
positions and avoided becoming an active member of compo
sers' committees and organizations. In 1951, however, he
was elected a vice-president of the International Music
Council of UNESCO. In 1952, active in the American Soci
ety of Composers, Authors and Publishers, he was instru
mental in winning a larger share of ASCAP's income for
composers of serious music.
The mid 1950s proved to be an important period in
Barber's career. Ever since his early operatic venture.
18
The Rose Tree. Barber had been interested in writing for
the theatre. Having discussed probable libretti with
Thornton Wilder, Stephen Spender and Dylan Thomas, as well
as having received proposed operatic commissions from both
the Metropolitaji Opera and the Koussevitsky Foundation, he
continued to search for a satisfactory libretto. He even
tually discovered the right librettist in his friend, Men
otti. In 1956, Menotti wrote the text for Vanessa, and
Barber composed the music the following year. The Metro
politan Opera produced Vajiessa in 1958, with a cast that
included Eleajior Steber and Giorgio Tozzi. Vanessa was
also produced at the Salzburg Festival and earned the Pu
litzer Prize in 1958. The success of Vanessa was largely
responsible for Barber's award of an honorary doctorate
from Harvard University in 1959•
Barber and Menotti soon collaborated on a second ven
ture, the one-act opera, A Hand of Bridge. in 1959* This
short, biting work was performed in 1959, at Menotti's
Festival of Two Worlds in Spoleto, and in I96O in New
York.
The early 1960s were also productive years for Barber.
Toccata Festiva. commissioned for the new organ at the .
Philadelphia Academy of Music in i960, was premiered by
Paul Calloway with Eugene Ormandy and the Philadelphia
Orchestra on September 30, i960 and later recorded by E.
19
Power Biggs. Die Natali. a set of choral preludes for
Christmas, was premiered by Charles Munch and the Boston
Symphony Orchestra on December 22, i960.
In 1962, Barber visited the Soviet Union as part of
a cultural exchange mission. After discovering that his
music was widely known and often performed in Russia, he
protested in a meeting with Kruschev the policy of the
Russian government not to pay royalties to Western compo
sers. As a result. Barber is one of the few Western com
posers who now receives royalty payments from the U.S.S.R.
In honor of their one hundredth anniversay in I96I,
G. Schirmer commissioned Barber to write a piano concerto.
John Browning premiered the work on September 24, I962,
with Eric Leinsdorf and the Boston Symphony Orchestra dur
ing the opening week festivities at Lincoln Center. In
1963, the concerto earned Barber a second Pulitzer Prize.
Another significant commission for Barber resulted in An
dromache 's Farewell, premiered by Thomas Schippers and the
New York Philharmonic, on April 4, I963, with soprano solo
ist, Martina Arroya.
Perhaps Barber's most prestigious commission was from
the Metropolitan Opera for the opening of its new Lincoln
Center House in I966. Antony and Cleopatra, based on
Shakespeare's play, was designed and directed by Franco
11 John Briggs, "Samuel Barber," International Mus-
cian, December I96I, p. 23.
20
Zeffirelli. Conducted by Thomas Schippers, the original
version of the opera was premiered on September l6, I966,
featuring Leontyne Price, Justino Diaz and Jess Thomas.
A revised version of the opera was first performed at the
Juilliard American Opera Center on February 6, 1975,
staged by Gian-Carlo Menotti and conducted by James Conlon.
Barber's last work of the 1960s was Despite and Still
(1969). A cycle of five songs, the work derives its title
from the last poem, "Despite and Still," by Robert
Graves. The work was composed for and premiered by Leon
tyne Price at Carnegie Hall in I969.
The Lovers, an extensive work for baritone solo, chor
us and orchestra, was the first composition of the 1970s.
Prem.iered on September 22, 1971, in Philadelphia, under
the direction of Eugene Ormandy, the performance featured
Ton Krause as soloist. In 1974, Barber composed a set of
Three Songs for Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, commissioned by
the Chamber Music Society of Lincoln Center. On April 30,
1974, these songs were first performed at Alice Tully Hall
by Fischer-Dieskau with Charles Wadsworth at the piano.
Barber's most recent piano composition was a piece
commissioned for the Fifth Van Cliburn International Quad-
riennial Piano Competition. The Ballade, Op. 46, was
composed in 1977'
After a relatively inactive period, which was coinci
dental with his move from Mt. Kisco to Manhattan, Barber
21
returned to composition with a renewed fervor. His most
recent composition is the Third Essay for Orchestra, com
missioned by the Merlin Foundation. The work was pre
miered by the New York Philharmonic on September l4, 1978,
under the Philharmonic's new music director, Zubin Mehta.
An oboe concertino was to be premiered in January, 1979,
by Harold Gomberg and the New York Philharmonic. The pre
miere has been postponed, however, because illness has pre
vented Mr. Barber from completing it. When asked in a
recent interview in the New York Times if he had any plans
for future compositions, Mr. Barber replied, "I want to
write some more string quartets. I don't think that I
write that well for strings, but I do want to do a very 12 private piece for quartet." He also would like to have
the revised version of Antony and Cleopatra recorded, as
well as The Lovers, which has as yet not been recorded.
Celebrating his seventieth birthday on March 9. 1980,
Barber remains active and optimistic about future plans.
He continues to be one of America's most esteemed.and
often performed composers.
Personality
After interviewing Barber in I966, Eric Salzman
^^ Donal Henehan, "A Talk With Samuel Barber," New Ynrk Times. Jan. 28, 1979, sec. D, p. 24.
22
wrote:
Like his music. Barber is quiet, urbane, somewhat old-fashioned in his easy elegance, charm, and unpretentious sophistication. One senses that the profound mood is melancholy; he is introspective and often withdrawn. Yet he is an affable, intelligent man who speaks several languages and is at home among cultured, artistic people on more than one continent. The incredibly strong, handsome features of his youth have softened over the years, but he retains the romantic good looks of an old-time movie star still capable of playing a heartthrob role.^3
When he is not composing. Barber is fond of taking
long walks or reading books in several different languages.
He is bored by card games, and, in fact, is not fond of
games of any sort. Broder reveals the following anecdote
concerning Barber's gambling habits;
Once, when he and Menotti were stranded in Italy with insufficient money to return to the United States, Menotti took him to a gambling casino amd persuaded him to risk his few remaining dollars on roulette. Barber forgot to take his winnings off the table, and, since the same number kept coming up, won $600. He has never gambled since.^^
Barber's rather conservative tastes and cosmopolitan
nature are reflected in his music, which is often described
as, "avowedly Romantic, quiet, elegant, and wholehearted-
^^ Salzman, "Samuel Barber," p. 78.
Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 45.
23
ly traditionalist." ^ Barber works slowly: only forty-
six works have been composed since his first published
work in 1927. He is often silent and melancholy while
searching for the right themes, but once the satisfactory
themes are found, his mood is once again affable.
Barber's craftsmanship is seen not only in the music
itself, but also in the perfection of the actual manu
script. His copyist, Arnold Amstein, has compared the 16 manuscript of a Barber score to an engraving. One of
his editors at Schirmer, Hans W. Heinsheimer, described a
Barber manuscript as a model of perfection:
It is not only checked meticulously for errors, for wrong or missing rests, for a hemidemisemi-quaver that has a hemi too much or a demi too little -- it is also written very clearly in an interesting, original, yet very legible hand and it is completely ready for the copyist and the printer. It is the first, and at the same time, the final and definitive draft of the music. ''
Samuel Barber is often withdrawn and rather cold with
strangers, but occasionally a sense of humor springs to
the surface. When once asked why he didn't pursue a ca
reer as a professional singer, he replied, "In order to be
^^ Salzman, "Samuel Barber," p. 78.
David Ewen, Composers Since 1900 (New York: The H. W. Wilson, Co., I969), p. 32.
^'^ Ibid.
24
a great singer one must be either very intelligent or very
stupid. It seemed to me I was neither. "•'•
The personality of the man and his music are one. Mr.
Broder has eloquently described this parallel:
His work as a whole is like a living organism with a clearly stamped individuality, enriching Itself as It grows. And this organism mirrors the qualities of the man - his dedication to art, the elegance and refinement of his taste, his unswerving adherence to the highest standards, his constant search for new means of creating beauty, a search guided by a sense of discrimination and a power of self-criticism that prevent him from being stampeded into adopting novel techniques merely because they are novel and widely used.19
The legend of Samuel Barber has been a different
sort of story for an American composer. While most twen
tieth-century American composers have struggled against
indifference and neglect, success discovered Barber early
in life and has followed him throughout his career, with
very few exceptions.
18 Bamey Childs and Elliot Schwartz, eds., Contem
porary Composers on Contemporary Music (New York: H^lt Rinehart and Winston, 1967), p. i66. '
19 ^ Broder, Samuel Barber, pp. 59-6O
CHAPTER II
ELEMENTS OF SAIVIUEL BARBER'S MUSICAL STYLE
One of the most fascinating characteristics of Amer
ican music of the 1930s is its extreme diversity. Impres
sionism, jazz, neo-classicism, expressionism and serial-
ism influenced various American composers. Because of the
wide variety of styles, music historians found it conven
ient to associate composers with specific movements and
to label them accordingly. While often over-simplified
and not always effective, such labels can provide a gener
al frame of reference in which to view the works of cer
tain composers. Samuel Barber is most often associated
with the neo-Romantic movement. Although Barber's early
works fall quite conveniently into this category, his more
technically complex later works extend beyond the realm
of neo-Romanticism.
Neo-Romanticism emerged in the 1930s and 1940s as a
reaction to the political and economic upheavals that oc
curred in the first decades of the twentieth century. Anx
ious to satisfy the hunger for a retiorn to the romantic
attitudes of the nineteenth century, neo-Romantic compo
sers returned to a style characterized by broad lyricism
25
26
and dramatic expression. While traditional formal struc
tures of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries were pre
served, neo-Romantic composers drew upon a contemporary
technical vocabulary. In contrast to many twentieth cen
tury tendencies (such as futurism, serialism and atonality)
that can be viewed as reactions to past traditions, neo-
Romanticism embraced the aesthetics from the previous cen-
tury, revitalized through the use of contemporary harmonic
and rhythmic elements.
An important American composer, Virgil Thomson, be
came a spokesman for the neo-Romantic movement. Remain
ing aloof to the movements concerned with the abandonment
or destruction of tonality, Thomson gives the following
explanation of neo-Romanticism:
The new romanticism strives neither to unify mass audiences nor to impress the specialists of intellectual objectivity. Its guiding motive is the wish to express sincere personal sentiments with a majcimum of directness and of spontaneity. It tends consequently to avoid impersonal oratory; and it is wary about the conventionalistic tendencies bound up with consistent and obligatory dissonance.^
Thus, conservatism and traditionalism are important
elements of neo-Romanticism. While neo-Romanticism may
seem outmoded and insignificant to the young musicians of
today, Samuel Barber's music revitalizes the conservative
Joseph Machlis, Introduction to Contemporary Music (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc., I96I), p. 539-
27
aspects of neo-Romanticism, becoming an original contri
bution to the twentieth century.
In contrast to Barber's basically neo-Romantic style,
a departure from the neo-Romantic aesthetic is observed
in two rather experimental works. The Capricorn Concerto
(1944) for flute, oboe, trumpet and strings is a venture
in neo-Classicism, reflecting a strong Stravinsky influ
ence. The piano composition Excursions (1944), is Bar
ber's sole experiment in a nationalistic vein, drawing
upon such "Americana" influences as blues and boogie-
woogie.
The use of traditional forms remains constant in Bar
ber's works. Although modifications of sonata form appear
in the First Symphony and Piano Concerto. Barber remains
faithful to the structural concepts of eighteenth and
nineteenth century models. Composing for various vocal
and instrumental genres, Barber's use of traditional forms
remains consistent.
Within the framework of these traditional forms.
Barber exhibits one of his most characteristic elements
of style: a classical economy of means. Barber most often
narrowly limits the number of motivic ideas in a composi
tion. Through this limitation, he creates extreme unity
in his music. Contrast and variety, achieved as a result
of motivic transformation and development, are expressed
within tightly unified structures. Like Bartok, he occa-
28
sionally bases an entire movement on a germ, as in the
Piano Sonata and Medea.
Related to Barber's traditional formal designs is his
consistent adherence to principles of tonality. Although
the music composed after 1939 displays a more dissonant
and chromatic harmonic style, all of his works are based
on well-defined tonal centers. Major and minor scales are
the most common harmonic foundation, but other modes, par
ticularly Phrygian, and synthetic scales are occasionally
used. Even when Barber experiments with serialism, as in
the third movement of the Piano Sonata or the Nocturne.
tonal centers remain the basic organizing force.
Barber's early works (before 1939) exhibit a basi
cally tertian harmonic vocabulary. The later works, how
ever, employ secundal and quartal harmonies, polychords,
as well as an abundant use of tritones. The Second Sym
phony (1944) and the Piano Sonata (1949) reflect the un
rest of the period, through extreme use of dissonance, but
tonality (as expressed through traditional forms) is still
preserved.
Although conservatism, as seen in his approach to
form and tonality, is an important element of Barber's
style, lyricism is the most arresting of all Barber's
qualities. A rare quality in contemporary American music,
lyricism has given Barber's music its individual style.
It is not surprising that lyricism is the dominant
29
characteristic of Barber's music; he is one of the few
composers of this century who is himself a singer. More
over, his understanding of the human voice, both as a per
former and composer, has inevitably led to a style domin
ated by melody. David Ewen describes Barber's lyricism
as follows:
Of Barber's many admirable qualities -- his fine sense of musical design; the economy of his means; the inexorable logic of his thinking -- the most significant perhaps is his highly developed lyricism. He has the gift of writing sustained melodies that flow easily and have a high degree of expressiveness.2
In the earliest works. Barber's melodies are eloquent,
long-breathed and marked by graceful curves. Examples
include the Adagio for strings (1936), Knoxville; Summer
of 1915. for soprano and orchestra (1936), and the first
Essay for Orchestra (1937).
While tertian, diatonic chordal outlines are the
basis for his early melodic style. Barber's later melodic
style is more chromatic, though still very much rooted in
tonality. In addition. Barber's later melodic style tends
to avoid chordal outlines, focusing instead on particular
intervals, especially fourths, seconds and sevenths.
The beneficial results from Scaler's emphasis on
^ David Ewen, The World of Twentieth-Century Music (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968), p. 15.
30
counterpoint are apparent throughout Barber's works. The
contrapuntal texture of his music adds much interest and
vitality, preventing any sense of static quality in his
compositions. Barber's masterful control of contrapun
tal devices is seen not only as a general stylistic ele
ment, but also as a specific organization principle for
entire movements built on polyphonic structures: the
Passacaglia from the First Symphony (1936), the polytonal
fugue in the Second Essay (1942) and the fugue in the
Piano Sonata (I949). Related to Barber's use of poly
phonic forms is his frequent use of ostinato figures, used
most effectively in the Second Symphony (1942), the Cello
Concerto (1945), Medea (1946) and the Piano Concerto
(1962).
Barber's rhythmic style ranges from smooth, flowing
patterns to the most powerful, often complex, driving fig
ures. The vocal music is carefully suited to the rhythm
of the text, often marked by necessary changes of meter.
The instrumental music, particularly in the later works,
usually avoids obvious or regular patterns: hemiolas,
syncopations, cross rhythms and irregular groupings are
frequent.
Just as Johann Sebastian Bach was a conservative com
poser, deeply rooted in existing and traditional proce
dures, so is Samuel Barber a conservative composer, deeply
rooted in traditional formal, tonal procedures. During a
31
period when many composers have felt a need to reject the
past, Samuel Barber has been able to re-examine past tra
ditions and to create an individual style by re-interpre
ting the past in a modern language. Recognized by leading
conductors such as Toscanini, Koussevitsky and Szell, as
well as virtuoso performers such as Horowitz, Eleanor
Steber and Leontyne Price , Barber's music has been widely
acknowledged. Assimilation of twentieth-century technical
idioms into a style marked by classical control, as well
as romantic expression, has made the music of Samuel Bar
ber a valuable contribution to the twentieth-century reper
toire .
CHAPTER III
EXCURSIONS
Barber's first published work for solo piano is Ex
cursions. Opus 20, written in 1944 and premiered by Vlad
imir Horowitz in 1945. Included in the score of this set
of four pieces, the composer writes:
These are "Excursions" in small classical forms into regional American idioms. Their rhythmic characteristics, as well as their source in folk material and their scoring, reminiscent of local instruments, are easily recognized.^
Each piece is a stylized setting of a popular Ameri
can folk idiom. The opening piece is a boogie-woogie;
the second, a blues piece; the third, a set of variations
on a cowboy song; the last, a barn dance. Harry Dexter
describes this work in an article that appeared in 1949:
While they cannot be placed among Barber's major works, nor among the finest of modern works for the piano, they have many points of originality and charm, and often show a delightful freshness of outlook on the possibilities of piano technique . 2
^ Samuel Barber, Excursions (New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 19^5), p. 2.
^ Harry Dexter, "Samuel Barber and His Music," Musical Opinion, LXII (April. 1949), 344.
32
33
First Movement: Un poco allegro
Excursions opens with a stylized boogie-woogie. Ac
cording to the Harvard Dictionary, boogie-woogie is defin
ed as:
Originally a special type of piano blues, first heard in Chicago in the early 1920's. It was revived about 1935, becoming very popular for a number of years. This type.of playing is characterized by an ostinato bass figure, usually sharply rhythmic, against which the right hand rhapsodizes freely, the sections usually comprising twelve measures and the treatment often being contrapuntal (sometimes in only two widely spaced parts), with repeated tones, broken-octave tremolos, and short figures reiterated in great rhythmic variety (riff technique).3
Barber expresses an imaginative use of boogie-woogie
techniques through a subtle and sophisticated style. The
overall form of the movement is a five-part rondo: A'BA''
CA''' Coda.
The essential characteristic of boogie-woogie is the
bass ostinato. In this piece, the repeated bass figure is
the following:
Example 1: ostinato
^ ^
senza pedale
^ Willi Apel, ed.. Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 19^^). P. 101.
3^
In the A sections, the ostinato is in the tonic key
of C minor; in the B section, it is in the subdominant
key of F minor; and in the C section, it is in the dom
inant key of G minor.
In addition to the ostinato, the A section presents
an important melodic motive, a figure comprised of three
repeated tones followed by a broken chord (Example 2).
The broken chord is expanded from a tonic triad to a sev
enth chord:
Example 2: first theme
The melody is defined not only by its harmonic implica
tions, but by its important rhythmic inflection as well, a
syncopated pattern commonly used in blues and jazz.
Like many structures based on an ostinato, this piece
could be viewed as a series of free variations. Although
the phrases vary in length, each section is unified by the
ostinato and by fragments derived from the opening theme.
Barber's sophisticated treatment of the boogie-woogie
form is revealed in the harmonic and rhythmic elements.
4
Although the basic meter is , with eight even eighth-
notes in the accompanying left hand ostinato, several irreg
ular meter changes do occur: measures 9, 10, and 11 are
35 5 3 4
in 2i, 2' ^^ U Q'ters, respectively; and measure 21 is m 7
g meter. In addition to changing meters, several complex
rhythmic patterns occur: quarter-note triplets in the
right hand against even eighth-notes in the left hand
(measures 11, 25, 56, and 57, the entire closing section,
92 through 106) , and quintuplet broken chords in the tran
sition section (measure 53)•
Textural contrasts define each section. The A' and
A'' sections contain basically two-voiced textures, while
the B and C sections add full chords in the right hand.
The final A section (A''') presents a sharp textural con
trast to the other sections of the rondo, as the full
chords of the ri^t hand remain consistently broad, no
longer using the rapid sixteenth-note patterns.
Example 3- A'''
Although the harmonic relationships between each sec
tion are quite traditional (A=I, B=IV, C=V) , Barber uses
some novel harmonic procedures within the sections, e.g.,
the contrast of major and minor harmonies. While the
36
tonality of the A section is C minor. Barber often uses
El] (raised third) in the melody (measures 24 through 25;
54 through 57)- The technique of shifting modes is ex
ploited in the closing section. Beginning in measure 98,
and continuing until the coda (measure 107), each measure
alternates between tonic major and tonic minor harmonies.
The coda, based on the motive from the introduction (mea
sures 2 through 3), confirms the key of C minor by repeat
ing the opening figure six times.
Another element of Barber's harmonic vocabulary in
this piece is the emphasis of the tri-tone, as in measures
29 through 32, when the melodic figure is centered on GP,
accompanied by the ostinato built on C. Another example
of emphasis of the tri-tone occurs in measures 44 through
46: the right-hand pattern is based on a B seventh chord,
while the left-hand pattern is based on F. These passages
also hint at bitonality.
The use of quartal harmonies is another frequent har
monic device, appearing most often in transitional pas
sages, as in measures 19 through 20 and measure 53. By
reserving this device for transitional passages. Barber
avoids traditional harmonic modulations.
A related idea is the rather sophisticated device of
disguising the formal seams. While the tonal centers of
the left-hand ostinato passages remain clear as they shift
to different levels, the tonal centers of the melodic
37
phrases do not coincide with the harmonic shifts. An
example can be found between the A'' and C sections.
While the left-hand ostinato moves to a G tonal center in
measure 66, the melodic phrase does not modulate until the
end of measure 67.
A careful analysis of this piece reveals many signi
ficant aspects of Barber's style, foreshadowing changes
that become characteristic of his later works. While ob
serving the basic formal and harmonic plan of the boogie-
woogie style. Barber achieves a rather urbane and sophis
ticated form of expression through subtle rhythmic, har
monic and formal devices.
Rhythmic control is the performer's primary concern.
As a unifying device, the ostinato should be consistently
steady. Otherwise, the syncopations will be ineffective.
Another rhythmic problem is presented by the passages
containing three notes against four, as in measures 11
through 12, 25 and 56 through 57. In addition, the final
A section is based entirely on the three against four
pattern. By feeling two pulses per measure, instead of
four, these rhythmic complexities become easier to articu
late.
The tremolo chords in measures 44 and 50 present an
other technical problem. Loose, free wrist rotation will
give the performer both rhythmic and dynamic control.
Fast finger articulation is a further requirement for
38
the performer. The rapid scale passage (measure 23) and
the trill-like figures (measures 84 through 89) merit spec
ial attention.
Second Movement: In slow blues tempo
The second composition of the set is an elegant blues
piece. Divided into four sections, each one uses the basic
blues harmonic progression (I-I-IV-I-IV-IV-I-I-V-IV-I-I).
Once again Barber creates a stylized version of a popular
idiom, distinguished by subtle rhythmic and harmonic de
vices. While the traditional blues forra is based on twelve
measure sections, Barber's subtle use of irregular
phrasing results in sections of thirteen measures, except
for the third section, which adheres to the traditional
twelve-bar pattern.
Although the melodic structure of each section varies,
the accompanying bass figure provides a means of unifica
tion for the entire piece. The rhythmic pattern of the
accompaniment motive is a common blues figure:
Example 4: accompaniment motive
Wz^-^^Wnpi '^ijj
39
Another unifying device is the use of "blue" notes,
the name given to the lowered third and seventh degrees of
the scale. In this example, the blue notes are Bl>(Att) and
FH. Although Barber does not indicate a key signature, it
is obvious that the tonal center is G. By avoiding the F^
in the key signature, the lowered.seventh is established
as a constant pitch, while the use of the leading tone is
the exception.
An additional means of unification is the melodic
figure of a descending third. This motive is used to open
each of the four sections, although the context is changed
by rhythmic and textural variations.
Example 5- descending thirds
ill » >3 I [_3jj 1^'
While the overall form appears to be a sequence of
four sections, each based on a blues progression, a closer
examination reveals a more subtle structural design. The
first and third sections bear a strong relationship, re
vealed by the use of similar melodic and harmonic patterns.
40
(Compare measures 7 through 8 and measures 34; 10 and 36).
A close relationship also exists between the second and
fourth sections. An even eighth-note motive is used in
both of these sections, providing a contrast to the more
consistently used triplet division of the beat. (Compare
measures 19 and 20 with measures 44 and 45.)
Technically, this movement presents the fewest prob
lems. To avoid monotony, the performer should express
subtle color, dynamic and rhythmic nuances to create va
riety between the repetitious sections. The greatest dy
namic contrast should occur between the last two sections,
the third being the softest and most intimate while the
fourth is the fullest, with a slightly broader tempo being
appropriate.
Because a triplet division of the beat is established
as the norm, the performer should give special attention
to any deviations in the rhythmic patterns. Significant
changes include the even eighth-notes (i.e., measures 4,
9, 16) and dotted patterns (i.e., measures 7 and 9).
Third Movement: Allegretto
The third piece in this set, a theme and variations
form, is based on the cowboy song, "The Streets of Lare
do." Although the theme and eight variations are not sep-
41
arately marked in the score, the regular phrasing of each
section (4+4) makes the divisions quite obvious.
The binary theme in G^ major consists of a four-mea
sure antecedent and four-measure consequent phrase: 4(a)+
4(b). The harmonic progression is rather traditional,
following the same pattern as the original folk song, us
ing only I, vi, ii and V chords. Mostly tertian struc
tures appear, often colored by an added second.
While the melody, harmony and phrase structure are
completely traditional, the rhythmic structures are more
progressive, providing a great deal of interest and con
trast. A subtle rhythmic device appears in the presenta
tion of the theme aind recurs in all but the third and fifth
variations: the right hand is in septuplets, while the
left hand maintains even eighth-notes.
Example 6: theme
This subtle cross rhythm allows a more fluid and lyrical
expression of the theme.
Each variation maintains the phrasing of the theme
(4+4) , but binary structure is not used in variations
42
three, five- or seven. Instead, the a phrase is omitted,
and the b phrase is used twice.
While the melody is embellished, the variation tech
nique applies largely to rhythmic and textural elements.
Variation I repeats the opening four measures of the theme,
a, but the consequent phrase, b, is intensified by a synco
pated chordal figure in the right hand, accompanied by
quintuplet-eighths in the left hand. The second varia
tion also begins like the theme, but in a higher octave.
The second phrase is like the b phrase of variation I, but
the syncopated right hand figure is replaced by a contin
uous sixteenth-note pattern. As in most variation forms,
the theme gradually becomes more obscured, as is illus
trated by the third variation: the left hand reiterates
the quintuplet figure, but the theme above it uses dotted
and triplet rhythms. The fourth variation recalls the tex
ture of the theme in its opening phrase, but a new sonority
appears in the second phrase: the left hand presents the
melody in sixths, while the right hand presents a new six
teenth-note accompaniment figure. The left hand maintains
control of the theme in variation five, accompanied by an
ostinato arpeggiated figure in the right hand. The theme
is absent in the second phrase of the variation, although
the harmonic progression is preserved. After a dynamic
climax, the variation ends very quietly on a widely spaced
tonic chord. The brief moment of repose is quickly in-
43
terrupted by the forte opening of the sixth variatian.
The theme is treated broadly, with block chords in both
hands. While this variation displays the richest sonor
ity, rhythmic tension is avoided: both hands play the
exact same rhythms. Although the pattern is in septup
lets, the homorhythmic element gives this variation a
sense of great power and stability.
Gradually returning to the original character, the
seventh variation is reminiscent of the opening, although
the second phrase is in a higher octave. Like many var
iation movements, the last section (variation VIII or
coda) restates the theme, providing a means of balajice and
unity. The first phrase is a literal repetition of the
theme, while the last phrase is slightly modified. The
lower range and slower rhythmic pattern of the last two
measures provides a subdued concluding statement to end
the movement.
This movement poses the greatest number of technical
and rhythmic problems for the performer. While the theme
is easily identified as "The Streets of Laredo," rhythmic
complexities are apparent from the beginning of the piece.
V/ritten in duple meter, avoiding the original meter of the
tune (h), Barber further disguises the original rhythm by
setting the tune in a septuplet pattern, accompanied by
eight even eighth-notes. Thus, only the downbeats in each
hand coincide.
44
From this point of departure, the rhythmic complexi
ties increase until variation IV. The first variation adds
quintuplet eighth-notes in the accompaniment. In addition,
the melody is embellished by clusters, grouped in two-note
slurs and syncopated patterns. A light thumb and loose
wrist will help the performer control both the slurs and
syncopations.
The second variation retains the combined septuplet
and quintuplet patterns. The clusters are also preserved,
but the syncopations are filled in with repeated notes.
Once again, a light thumb and loose wrist are essential.
The rhythmic problems of the third variation are the
most complex patterns of the piece. The quintuplet accom
paniment is com.bined with the triplets and dotted figures
in the right hand. Additional technical problems include
rapid, repeated notes and cluster arpeggios. Execution of
the repeated notes requires changing finger patterns, while
the arpeggios require a very relaxed thumb and close hand
position.
The ostinato in the right hand of the fourth varia
tion is marked by octave displacement. By beginning the
pattern with the thumb, the octave leap will be easier to
control.
Projecting the tenor melody in variation V is the
performer's main concern. The embellishments surrounding
the melody should be very soft and articulated as staccato
45
as possible. As in the previous variation, the right hand
ostinato should begin with the thumb. The eighth rest in
measure 48 is extremely significant, being the first si
lence in the movement, and a slight broadening of the tem
po would be appropriate.
The full texture of variation VI provides a welcome
contrast. Although the chords are forte, the pianist
should voice the soprano melody, with perhaps less tone in
the inner voices. The last two variations return to the
simplistic character of the opening. As the coda repeats
the theme, a reflective mood is created, with a slightly
slower tempo being effective.
Fourth Movement: Allegro molto
An exuberant and joyous barn dance, capturing the
spirit of a country fiddler, functions as a finale to the
entire composition. The structural plan is a "frame form,
in v\tiich a short opening and closing section surround a
lengthy middle section. The resulting formal design is
A (13 measures) B (43 measures) A' (l4 measures).
The tonal center is F major throughout. Tonic and
subdominant chords, with added tones frequently used, are
the foundation of the harmonic plan.
Two motives are presented in the first A section:
46
1) a figure consisting of alternating tonic and subdom
inant chords, and 2) a figure based on a repeated six -
teenth-note pattern.
Example 7a: motive 1
^ E S
y <: \ •-zr
r^
I ^ ^ it
Example 7b: motive 2
These two motives are juxtaposed in each section, in a
lialog ae manner oi presentation. The first phrase begins
with motive 1 (measures 1 and 2) and is answered by motive
2 (measures 3 through 5). The second phrase repeats the
dialogue, although motive 1 is shorter and motive 2 is
extended.
Beginning in measure 10, a transition is heard.
Starting with a two-voiced texture, a tonic chord is used
for the entire phrase. The texture becomes thicker and a
GR is added to the harmony, building intensity for the
opening phrase of B.
47
The middle section (B) can be subdivided into four
parts: I = measures 14 through 23; II = measures 24
through 33; III = measures 34 through 40; IV = measures
4l through 48. An eight-measure phrase, beginning in mea
sure 49, functions as a transition preparing for the re
turn of A. In addition to the balance resulting from the
overall "frame form," the B section also exhibits formal
balamce: sections I and IV are almost identical. Further
unity is provided by the similar phrase structure of each
section, as motive 1 is consistently answered by motive 2.
Section I presents motive 1 in the left hand, accom
panied by soft, staccato chords in the right hand. Motive
2 answers the first phrase, with the melody now appearing
in the upper voice. A one-measure transition in measure
23 uses the added second tonic chord, as was found in the
first transition (measures 12 and 13).
The louder dynamic level and fuller texture of sec
tion II add an exhilarating element to the character. The
sforzando accents and use of major sevenths further en
hance the sense of growing excitement. Building to a for
tissimo level for the entry of the second motive, a climax
is achieved.
Section III sustains the exuberant character of the
previous phrase and the upper register is effectively used
to heighten the intensity. Motive 2 is now doubled in .-.
seconds, accompanied by sforzando syncopated chords in the
48
left hand. In measure 40, a transition to the fourth sec
tion begins. Adding variety to the rather limited harmonic
elements, AP and Ei> seventh chords are used. Both the
descending registers and lower dynamic level of the tran
sition are used to provide a release of tension.
In measure 4l, the fourth section begins, recalling
the opening phrases of B. The only change is the omission
of measure 17. A transition begins in measure 49, with
heavily accented tone clusters. Although the texture be-
com.es thinner and the dynamic level drops, a sense of in
tensity is sustained as the tempo becomes faster.
Section A, slightly modified, returns in measure 57-
The diatonic tonic and subdominant chords are embellished
by appoggiaturas built on chromatic quartal harmonies. Be
ginning in measure 59. however, a literal restatement of
A is heard. A tonic chord with an added sixth is used for
the closing section, beginning in measure 66. Decreasing
to a pianissimo level, the piece ends with an ascending
tonic ninth arpeggio.
The performance problems of the last movement are
relatively few. As a stylized dance form, the rhythms are
much simpler than the complex patterns found in the pre
vious movements. Technically, the piece demands a loose
wrist and controlled articulation for the majny repeated
notes and chords. The performer should carefully plan the
dynamic climax found in the middle of the B section. Be-
49
cause the fortissimo level is sustained for a relatively
long time, the addition of a gradually more staccato ar
ticulation could help the performer achieve not only more
variety, but also more intensity as the climax is ap
proached.
As Barber's sole example of stylized folk idioms. Ex
cursions occupies a unique position among his piano works.
While adherence to traditional forms is common in Barber's
music, the rather limited harmonic vocabulary is not com
monly found in the piano music. The rhythmic complexities,
however, do foreshadow the more mature style of the other
compositions for piano. Excursions. as a group of styl
ized movements seems to function as the stylized dance
suites of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Avoid
ing developmental procedures, like much music of the nine
teenth century, and focusing instead on motivic variation
and transformation, this work is an excellent example of
neo-Romantic music.
CHAPTER IV
PIANO SONATA
Majny critics have described Samuel Barber's Sonata
for Piano. Op. 26, as one of the outstanding contributions
to the twentieth-century keyboard repertoire. Shortly
after the Sonata's premiere in 1950, Nathan Broder stated:
"(Jhe Sonata] represents Barber's final emancipation from
the neo-Romantic traits that dominated his early composi
tions and is thus the culmination of a development that has
taken a decade to reach its goal." The dramatic change
in Barber's style is displayed in this particular composi
tion by a more complex texture, dissonant harmony, rhy
thmic innovations and his first use of twelve-tone serial
ism. John Gillespie has written: "Barber's Piano Sonata,
Opus 26... may well be the prime American sonata written 2
in the last three decades or so." Broder continued his
praise of the Sonata in his biography of Barber by saying,
"... the work is emotionally profounder than many of Bar
ber' s earlier pieces and technically farther advanced than
^ Nathan Broder, "Current Chronicle," The Musical Quarterly. XXXVI (195^0), 276.
^ John Gillespie, Five Centuries of Keyboard Music (Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 1965)i p. 415.
50
51
any of them. Its grand sweep, its largeness of utterance,
is reminiscent of Beethoven, and its intensity makes one
think of Bartok."- Perhaps the most unstinting praise is
found in an article by Hans Tischler:
It stands head and shoulders above any other sonata written by an American composer in the past thirty years, and is worthy of taking a place alongside the great works of its category by reason of its Beethovian concentration, seriousness and mastership. In its drama, too, and humour, in the tendency to develop motives rather than merely to repeat them, and in the propounding and solution of musical problems this sonata follows Beethoven's example.... The interesting and arresting thing about this work is the combination of thoughtfulness, masterly-economy, brilliance and naturalness, which elicits an appeal both immediate and lasting. The fusion of contemporary technique with that of the past three centuries — of twelve-note technique , contemporary harmonic materials, sonata-form, passacaglia and fugue -- this thoroughly satisfying fusion stamps Barber's giano Sonata. Op. 26, as a classic of our times.^
The value of this sonata lies not only in its own in
trinsic worth, which will be discussed in depth, but also
as a landmark in American piano music. Irving Berlin and
Richard Rodgers announced on September 23, 19^7. that
they had commissioned Samuel Barber to write a piano son
ata. This commission was to honor the twenty-fifth anni--
^ Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 69.
^ Hans Tischler, "Barber's Piano Sonata Op. 26," Mnslc and Letters. XXXIII (1952), 352,35^.
52
versary of the League of Composers in 1950.^ Two years
later, the piece was completed and first performed by 6 Vladimir Horowitz in Havana, Cuba on December 9, 1949.
In preparation for the first New York public performance,
Horowitz played the Sonata on January 4, 1950, for an in
vited audience in the Trustees Room of G. Schirmer, Inc.'
The first public performance in New York was given by
Horowitz at Carnegie Hall on January 23, 1950. Olin
Downes, critic for the New York Times, reviewed the pre
miere:
If he played unevenly, Vladimir Horowitz never played more prodigiously than he did at his recital last night in Carnegie Hall to an immense and excited audience, and further marking the occasion by a premiere: the first performance in New York of Samuel Barber's Piano Sonata in Ei> minor. This Sonata, between the quality of the performance and the quality of the music, had also a prodigious success.
It makes on initial acquaintance a very striking impression. Many pianists will now attempt its performance. Few can expect to approach the authority and imagination, the power and the delicacy on occasion, as also the rather incredible virtuosity which went into its performance yesterday evening. One would think indeed, that the Sonata had been conceived with Mr. Horowitz in mind , , .
^ "Sonata to Honor League," New York Times, September 24, 1947, p. 20.
^ Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 102.
" Russell E. Friedewald, "A formal and Stylistic Analysis of the Published Music of Samuel Barber," Diss. Iowa State University 1957, p. 133-
Olin Downes, "Horowitz Offers Barber's Sonata," New York Times. January 24, 1950, p. 27.
53
Horowitz repeated the Sonata on his next Carnegie Hall
recital (March 20, 1950). A capacity audience, including
150 persons onstage, filled Carnegie Hall for Horowitz's
second recital of the season.^ The Sonata was also in
cluded in Horowitz's tour for the season of 1950.
Reviewing the Sonata in Musical America, Robert Sa-
bin states:
... Other American piano sonatas may be more profound, intellectually consistent, and durable than this one, but none is more appealing. Mr. Barber's music is an excellent challenge to the die-hards who are perpetually complaining that contemporary piano music is unidiomatic, emotionally dry, and inexpressive.^0
Barber's Sonata became the first American piano piece of
major importance to be performed by a leading piano vir
tuoso: "Horowitz's programming of the Barber Sonata thus
means that American piano music has left the realm of the
esoteric and joined the arena of commercial public per
formances like any other music, a tremendous forward step
11 for American composition."
^ "Capacity Throng Hears Horowitz," New York Times. March 21, 1950, p. 33.
Robert Sabin, "Samuel Barber Composes Effective Sonata," Musical America. February 1950, p. 332.
11 Isadore Freed, "American Composition Committee Re
views," Music Clubs Magazine. December 1950, pp. 22-23.
54
The opening movement, in E* minor, is in traditional
sonata form. It is characterized by chromaticism, disso
nance, vigorous rhythms, contrapuntal texture and exten
sive development and transformation of a limited number of
motivic ideas. The second movement, in G major, is a
"light, elfin, sardonic scherzo, most of it lying in the
12 upper reaches of the piano." Although some critics feel
that the scherzo is too lightweight for its profound ;-.
neighboring movements, it provides the necessary emotion
al release from the dramatic first movement. Broder has
described the third movement as "the most tragic of all of 13 Barber's slow movement." ^ In Arlton Luther's work on
twentieth-century American piano sonatas, the Adagio is
14
compared to the "dirge-like baroque lament." This move
ment also displays Barber's first systematic use of twelve
tone writing. The finale is a brilliant fugue, in a jazz
like idiom. "This fugue, a tour de force of construction,
is enormously difficult [to play^ ; it ends the work in a
blaze of brilliance."
^^ Broder, "Current Chronicle," p. 276.
^^ Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 70.
Arlton Dean Luther, "American Piano Sonatas of the Twentieth Century: Selective Analyses and Annotated Inr dex," Diss. Columbia University I968, p. 280.
^^ Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 72.
55
First Movement: Allegro_energico
The well-defined fonnal outline of the opening move
ment reveals a traditional sonata form. Through textural,
tempo, and dynainic contrasts, the clearly marked sections
of the score result in the following conventional plan:
Exposition (1-50) First theme (1-8) Transition (9-22) Second theme group (23-31) Transition (32-34) Closing section (35-50)
Development (51-109) Recapitulation (110-148) Coda (149-167)
The tonal center is E* minor for the opening and
closing sections, although the chromatic harmonic and mel
odic materials occasionally disguise the key center. Some
use of twelve-tone writing occurs, but not as a struc
tured, systematic procedure. Although many harmonic ele
ments are drawn from a twentieth-century vocabulary, the
fact that a clear tonal center exists (Ei minor) is char
acteristic of Barber's traditional and conservative musical
idiom.
The opening theme contains an important motive which
becomes significant in the movement, both in its original
form and in several highly transformed presentations.
This opening figure (a), or germ, contains both the pro
minent interval of a descending half-step as well as the
dotted rhythmic figure which occurs throughout the move-
ment.
Example 1: germ (a)
P^^' <^'^- :. f /
56
- ^ .
The firs^ theme , built almost entirely of ascending
and descending whole and half-steps in dotted rhythms, em
ploys all twelve chromatic tones. Although highly chro
matic, the E^ tonal center is preserved. The opening sec
tion is a balanced 4+^ phrase and employs an important
oour.~ermielody in the lower register, often used in conjunc
tion with the opening theme:
Example 2: beginning of first theme
As the first theme builds to a climax in measure
tr.ree, the lower motive is transposed up a fourth. The
broadening of the rhythmic figure, from dotted notes to
even triplets in the fourth measure, gives a feeling of
repose before the consequent phrase begins.
In performance, the sixteenth notes need to be quite
57
short as they lead into the notes of longer duration,
which Barber often implies by marking the longer notes
with a tenuto. Although the change to triplets in measure
4 indicates a written-out ritard, additional broadening of
the triplet figure will help the listener psychologically
prepare for the beginning of the next phrase. The left
hand motive should also be clearly articulated, and by
voicing to the lower note of the octaves, a better con
trast and variety of tone color can be achieved between
the right hand and left hand figures.
Measures 5 through 8 function as a consequent phrase
of the opening theme. The important addition of the so
prano voice provides a new color and texture for the re
petition of the theme. The germ (a) is now heard in an
augmented version above the lower two figures. Because of
the widely spaced writing, the lower voices could easily
cover the soprano line. The perfonner should take care
that the upper voice is projected, by playing the lower
voices at a softer dynamic level. After another climax
in the third measure of this phrase (measure 7), the final
cadence of the first theme presents a new character, which
Barber indicates by marking dolce and rallentando.
The transition to the second theme begins in
measure 9. The melody is transferred to the left hand and
is a free inversion of the opening theme. The inverted
melody also uses all twelve tones, with the second half of
58
the phrase resembling the first half, but transposed up a
fourth. The accompanying triplets in the right hand also
use twelve-tone patterns: a series of quartal harmonies,
with each root being a minor third apart in an ascending
sequence of four chords per measure.
The transition reaches a climaix in measure l6,
achieved by a fortissimo dynamic level in the extreme re
gisters of the keyboard. The broader rhythm also contri
butes to the dramatic character of the phrase.
Following the climaix, a new triplet motive is intro
duced:
Example 3'- triplet motive
The intervalic expansion of this motive stretches from a
major sixth to a major seventh, ending on a minor ninth.
Because this figure occurs in a rapid tempo, the lower
notes should be articu3ated with a staccato thumb techni
que. The bass line, derived from the first theme, an
swers the triplet motive. The phrase is sequenced down a
fourth and ends on a B-natural pedal point, which is sus
tained for eight measures. Above the pedal, the soprano
line presents another twelve-tone figure that becomes
significant in the closing section and coda.
Example '4-: twelve-tone f igure
59
! ,
I t 1 t i i • I
I ' ' ' ' - —
h
As in the opening phrase of the transition, this
t-.velve tone pattern functions as a melodic gesture, rather
*:han a strict serial device. In performance, the long
held pedal on 5 must be struck -.vith enough support to sus
tain the tone, as it establishes the tonal center for the
second theme group.
The lyrical second theme, beginning in measure 23.
contrasts witn the aggressive firs', theme. Barber achieves
a tranquil a-m.ospnere, marked espressivo, by using a high
er register and softer dynamic level. Pitches of longer
duration in the melody are accompanied by triplet arpeg
gios in the lower voice. The flowing rhythm of the accom
paniment further enhances the peaceful character of the
second them.e .
Example 5- second theme
60
The performer should carefully project the melody,
keeping the arpeggios quite soft. While the triplet rhythm
of the accompaniment should be played evenly, a slight
broadening of the sixteenth note in the melody would be
appropriate.
The interval of a fourth is emphasized in the second
theme, contrasting with the predominant half-steps of the
opening theme. The accompaniment, however, uses mostly
major thirds to form arpeggiated augmented triads.
Beginning in measure 25, the melody is heard in trip
let quarter notes, followed in measure 27 by a diminution
of the same material. Under the diminution, the bass re
peats the second theme in its original form, answered in the
soprano by a rhythmic and melodic transformation of the
theme. Built in fourths, the derived motive, B-'-, becomes
the basis for a section of the closing, development, and
coda.
Example 6: B
61
B , first heard in the soprano, is answered in
the bass, a fourth lower. A second question-answer presen
tation of the motive leads to a repeat of the original
second theme. Because of a lack of chromaticism, in B ,
doublings in thirds and sixths in the right hand, as well
as the temporary C minor tonal center, a relaxed mood is
created.
A transition to the closing section begins in measure
32, the left hand pattern being a repetition of the material
in measure 31 • as it accompanies the light figuration of
the right hand. A free inversion of this material is heard
in the following measure. The third measure of the transi
tion begins to build tension. The bass is a pedal point
on B; the tenor is an ascending chromatic scale; the
soprano is a descending four-note chromatic scale, followed
by an ascending chromatic scale; the alto, moving twice as
fast as the other voices, moves in contrary motion to the
soprano. The ascending line in the tenor is the most im-
portaint voice, and the performer should be sure that this
line is heard above the accompanying contrapuntal voices.
Arriving on a minor ninth (measure 35) "the closing
section begins. A new motive is presented in the bass, a
four-note repeated figure, and will be used again in the
development and coda.
62
Figure 7: repeated-note motive
The germ is now heard, in different registers, as well as
the twelve-tone motive from the end of the transition. The
second theme interrupts the rhythmic drive (measure 37) but
is overpowered by the repeated-note figure. A descending
sequential pattern, presented as a canon between the hands,
leads to the climax of the closing. The repeated-note fig
ure is heard sforzando in the lower register of the key
board, answered by the germ in the middle register. In
measure 43, the germ is replaced by the triplet figure.
The technical problems of this section arise from the ac
curate articulation of the four-note figure. The first
note must always be heavily accented, requiring a loose,
but heavy wrist motion.
The end of the closing begins subito piano in measure
45. A momentary return of C minor and B is suddenly re
placed by a return of the repeated-note figure and the germ.
A carefully written-out ritard in measure 50 gradually re
duces the four-note figure to three notes, two notes, and
finally only one note. The performer should observe a
strict tempo, as the ritard is precisely notated in the
c 63
rhythmic augmentation of measure 50.
The first section of the development begins pianis
simo and misterioso in measure 51. The first two measures
recall the opening of the exposition, modified by the use
of higher registers for the contrapuntal accompaniment.
Beginning in measure 53, a two-voiced canon is heard, based
on an extension of the germ. A third and fourth voice are
eventually added, all occurring above a B-natural pedal.
Extremely controlled playing is required as the phrase is
marked senza crescendo. A diminuendo in the upper voices
would probably help sustain the pedal point. (As the sound
of the pedal diminishes, so should the sound of the moving
voices.)
A crescendo and descent to A*' in the bass mark the
beginning of the climax. The canon in measure 60 displays
expert contrapuntal writing: each voice is doubled by its
mirror inversion.
Example 8: double canon (mirror inversion)
64
The end of the canon leads to the climax, beginning
in the highest register, using the second half of the first
theme. After a descending sequence, covering almost three
octaves, an espressivo entry of the first theme is heard in
the tenor in measure 66. A repetition of the espressivo
phrase occurs in measure 71, but it is now accompanied by
the repeated-note figure. Another canon,in an ascending
sequence, prepares for the second section of the develop
ment .
The second section, un poco meno mosso. begins in C
minor (measure 75)• The repeated-note figure in the bass
accompanies B in the soprajio. The second phrase (mea -
sure 80), becoming more intense, presents the same material
in invertible counterpoint: the melody is in the bass and
the accompsiniment in the treble. As the tension mounts, B
is doubled in octaves (measures 84 and 85) • A stringendo
(measures 86 through 87) leads to the final section of the
development.
Establishing an ostinato in a two-measure introduc
tion, the third section, functioning as a preparation for
the recapitulation, presents a complete transformation of
B in measure 93.
65
Example 9'• transformation of B"
This motive should be played with a very sharp articulation,
sim.ilar in color to a xylopr.one. Beginning in measure 98,
the phrase is repeated, presenting the motive an oc
tave higher. The most dramatic climax of the movement
starts in measure 102. Beginning in soft octaves in the
bass, oscillating between E l> and l-P , a crescendo molto and
Iriving rhythmic pattern builds to a fortissimo cadence on
a tonic ^^ chord, with an added tritone (AH) and added sixth
The performer should carefully prepare for this crescendo,
savins the largest possible sound for the climactic cadence.
The recapitulation (measure 110) opens with a power
ful, almost heroic, return of the first theme. Influenced
by the development, the texture is very dense. Extreme re
gisters of the keyboard are used, allowing a maximum con
trast of timbre between the theme and contrapuntal bass
line. The climax of this section is enhanced by the addi
tion of a low 2b pedal point in the final two measures of
the phrase (measures II6 and 117)•
66
The transition is only sightly modified, measures 14
through 15 being omitted, and the new key center of Dn is
prepared exactly as the BH center was prepared in the expo
sition. The second theme is unchanged from its first pre
sentation, measures 129 through 140 being identical to
measures 123 through 134. The first three measures of the
closing section are omitted, as are measures 45 through 46.
The last measure of the closing (measure l48) is a compres
sion of measures 49 and 50.
The coda (measures l49 through I67) begins in a tran
quil character, much like the middle section of the devel
opment, over an E* pedal that is maintained throughout the
entire section. In contrast to the development section,
however, the first section of the coda maintains the ex
pressive lyrical character of the second theme. The even
eighth-notes at the end of the first section (measure 158)
avoid any hint of tension.
The second section of the coda (measure 159) uses
most of the motives previously heard in the movement. A
bass ostinato, an E* minor ninth and an ?^ major seventh,
is repeated in the first three phrases. The steady quarter
note rhythm of the ostinato is maintained until the final
three measures of the coda. 1
Above the ostinato,,the repeated-note figure and B
are heard. • The pattern is repeated in the following mea
sure, but the repeated-note figure is omitted and the six-
67
teenth-note rhythm is broadened into triplet eighth notes.
The second phrase uses the expanding triplet figure,
repeated four times in descending registers and falling
dynamic levels. The third phrase is similar to the second,
except that the twelve-tone motive replaces the triplet
figure, alternating between a row beginning on BH and a row
beginning on F".
A slight change in the ostinato occurs in measure
l64: the E ^ minor ninth becomes DH diminished tenth.
Above this modified pattern, the germ returns and the in
tensity begins to grow. The ostinato closes on a sustained
E* quintal harmony, and the final two measures of the first
theme return, leading to the concluding repetitions of the
germ. In the right hand, the germ reaffirms the dominant,
while the left hand germ reaffirms the tonic. A final pre
sentation of the germ on a low E ^ ends the -movement with a
return to the powerful character of the opening.
Second Movement: Allegro vivace ^ leggero
The second movement, "a light, elfin, sardonic scher-
1 f>
zo,' releases the tension of the first movement. Characterized by its high range, diatonic harmony and repeti-
16 Broder, "Current Chronicle," p. 276.
68
tive structure, this movement is an extreme contrast to the
rest of the sonata. Written in G major, the scherzo struc
ture is defined as:
A (1-30) G Major Transition (31-46) B (47-70) C Major Transition (71-80) A (31-102) :- Major C (103-113) Bb Major Transition (114-125) A (126-155) Ab Major->G Major Toda (156-165) G Major
The first theme begins with a repeated four-measure
phrase (a), constructed of a one-measure motive, repeated
three times and extended on the last repetition.
Example 10: first motive (a)
Allefifro vivace e legg^ero •• • ir,- r
V
^ ^
5ra*i p Irgu^'Tisshno
P » V » » ^ ^Zx^
Although the implied harmony is a tonic chord, it shifts
quality from major to minor in the melodic outline (B'l-A /
3b). The fourths that occur in the melody are contrasted
with the tritones in the accompaniment. Because most of
the chromatic tones occur on weak beats, a light character
is preserved, concluding with a G major descending arpeggio
in the fourth measure.
69
Following a softer repetition of the opening phrase,
a new motive (b) appears, outlining the root and third of a
G major triad. Shifting to a minor quality, the motive
ends on a lowered third (B^).
Example 11: second motive (b)
jJllriM I j ~ * i ^
The three-measure phrase is sequenced down a half step,
leading to a return of the first motive. The left hand
presents a broken chord accompaniment, emphasizing a pedal
tone on C, rising to a C** in the last measure.
The opening theme returns unchanged, but the repeated
phrase is an octave lower. A climax is achieved in mea
sure 24, as the phrase is extended by repeating the third
measure in successively higher octaves. In measures 21
through 23, the tonic accents produce a triple division of
the measure, conflicting with the n meter of the opening.
A modified return of a begins in measure 26. En
hanced by octave displacement and a lower register, the
phrase closes with a hemiola (implying « meter) ending on
B " pedal.
Example 12: modified a
M *A* '^-^
70
^
1 f V b f Example 13: reduction of Example 12
* t . ^m The dissonant whole and half steps in the right hand pro
vide a new color and texture.
A transition using b begins in measure 31 above
the low Bb pedal. Presented as a canon, the left hand
enters a fifth lower and three beats after the right hand.
A bitonal effect is achieved as the right hand outlines F
major, F minor and E minor chords above the left hand Bb
major, Bb minor and A minor chords. The motive is com
pressed in measure 38 as the right hand implies a Dff minor
chord. Block chords in the left hand add to the rising 4
climax, which occurs as a cross rhythm of g is achieved
(measures 4l through 42). The transition ends with a four-
measure phrase: a one-measure pattern, sequenced four
times, rising by fourths. The right hand uses ascending
71
minor seventh arpeggios, while the left hand answers with
descending major thirds.
The second section of the scherzo (B) begins as an
elegant, but humorous waltz in measure 47.
Example l4: opening of B section
The tonal center is C major, a subdominant relationship to
the tonic key. The changing meter of the accompanying
waltz bass, as well as the subtle contrasts of slurs and
staccatos, add to the humorous, character of this section.
The melody, in a very high register, is derived from the b
motive. The C pedal in the bass unifies the first nine-
measure phrase, although the harmonies change in each mea
sure.
A modified repetition of the waltz melody begins in
measure 56, now above an F pedal. Bitonality occurs as the
melody outlines a C major chord above the F harmony of the
ace ompaniment.
A third presentation of the waltz begins in measure
65, but is compressed to only two measures. The high re
gister, C pedal; and fuller dynamic level of the theme are
72
contrasted by the answering phrase in measure 67, much
softer, lower ranged and hovering above an F pedal. The
same question-answer structure is repeated in measure 69,
now compressed to only one measure.
A sudden forte C major chord begins the transition in
measure 71. The b motive is once again presented as a
canon, similar to the first transition, but the interval
between the entries is now a tritone, C major answered by
F8 major. A metrical change from jj to g, and a diminuendo
prepare for the return of the A section. The canonic en
tries become gradually closer, moving from a half-note, to
a dotted quarter, and finally to an eighth-note apart.
The return of A (measure 81) is identical to the
opening presentation for the first two phrases. Beginning
with the third phrase (measure 95). a countermelody is
added in the left hand. A repetition of this phrase ca
dences on G minor, the relative minor of B^ major, which is
the tonality established for the C section.
A new melody is presented at the opening of C (mea
sure 103) •'
Example 15: opening of the C section
bi
^fPf'y^rffP
73
Characterized by octave displacement, this theme consists
of two phrases, each being 3+3. The melody is harmonized
for two measures by a dominant seventh arpeggio in the left
hand, resolving to a tonic Bb chord in the third measure.
Beginning in measure 109, the second phrase is derived from
the first phrase of C. The left hand, however, now has the
melody.
Example l6: left hand presentation of C
The left hand melody avoids the octave displacements of the 4
first phrase and modulates to B major.. Cross rhythms of g
in the right hand, against a g meter in the left, enliven
the en-tire phrase.
A transition begins in measure 114, much like the
first two transitions, presenting canonic treatment of the
b motive. Beginning in B major, a half-step higher than
the transition at measure 31» it consequently cadences a
half-step higher than before, on Ab instead of G.
The final return of A, (measure 126). begins in the
"wrong" key of A ^ , modified by a thicker texture as well.
The first fourteen measures of A preserve a new tonality,
but a sudden return to G major in measure l4o reconfirms
the tonic key. The last phrase of the A section (measures
74
151 through 155) is a minor third lower than its initial
presentation, so that it can resolve on G, rather than on L
B'' as in measure 31.
The coda (measures 156 through I65) begins like the
transitions, as a canon of the b motive between the hands.
The right hand outlines a G major ninth above the C5 ninth
in the left hand, all occurring above a low G pedal, which
must be supported by use of the sostenuto pedal. The dis
tance between the canonic entries is compressed so that the
passage is now in contrary motion. Becoming increasingly
faster and softer, the arpeggiated figure vanishes at the
top of the keyboard, cadencing on a G major triad.
The performance problems of this piece are largely
concerned with the rhythmic interpretation. Strict obser
vance of the double stemmed notes of the opening theme
should be maintained so that the g meter is established.
Beginning in measure 21, the performer must make a choice
in metrical interpretation. Since the double stems are no
longer present, a ^ interpretation might be preferable.
Another rhythmic problem occurs in measure 29- The
implied meter is p* ^^ suggested by the tonic accents of
the lower voice, although no change of meter appears in 3
the score. While the quarter notes hint at ^ meter, the
tonic accents in the left hand on EH , DH and ctj establish
^ meter.
The rhythm in measure 43 is also ambiguous. An
75 3 implied ^ meter would help to prepare the entrance of the
waltz, but a sudden shift of g (measure 43 to 46) to ^ in
measure 4? could be more effective.
At the final return of A (measure 126), still another
rhythmic ambiguity occurs. In measure 128, a } meter is
once again implied. The double stems, which so clearly de
fined the rhythm of the opening phrase, are omitted, and
either a duple or triple division of the measure is pos
sible. Because all six eighth notes are connected by a
single beam, however, ^ meter might be preferable.
Since this movement is so repetitive, the performer
should emphasize the dynamic and articulation changes. Al
though the dynamic range is rather limited, all levels
should be proportionate. Legato and staccato touches need
to be quite distinct, particularly when heard simultaneous
ly as in measure 4l. A light character should be maintained,
and v^ile dynamics and articulations should be strictly
observed, the music should never sound "fussy," always
remaining within the confines of good taste.
Third Movement: Adagio mesto
The sense of grief and tragedy expressed in the third
movement-, starkly contrasts the wit and sparkle of the pre
vious movement. The somber mood is relentless, with any
76
hint of relief being avoided. The form is ABA', diagram
med as follows:
Introduction (1-2) A (3-10) B (11-27) A' (28-33) Codetta (34-39)
Although several motives in the first movement em
ployed all twelve chromatic tones, this movement is Bar
ber's first experiment with systematic twelve-tone writing.
The row, however, is used only for accompaniment patterns
and a B minor mode is implied. By using the row only as
harmonic background. Barber departs radically from the se
rial techniques of Schoenberg. Further departures from
strict twelve-tone writing include the use of a tonal cen
ter, as well as the avoidance of dissonant intervals in the
row: minor sixths and perfect fourths and fifths are used
exclusively. Barber's approach to twelve-tone composition
seems to parallel the more romantic approach of Berg, as
opposed to the more classical approach of Webern.
The row is divided into two segments, the second seg
ment functioning as a consequent phrase to the initial an
tecedent phrase. The contour of both segments is similar:
the first presents two minor sixths and a perfect fifth,
while the second presents two minor sixths and a perfect
fourth. The row could also be analyzed as a series of
ascending and descending augmented triads.
77
xample 17: twelve-tone row
^ = = 1
^ . ^
-J-^
1
^ ^
' ^ ^ ^
- ^ -
1 I V-
7 « '
— J * * ^ «^ % -*
10 Ii I:L
-[-#—-
As an introduction, tne row first appears as a series
of dyads, with the minor sixths played by the left hand and
the fourth and fiitr. played ty tr.e right hand.
Example 18: introduction
>*.
•Jf«-3=^-:?:Er=^-
The rov; is next heard as an arpeggiated accompaniment
cattern, as the right hand presents the melody in measure
•xample 19= opening melody
.V
rm — m M « '-'--f#ii.v"i;
78
Beginning on a long-held B " , the melody slowly un
folds in a fluid rhythm, contrasting with the steady eighth.
note accompaniment. The range is narrow and the melody is
characterized by a smooth contour, in mostly conjunct mo
tion. Appoggiaturas of descending half steps, reminiscent
of a Baroque sigh, are emphasized. The melodic phrase
structure is additive, with each phrase cadencing on a des
cending half step. The first phrase ends in measure 4 with
the Cb-Bb cadence; the second phrase ends in measure 5 on
a B-A^ cadence; the third phrase ends in measure 6, on a
A-Gff cadence.
A new row appears in the accompaniment in measure 5.
Barber's use of two rows in a single movement is another
departure from Schoenberg's principles. This row can be
analyzed as a series of three diminished seventh chords,
implied by the changes of pedal marked in the score.
Example 20: second twelve-tone row
Et=E- m
A closing section, repeating the first measure of the
melody above an AB octave pedal in the bass begins in mea
sure 7- The motive introduced at the end of measure 7 is
also used to close the B section.
79
The texture of the closing section becomes thicker as
a result of the bass pedal. It is further modified by the
register of the melody: the tenor now has the melody
while the accompaniment is shifted to the soprano register.
The melody returns to the soprano in measure 9. but it is
lowered a step, as is the bass pedal. The closing triplet
motive is repeated three times and functions as a transi
tion to the B section.
Example 21: closing motive
The B section returns to the dyadic treatment of the
row, as used in the introduction, and opens with the iden
tical material heard in measure 1.
A derived motive appears in the alto in measure 12.
Example 22: derived motive
80
lfS'^i^«[;i.^'ip cresc.
'>-\\.. ' f ^ ^ ^ . ^ -
The following measure doubles the derived motive, and in
measure l4, the new motive appears in the bass, accompanied
in the right hand by the diminished seventh row, (Example
20).
Transposed up a half-step, the original row returns
in measure 15. A new melody above it bears a strong re
semblance to the opening theme, although the note values
are shorter and the dynamic level is louder. The melody
is sequenced up a third in the following measure. Measure
17 is a diminution of measures 13 through 14, transposed Up
a half-step.
The next two measures (18 and 19) are a repetition of
measures 13 and 15, but the material is transposed up a
fourth in measure 18 and up a third in measure 19.
The climax of the movement begins in measure 20. The
transposition of the row up a fourth, as stated in measure
18, is used for this intensely dramatic section (measures
20 through 23). The dyads have become full triads, form-
81
ing the following harmonic sequence (measure 20): C ma
jor - G#* minor - E minor - F augmented - D minor - FH ma
jor. This harmonic progression is repeated intact in each
of the following four measures, except for the final chord
which changes to FR minor (measure 21), D? minor (measure
22) and FJ^ major minor seventh (measure 23). The last
change (FR ) effects a dominant' preparation for the re
turn of the row at its original pitch of B natural.
The textural changes, wider range and fortissimo
dynamic level create a tragic character of immense inten
sity, climaxing with the return of the original row in
measure 24. The melody in measures 20 and 22 is an em
bellished version of the derived motive first heard in
measure 12, beginning on a C in measure 20 and an F in
measure 22. The opening melody of A returns in measures
21 and 23, appearing first in the low register beginning
on B, but transposed up a fifth and in an extremely high
register in measure 23. The quintuplet octave figures in
this section further add to the restless anguish. The
dense texture and extreme ranges between the hands are
combined with the rhythmic agitation to build a powerful
preparation for the return of the first row.
Beginning with a tripled pedal point on the three
lowest Bs of the keyboard, the row returns at the top of
the keyboard in its dyad form. Starting from the highest
register, the row sweeps to the bottom of the keyboard
82
through four repetitions. At the end of this suspenseful
phrase, the pedal point drops to J , functioning as a
leading tone preparation for the return of A.
Previously heard motives reappear in measures 26
through 27, serving as a preparation for A. The impor
tant cadential figure of a descending half-step is heard
first, doubled in octaves, and harmonized by an A minor
chord. Acting as a disruptive element, the melody from
measure 15 appears in the upper range, combined with the
closing motive from measure 7 in the middle register.
Example 23: preparation for return of A
2 1 4
i h i* "! W V. 7 7 J ^ ^ ^ ^
The phrase is stated twice in measure 26, at a full
dynamic level. In the following measure, however, the
texture is thinner, the register is lower and the dynamic
level is growing softer. The cadential half step is also
83
lowered, and the melodic figure from B is transposed down
a fourth.
The subsiding energy level carefully prepares for
the more intimate character of the returning A section.
In the return of A, the melody is similar to its
first presentation, but an added free canonic voice in
the alto maintains a bit of the agitation that occurred in
the intense middle section. Although the intervals and
direction of the canonic voice are freely derived from the
soprano melody, the rhythmic patterns are quite similar.
The accompaniment returns unchanged until measure 32,
where it is slightly embellished.
The final six bars are a codetta, heard above a low
tonic pedal (B). The right hand accompanies a tenor mel
ody with the dyad form of the row. A sequential treat
ment of a motive derived from the first melody descends
by fourths, finally resting on B. The decreasing dynamic
level and dark registers create a most somber atmosphere
for the final B minor chord.
Because of the extremely slow tempo, technical prob
lems are easier to solve. An exception is the climax of
the middle section with its rapid changes of register.
Interpretively, however, the music is quite demanding.
The long, flowing melodies of the opening section should
be perceived as vocal lines, avoiding any hint of the per
cussive qualities of the piano.
84
The performer should listen carefully as the tone of
the long-held pitches disintegrates. Matching the dynamic
level of the dying tone with the beginning of the next
pitch will eliminate disruptive accents in the melodic
flow. Subtle rhythmic nuances should be expressed, es
pecially for the descending half-step cadences, important
leaps in the basically conjunct line, and for the convinc
ing execution of phrase endings.
The prolonged crescendo of the middle section re
quires careful control, allowing the real climax to be de
layed until measure 24. The release of intensity should
be just as gradual, creating the appropriate atmosphere
for the reprise of the opening material. The codetta
should also produce a gradual release of intensity until
the final chord is reached, and must therefore begin at a
full enough level to permit the final notes to be audible.
Fourth Movement: Fuga. Allegro con spirito
The final movement is a four-voiced fugue, unifying
the sonata by its return to E* minor. While traditional
sections of expositions and episodes are presented, the
overall form of the fugue is an arch design:
85
su
A (1-22) B (23-33) Transition (34-36) Development (37-50) Transition (51-54) C (55-63) Development (64-7?) 3 (•:'8-87) Transition (88-89) A (90-106) Coda (107-146)
The fugue is thoroughly contemporary and it may be:
... the most successful fugue of our generation for this reason, for, while such excellent fugues as those in Hindemith's 'Ludus tonalis' and in Bloch's Second String Quartet are contemporary with respect to harmonic and melodic materials^ their overall formulation remains baroque.^
The rhythmic and melodic characteristics of the fugue
bject display a strong jazz influence: a series of
strong syncopations in a fast, sixteenth-note rhythmic
pattern and the emphasis on the broken ninth chord.
Example 24: fugue subject
^^ Tischler, p. 35^.
86
The unusually long subject can be divided into two
segments. Measure 1 is the first segment, a, an ascend
ing and descending tonic ninth chord, with an added fourth
while measures 2 and 3 comprise the second segment, b,
a descending sequence of ninth chords, modulating to the L
dominant, B .
The countersubject, measures 4 through 6, is similar
to b in its sequential arrangement and obvious jazz in
fluence. Also, the surprising ending of the countersub
ject, a group of four ascending steps marked forte and
staccato, is derived from the first four notes of b.
Example 25: countersubject
r', r . r »N t* " -.—••-
i ^
/
The entire fugue is based on the subject and counter-
subject. The reshaping of these motives in new contexts
gives the fugue great unity and drama.
The A section opens with a complete four-voiced ex
position. The subject is first stated in the alto voice
and is answered in the bass with a tonal answer, begin
ning on the dominant (fib) and modulating to the tonic (E* )
87
18 in measure 6. Accompanying the bass entry, the alto
presents the countersubject beginning in measure 4. A
third entry of the subject appears in the soprano in the
tonic key. The increasing energy is achieved by the
doubled countersubject and more complex harmonies (mea
sure 7). Intensity continues to grow in the fourth state
ment , again a tonal answer beginning on the dominant in
the tenor voice. The countersubject is divided between
high and low registers in rapid alternation, requiring a
fast cross-hand technique.
Following the completion of the opening exposition,
the high level of intensity is immediately released in
the first episode. Built on the opening motive of the
countersubject, the episode begins as a canon. Starting
on an E'^ in the left hand, the imitative upper voice en
ters a beat later, a tritone higher. The left hand, is
sequenced up a step, but the upper voice sequence inverts
the countersubject. A higher third voice is added, and
the pattern is now sequenced four times, descending a
third for each sequence. This passage, being so limited
in contour and lacking in dynamic contrasts, creates a
sense of expectation for the return of the more distinc
tively shaped subject.
The subject entry in the bass voice is a "tonal" answer because the ascending fifth between a and b in the original statement is modified to a fourth m the tonal answer, to allow a tonic E- cadence in measure 6.
88
The expectation is fulfilled by a forte entrance of
the subject in F minor at the end of measure l6. Above
the subject, the countersubject is used in staccato thirds
A rearrangement of b obscures the original contour of the
subj ect.
The answer, in the dominant key of C minor, is heard
in the soprano, with a stretto entry in the alto following
a beat later. A bitonal cadence closes the section with
the upper voice ending on F minor while the lower voice
closes on Db . The cadence on u^ occurs on the staccato
closing motive of the countersubject, further emphasized
by the use of octave displacement (measure 22).
Example 26: final cadence of A
>-,-f - i • _—• ' w * '
P I ' B
A new section, B, begins in measure 23 with a series
of partial entries in the bass. The first half of the
subject is used for the three partial entries, which be
gin in chromatically descending tones {D^, C, C^^). An
inversion of the countersubject begins in the alto, but
is soon combined with the original countersubject in the
soprano.
89
The tension created by these incomplete entries is
increased by a stretto presentation of the subject, be
ginning in Ab minor in the soprano and imitated a beat
later on Fb in the bass. A complex presentation of the
countersubject follows the stretto (measure 27). All four
voices participate: the soprano preserves the original
shape of the countersubject while the other three voices
are inverted. In addition, the bass is augmented.
Example 27: countersubject in all four voices
The restless motion of the phrase is halted by a
return of the subject in Ab minor, but the rhythm of the
subject is modified by the use of interruptive sixteenth
rests. The countersubject continues in sixteenth notes in
the tenor, while the bass presents a double augmentation
of the countersubject.
90
Example 28: bass augmentation of countersubject
The descending broken chord motive of the subject
appears in the soprano, in its original rhythm, while the
left hand presents fragments of the countersubject in
rapidly changing registers. The entire pattern is then
sequenced down a step (measure 32).
The section climajces with the bass octave entry of
the subject in Bb minor in triple augmentation, cadencing
on a low A. Sustained in the lowest register, the low A
is followed by a descending passage in the highest regis
ter, based again on the descending broken chord from the
first segment of the subject. Doubled at the fifteenth,
the descending arpeggios function as a transition to the
first development section.
The development begins quietly over a three-measure
F pedal, which finally drops to E in measure 4o, confirm
ing the new mode of E Phrygian. The low E is maintained
throughout the entire section.
While a soft dynamic level is sustained for the open
ing three measures of the development, rising sequential
91
presentations of b inevitably raise the level of inten
sity.
Augmented entries of a begin in measure 40, accom
panied by the tonic bass pedal and statements of b in the
soprano
Example 29s subject in augmentation (tenor)
The espressivo presentation of the subject is answered in
the soprano by an inverted version of a (measure 42) .
Tension is created by the subject in the tenor (mea
sure 44), also inverted sind augmented, but it is now
doubled in octaves and marked marcato. In addition, the
subject is fragmented to only five notes and is sequenced
up a fifth. The tension climajces on a dissonant doubled
second (E-F) in measure 46, answered by chromatic frag
ments of the countersubject.
Returning to E Phrygian, b is presented in bass oc
taves in its original rhythm, accompanied by sustained
seventh chords in the soprano. A powerful climax is
reached in measure 50» as the hands exchange parts. The
92
low 2 pedal is reinforced and an E minor cadence is final
ly achieved in measure 51. A descending five-note pattern
leads to a transition and a return of the countersubject
above a C pedal. After three measures, the transition
modulates to the bright key of 2 major.
The :niddle section (C) contrasts dramatically with
the previous material. A scherzando character, complete
ly free of tension, is achieved by the playful melodic
presentation of the countersubject, accompanied by a
tonic major harmony {Z niajor) .
In the opening phrase, the accompaniment is an aug
mentation and inversion of the countersubject.
Example 30: opening of Z
scht'rzando ma n frmvo
7 ±.
-^ .* n \
T ^
Although this phrase exhibits complex contrapuntal pro
cedures, the scherzando character is never overpowered by
compositional techniques.
• Vhile this section begins quietly, energy is in
creased as the melody begins on successively higher
pitches in each of the three phrases. In addition, the
texture becomes thicker. The first phrase consists of
93
two repeated segments, the second being extended by a
longer cadential figure. Beginning on the third scale de
gree of E major, an occasional A8 in the melody implies a
Lydian mode. The second phrase, exactly like the extend
ed repetition of the first phrase, is a third higher and
begins on the dominant (B). Further interest is provided
by a csinonic alto voice. The third phrase, again like the
extended first phrase, is the most energetic presentation
of the melody. A fourth higher than the second phrase, it
begins on the tonic note, E. The canonic voice is still
present in the alto, but it is now inverted.
The energy level is abruptly dropped by a subito ca
dence to the deceptive chord, C major. The sudden change
of key marks the beginning of the second development sec
tion. Canonic entries, over a C major pedal in the bass,
employ the opening motive of the subject. The imitative
alto line, after presenting an augmentation of the first
part of a, follows with fragments of the countersubject.
The staccatos, thin texture and soft dynamic level create
the giocoso character, in spite of the rapidly changing
harmonic outlines in the soprano.
The b motive of the subject is the foundation for the
next three phrases. The first phrase, in E Phrygian,
doubles the soprano melody in fourths (measure 66). Sus
tained chords in the left hand provide a simple harmonic
background. The phrase is repeated, adding a mirror in-
94
version in the left hand.
The third phrase, marked espressivo in the tenor,
presents a four-note fragment of b. A new, darker color
in the melody is accompanied by an arabesque figure in the
right hand using motive a.
After cadencing on a C major chord (measure 71)f a
is heard in the lower voices in quadruple augmentation.
Stretto entries, two beats apart, create restless tension.
The right hand accompanies with rapid figuration derived
from a. In measure 75i the phrase of augmented stretto
entries is repeated, but the parts are now reversed, the
soprano presenting the stretto entries while the left hand
accompanies with the rapid figuration.
The material heard in B (measures 23 through 33) re
turns in measure 78, with slight modifications. Tension
is much greater in this return, achieved by poignant oc
tave doublings in the soprano. The climax of the section
begins with the B minor bass octave return of the subject
(measure 86). The motive is heard in quadruple augmenta
tion in the bass, slightly broader than the triple aug
mentation of the first presentation (measure 33). Rhyth
mic complexities in the upper voice add to the rising in
tensity as a sequence of rising quintuplet and triplet
patterns leads to the return of A with a climax on a
tripled B^ pedal in the lowest registers.
The dramatic return of A is introduced by the
95
countersubject. Thick chords in the upper register, es-
tablishing E'' minor, are derived from the first five notes
of the countersubject. Repeated an octave lower, the pat
tern is then shortened to four notes, descending three
registers and ending again on the dominant Bb pedal.
Finally, the subject returns in a stretto presentation.
After the bass tonic entry, the answer, also beginning on
the tonic, is heard a beat later in the soprano. The
third entry, beginning on a raised fourth, is heard in the
alto, and the fourth entry begins on the sixth scale de
gree (cb) in the tenor. The stretto entries are inter
rupted by a dissonant pedal on cb and B* . Above this in
tense bass pedal, a canon begins in the highest registers.
The b motive begins in the upper voice on an E ^ and is
imitated in the lower voice a beat later, an octave lower.
Repeated an octave lower, the canon is heard once again.
Beginning in measure 92, the cb pedal disappears, leaving L
only the dominant pedal (B^).
Continuing above the dominant pedal, the counter-
subject reappears (measure 95)- The tension is ever-
increasing as the countersubject is thickly doubled and
imitated by a bass canonic entry. The motive is com
pressed and sequenced down chromatically in measure 96 . The
nine-measure dominant pedal is finally resolved to a tonic
E b . Although this climactic cadential harmony relieves
the tension created by the long-held dominant pedal, the
96
added AH and F sustain a restless atmosphere.
The intensity is maintained in the cadenza which un
folds above the dissonant harmonic pedal. Beginning as a
descending chromatic figure, the cadenza gains momentum as
it falls from the top of the keyboard to a low EO cadence.
Following the rhythmically free cadenza, a rigid g
meter is introduced. The subject returns in a thick chor
dal texture, using the a motive in stretto. Repeated in
an increasingly denser texture, the passage cadences on an
Eb added sixth chord.
The coda (measure 107) follows the • section. A
canon, beginning in the bass and imitated in the tenor,
uses the countersubject motive. Rising by fourths, the
canon becomes more intense and thicker in texture. As the
tempo and dynamics increase, the countersubject motive
bursts forth in octaves in the bass. Accompanied by ris-L
ing and falling Z^ blocked chords, followed by a diminished
third {Ai -' Z^ ), the right hand helps prepare for a re
turn of the subject in bass octaves (measure 125)•
Example 31: return of subject
97
A bass ostinato, emphasizing the leading tone (Di)
and the tonic (Eb) in A meter, is used for the final sec
tion of the coda. The subject returns in right hand oc
taves in the unexpected key of E minor (measure 134) . The
even eighth note presentation of the subject greatly con
trasts with the quintuplet ostinato. L
A canon, beginning on E' in bass octaves, is imitated
two octaves higher in the right hand (measure l40). The
lower voice changes direction and the subject is now
heard in contrary motion, climaxing on a Bb in the highest
register and an sb in the lowest register. The diminished
third, AT-C'^, punctuates the cadence. Following this in
terruption, the descending motive of a is tripled in the
lowest registers, finally cadencing on a repeated tonic
chord.
A convincing performance of the fugue demands a vir-
tuosic technique. As in any polyphonic composition, in
dependent finger control is necessary for properly voicing
the subject entries. In the opening exposition, the
countersubject should be softer and more legato than the
subject, except for the loud, staccato ascending four
notes that conclude the countersubject. Because of the
expanded hand position and complex texture in the soprano
entry (measures 7 through 9), special attention must be
given to the projection of the subject.
Although the first episode (measures 13 through l6)
98
rises in pitch and becomes thicker, the intensity level
should remain low. The temptation to prepare a climax at
the peak of the phrase (measure l4) needs to be avoided.
In the next entry of the subject, the displaced tones
in measures 18 and I9 obscure the b motive. The double-
stemmed appoggiatura figures need to be clearly articu
lated to help expose the melody.
The series of partial entries at the beginning of B
create a sense of restlessness. The energy level can be
better focused if the successive sequential entries be
come gradually more intense and more clearly articulated.
The completed entry that emerges from this restless ac
tivity will provide a sense of relief as a logical con
clusion to the previous phrase. A retenu at the end of
this section, beginning with the Bb minor octave subject,
will heighten the climax on the low A pedal in measure 34.
A slight delay on the A is appropriate, as well as on the
following F pedal beginning in measure 36.
The development section needs to begin very quietly,
gradually becoming espressivo for the augmented entries
and building to an intense marcato climax for the closing
phrase. A ritard at the end of the transition (measure
54) will help establish the new mode of E major as well
as help prepare for the scherzando section.
The middle section (C) can convey the scherzando
character through a light touch and steady tempo. A
99
brief, but sudden, pause at the ?nd of this section is
necessary to clear the sound so that the soft, deceptive
cadence in C major can be effective. Short staccatos and
very fast grace notes will make the giocoso character of
the second development more successful (measures 64 and
65).
Tenuto marks clearly outline b in measures 66 and 67 >
The tendency to crescendo in the upper register accompani
ment should be avoided, so the melody can be projected.
Although the tenuto marks are omitted in measures 68 and
69, it would seem logical to continue projecting the me
lody.
A slight ritard for the espressivo tenor entry in
measure 69 is desirable. Once again, the inner melody
should be clearly voiced. The augmented a motive (mea
sures 72 through 77) should be expressively projected
above the figurational accompaniment figures.
The reprise of the B section should be interpreted as
before, although a much bigger climax is needed at the end
of the section to psychologically prepare the return of
the tonic key. A delay for the Bb pedal will give this
important tone more significance. The stretto return of
the subject (measure 90) should be slightly broadened so
that each entry can be clearly articulated. A return to
the original tempo coincides with the canonic entries in
the following measure.
100
Broadening of the bass octaves (measures 96 and 97)
IS necessary to prepare for the E' resolution. Beginning
in the slower tempo, the cadenza gains momentum driving
to the reiteration of the Eb in measure 99.
The return of the subject in 99 should begin in a
rather stately character, slowly enough so that a ritard
can be avoided as the texture becomes thicker. To allow
a gradual crescendo, the coda is more successful if it
begins softer than the indicated mezzoforte level. The
rising pitch and thicker texture will create a natural
crescendo. The performer should resist the temptation to
play too loudly so that a real crescendo can be possible
in measure II9. A dynamic swelling and subsiding in the
right hand accompaniment (measures 120 through 126) will
add a great deal of color to the repetitious bass line.
The final return of the subject (measure 134) should
dominate the heavy ostinato bass, and it is essential
that the duple rhythm be accurately maintained. The sfor
zando chord in measure l44 needs to be forcefully inter
ruptive , but the completion of the subject (measure 145)
should drive to the cadence.
CHAPTER V
NOCTURNE
The Nocturne, subtitled "Homage to John Field," was
published in 1959 and premiered the same year by John
Browning. This was the first work Barber published fol
lowing the success of Vanessa, composed in 1957.
A romantic character piece for piano, the title "noc
turne" was first used by the Irish pianist and composer,
John Field (1782-1837)i who published some twenty nocturnes
between 1815 and 1834. Field's nocturnes are in ternary
form, displaying embellished melodies above broken-chord
bass figuration. Beginning with Field, cantabile playing
and effective use of the pedal became important stylistic
elements of interpretation. While the mood is often melan
choly, there seems to be little relationship to the eigh
teenth-century notturno (night piece), a multimovement work
performed out of doors by a small ensemble, usually winds.
Chopin's nocturnes, although derived from Field's
examples, depart from the early models. Field's pieces
most often retain the same character throughout, but
^ F. E. Kirby, A Short History of Keyboard Music (New York: The Free Press), p. 282.
101
102
Chopin's nocturnes introduce a contrasting middle section,
' 2 often using new themes and a new key.
While Barber's Nocturne is an homage to Field, the
dedication appears to pay tribute to Field as the origi
nator of the form, but is actually more influenced by
Chopin. The affinity with Chopin's models is revealed in
the climactic middle section, which will be discussed be
low. Barber preserves the form and character of the nine
teenth-century nocturne, but employs contemporary harmon
ies and procedures.
The formal design of the piece is a ternary struc
ture (ABA'). The opening A section continues until mea
sure 19; the more contrapuntal B section follows from
measure 20 through the cadenza passage in measure 29; and
the final A section, with some variation," begins in measure
30, ending with a two-measure closing section in measure
45.
In the A sections, the texture is homophonic: a can
tabile melodic line in the right hand is supported by a
broken chord accompaniment in the left hand. While the
melody is based upon a twelve-tone row, the accompaniment
is based on a well-defined tonal center. The opening sec
tion begins in A* major and modulates to the dominant key
(EI^) , achieved by moving from tonic (Ab) to mediant (C)
and finally to the dominant (Eb). In the A' section, the
^ Ibid.
103
harmonic progression is adjusted so that the piece con
cludes in the tonic key. The third relationships are pre
served, but the direction is changed. In this section,
which also begins in A* major, the second key area is now
the submediant (F). rather than the mediant (C). By
changing to the submediant key, the final tonic (A ) can
be reached by moving up a third from F. The progression
is therefore similar to the movement from C to E ^ in the
first A section. These key relationships suggest a har
monic plan similar to the principles of sonata form. The
A section could be compared to the exposition, by modula
ting to a dominant key area, while the A' section could be
viewed as a recapitulation, by resolving the conflicting
key areas through a return to the tonic.
The B section is contrapuntal, and although only ten
measures in length, it could be considered a development
section, which departs from the nineteenth-century models
that avoid developmental procedures. The motives present
ed in close stretto entries, are clearly derived from the
opening theme:
Example 1; first theme, (A section)
^ ^
con pedale sempre legato
104
Example 2: development of first theme (B section)
F J ^ ^
fe!
^S
te m MM ^ ^
cresc. poco a poco_
espr.
^ ^
P
In the opening five measures of the B section, eight en-
entries of the motive occur, beginning in the bass and al
ternating thereafter with the soprano. The following
phrase consists of a one-measure figure in the soprano,
derived from measure 5f which is sequenced down a third
in the following measure. The third phrase, derived from
measure 4, also consists of a series of sequences. In
this phrase, however, the motive is condensed to only half-
measures. Doubled in octaves, the figure appears twice
in the soprano, followed by two sequences in the bass.
Barber's skill as a contrapuntalist is revealed by the use
of invertible counterpoint in this climactic phrase. The
accompaniment figure of the left hand is moved to the so
prano voice in the second measure (measures 27 through 28). L
After arriving on the dominant pedal (E^), a cadenza
of rapid arpeggios in a descending pattern brings the sec
tion to a close. Instead of reaffirming the dominant as
a preparation for the return of A, however, the section
105
closes on a G seventh chord, the dominant of the mediant
key.
The A section returns in the tonic key of AP major in
measure 30. The return is straight forward, although the
harmonic progressions, as discussed earlier, are modified.
Other minor changes include a more ornamented presentation
of the theme, the omission of measures 6 through 10, the
repetition of measure 3S, and a one-measure extension of
the closing idea.
The most significant aspect of the piece is Barber's
fusion of tonal ana serial procedures. Although tone rows
occur throughout the A sections, the tonal centers remain
well-defined. As in the Sonata, the synthesis of serial
ism and tonality is a distinguishing characteristic of
Barber's style.
Each of the two rows contains sequential repetitions
of the initial four notes:
Example 3- row 1
r, ''f r
row 2
^ W
106
The repetitions in each row are a minor sixth apart, be
ginning on the tones C, k\> and EH in both rows. While
the use of serialism implies equality of all twelve notes.
Barber denies an equal treatment of the notes by 1) using
intervals with strong roots, i.e., perfect fourths, and
2) repeating the same pitch at the beginning and ending of
the row. The use of two rows in a single composition also
departs from strict twelve-tone procedures.
In addition. Barber uses each row as a theme, giving
each presentation of the row a distinctive rhythmic pat
tern. Thus, row and theme become synonomous. Although
the rows are used consistently in each A section, Barber
occasionally omits or changes some notes within the row,
a liberty that Schoenberg would not condone. Barber fur
ther departs from strict serial techniques by omitting the
row in the B section. Although the B section uses derived
fragments from row one, the intervals vary in size. By
preserving the rhythmic patterns of the row (not the in
tervals) , Barber confirms his attitude towards the func
tion of the row as a theme, not merely as a principle for
organizing pitches.
In the Nocturne, Barber achieves a synthesis of tonal
ity and serialism. In addition, he has successfully com
bined his characteristic lyrical style with twelve-tone
writing. The very title and its dedication to John, Field,
107
reflect Barber's romantic approach to composition. As in
most successful artistic creations, this piece convincing
ly balances the technical and formal concepts of classi
cism with the expressive elements of romanticism.
The performer's main concern is to achieve an ex
pressive pianistic style, employing the cantabile techni
que required to play nineteenth^century nocturnes. The
lyrical cantabile line should be beautifully projected
above the quieter accompanying-figures. The middle section,
however, demands an articulate technique, necessary to
define close stretto entries, a technique required to
successfully perform any contrapuntal work. Rhythmic
flexibility is also part of the romantic style that this
piece demands, particularly in the ornamental return of the
the opening section. Complete independence of hands is
necessary to play such figures as in measure 31. where
the right hand has a group of fourteen equal notes against
an accompaniment pattern comprised of six equal notes.
Throughout the piece, subtle rhythmic nuances, not speci
fically indicated in the score, should be expressed by
the performer. An understanding of phrase direction and
dynamic movement will help the performer make these subtle
rhythmic nuances convincing.
CHAPTER YI
PIANO CONCERTO
"Tremendous success. Ecstatic applause. A concerto that should find a universal welcome."
- The Christian Science Monitor
"The week's most distinguished premiere. A standing ovation in the most spontaneous accolade of the week."
- Time
On September 23, 1962, the Lincoln Center for the
Performing Arts opened in New York City. For the privi
lege of attending this gala occasion, many people paid as
much as $250 a seat.
...'Everybody' was there, in white tie, from the enchanting First Lady of the United States [Jackie Kennedyl on down; Nelson Rockefeller, Govenor of New York State; Robert Wagner, Mayor of New York City; John D. Rockefeller, III, Chairman of the Lincoln Center Board, statesmen, politicians, diplomats, musical celebrities and the high society of New York and surrounding territory...!
The first concert, conducted by Leonard Bernstein, includ
ed the "Gloria" from Beethoven's Missa Solemnis, the
first movement of Mahler's Eighth Symphony. Aaron
Everett Helm, "Lincoln Center Opening," Musical America, November I962, p. 18.
108
109
Copland's premiere of Connotations for Orchestra and
and Vaughan Williams' Serenade to Music.
On the second night of the week-long inaugural con
certs, September 24, I962, the Pulitzer Prize winning
Piano Concerto by Samuel Barber was premiered. The con
cert was performed by the first guest orchestra at Phil
harmonic Hall: the Boston Symphony Orchestra conducted by
Erich Leinsdorf with John Browning as soloist.
The Concerto was highly acclaimed by critics and au
diences alike . Harold Schoenberg, music critic for the New
York Times. made the following remarks after the world
premiere in New York:
It made a decided hit with the audience, and it may be that Mr. Barber has supplied a repertory piece... This is a real virtuoso concerto, with some staggeringly difficult writing. It also has a strong melodic profile , a lyric slow movement and a sense of confidence in the entire conception -- the confidence that comes only from an experienced composer engaged in a work that interests him.^
The Concerto became a popular work in the 1960s and
was performed about 150 times within a six-year period r
following its premiere.-^ Reviewing a performance on No
vember 7 , 1963, by Joseph Krips and the New York Philhar-
harmonic, with John Browning once again as the soloist,
^ Ewen, Composers Since I9OO, p. 31-
^ David Ewen, Musicians Since I9OO (New York: H. W Wilson, 1978), p. 108.
110
Jay Harrison wrote in Musical America;
... In my view, it is the best piano concerto ever written by an American, and its newfound fame -- it is only a year old -- is more than justified. To take things as they come to mind: it is first of all a real concerto that places the soloist on a pedestal and allows him to bake in the sunlight of his own virtuosity... But Barber has begun by turning his difficulties to a musical advantage, to make them serve the content of the work, not merely appear as so many excrescences stuck upon it. Every dazzling phrase, every wild-eyed scale, every contortionist figuration comes alive as part of the whole and is not an isolated show of pianistic fancy. Thus, not a measure of the number detracts from the concerto as an entity.
And then, also, it has tunes, which curl in and around the piece, embrace it, provide it with the added dimension of emotional richness. They are mostly romantic in flavor, which is nothing to be said against them, but whether they are pithy or languorous, they fit in perfectly with the dash and splash that surrounds them. Barber's Piano Concerto, in sum, is a rare and treasurable work. Audiences everywhere should take pride in it.
As for Mr. Browning's performance, it was, to put it bluntly, sensational ...
During the I963 season, the Concerto was programmed
for over forty performances. Irving Kolodin, music critic
for the Saturday Review, expressed disappointment because
the Concerto didn't receive the New York Music Critics
Circle Award, but blamed the newspaper strike and lapse in
coverage of concerts in New York for making such an award
impracticable. In his praise of the work, Mr. Kolodin
Jay S. Harrison, "The New York Music Scene," Musical America, December I963, pp. 178,243.
Ill
made the following remarks:
... It is no small accomplishment in these days of compositional fads and factions to strike an immediate and unmistakable balance between a securely aristocratic style and a strong emotional appeal ... Barber has evolved a tonal language that has artistic individuality as well as a meaningful vocabulary ... there are few other slow movements by Americans (when you have mentioned the Andante of the Gershwin Concerto in F, you have about exhausted the list) which succeed so eloquently in establishing a mood and making a whole experience of it ...CBrown-ing] plays it with confidence and affection ... This far it is his property to enjoy as well as extol, and he plainly does both with enthusiasm.5
The Cleveland Orchestra performed and recorded the
work in January, 1964, at Severance Hall, Cleveland with
John Browning as soloist, George Szell conductor. The
same musicians presented the Concerto in the spring tour
of 1965, performing in Russia, Scandanavian countries and
Western Europe.
The Concerto was one of several works commissioned
by G. Schirmer in celebration of the company's one hun
dredth anniversary in I96I. Barber began work on the con
certo in the spring of I962, completing the composition in
August of the same year. After hearing John Browning per
form the Barber Piano Sonata, he was chosen by the compo
ser to premiere the Concerto. Regarded as one of the
^ Irving Kolodin, "Music to My Ears: Barber Concerto - Campara, di Stefano," Saturday Review. November 23, 1963. p. 33.
112
leading American pianists of today. Browning has been
uniquely identified with the Barber Concerto. which he has
publicly performed over 150 times. Browning has expressed
his opinion concerning the Concerto's challenge to the per
former: "Each day, I find a new emphasis, a new meaning
in a phrase, a different solution for a knotty technical ..6 passage.
Rafael Kammerer reviewed the recording (Columbia ML
6038) in the American Record Guide. The following excerpt
from this article reflects the success that the composer
and performer have achieved with this composition:
... Aside from its being a brilliant virtuoso vehicle for the soloist, Samuel Barber's Concerto is probably the finest work of its kind to have been written by an American composer since Mac Dowell. It has enough popular appeal, too, to rival the Tchaicovsky and Rachmaninoff Concer-ti. . .
John Browning's performance of the Barber Concerto is superbly virtuosic in the corner movements and he plays the central Canzona. which is the crowning glory of the work, with a true understanding of the cantabile style and with a depth of feeling and a beauty of tone that future performers will be hard put to match...7
^ Ewen, Musicians Since 1900. p. 108.
^ Rafael Kammerer, "Americans All," The American Record Guide. XXXI (I965). 392.
113
First Movement: Allegro appassionata
The first movement is cast in a traditional sonata-
form design. Unlike many concertos, however, there is no
orchestral exposition. Instead, the piano opens the work
with what appears to be an introduction. Because this
opening passage contains three important motives which are
used throughout the work, the "introduction" really func
tions as the basis of the entire movement. Not only are
all three motives related, but typical of Barber's econom
ic use of material, both the first and second themes are
also derived from the opening motives.
Exploding in a dramatic recitative, the first motive
(a) is presented in fortissimo octaves. Characteristic
of Barber, this opening phrase is broadly lyrical.
Example 1: first motive (a)
Beginning very softly, the second motive (b) greatly
contrasts with the first motive in its jagged, nervous
rhythm and emphasis on the tritones.
114
ixamiple 2: second m o t i v e (b)
Tesc.
I
^ j^ iitq 9 ; J ^ - ^ j ^ j ^
The third motive (c.) combines elements of the first
two motives: the first three notes bear a strong resem
blance to a, while the tritones from b are also present,
r xample 3'- third motive (c.)
ff poco sostenuto
Returning to b, sforzando dissonant chords are added
as punctuation. A free cadenza, an arpeggio derived from
b, leads to a return of a above a dominant pedal. The
orchestra finally enters, providing the punctuating
chords, as the piano repeats b. A bravura arpeggio, with
sixteenth-note octaves in the piano, prepares for the main
theme in the orchestra, cadencing on an E minor chord.
Beginning in measure 20, the orchestra states the
115
main theme, in E minor, accompanied by a pattern derived
from the theme. John Robert Hanson compares motive a with
the main theme (l):
... one discovers that the notes representing the high points of the successive upward figures of 'a' (e., dt_, ci_, c_5, and b) are reflected in the low points of the successive downward figures of '1' (d>, di, cl, cl, and b).8
Example 4: first theme
The piano finally states the first theme in a more
intimate, expressive character, transposed up a third to
GT minor. The orchestra takes over with the second phrase,
while the piano accompanies with chromatic doubled sixths.
Returning in the piano, the first theme is now in Cv
minor, and the orchestra joins the soloist in a develop
mental treatment of the head motive of the first theme.
All three motives from the introduction are used in
the transition. As the piano drops out, the orchestra
John Robert Hanson, "Macroform in Selected Twentieth-Century Piano Concertos," Diss. University of Rochester I969, p. 18.
116
presents a in a very soft, expressive character. The mo
tive becomes fragmented in one-measure stretto entries at
different pitch levels. Increasing in intensity, a dotted
figure, derived from motive b, appears in measure 70.
Climaxing with a subito, fortissimo presentation of mo
tive c, the transition dissipates, preparing for the
second theme.
Like the first theme, the second theme is presented
in the orchestra. Also like the first theme, it is re
lated to motive a by the ascending sixth and triplet fig
ure.
Example 5' second theme
« espr: con moto
SB £\'
^
^ 2 Z
-&r
Beginning in G? minor, the oboe first states the
second theme, which is repeated in the strings. In the
exposition, the second theme belongs solely to the orches
tra as the piano remains silent.
A transition to the development begins in measure
95. Once again, motives a, b, and £ are used for transi
tion material.
Following a brief pause (measure 101) , the develop-
117
ment begins, based entirely on the opening three motives.
The orchestra states motive b as the piano answers with
fortissimo punctuating chords. Similar to measure 19, the
piano begins an octave arpeggio that leads to a florid
cadenza-like passage.
The piano finally has control as it presents a canon
using motive c.. The orchestra is quite subdued, merely
providing a chordal background for the soloist.
The following section returns to motive b, as imita
tive entries are heard in both the piano and orchestra.
Figuration in the piano, a thirty-second-note pattern de
rived from b, and a tremolo in the orchestra provide a
background for a return of motive a in the orchestra. The
orchestra repeats this motive twice, followed by a series
of stretto entries on motive a. The piano then interrupts
with motive b, as it was used in the first transition
(measure 70).
Imitative entries of motive c., in both the piano and
and orchestra, begin in measure l45. Inverted statements
of a in the orchestra bring this section to a quiet close.
Beginning very softly, the final section of the de
velopment opens with a canon between the orchestra and
piano. Motive b is first heard in the piano, answered an
eighth-note later in the orchestra. Building in intensity,
the piano presents a thirty-second-note octave ostinato
derived from b, which is combined with fortissimo state-
118
ments of a in the orchestra (measure 179). A climax in
measure 186 ends the development as the cadenza begins.
Departing from the traditional classical concerto
form. Barber places the cadenza before, rather than after,
the recapitulation. A bravura passage of contrary motion
sixteenth-note chords ushers in the cadenza. Following a
pattern of converging chromatic chords, the head motive of
theme one is treated developmentally. It is first used
as a canon between the hands, the bass voice beginning a
sixteenth before the upper voice. Rapid register changes
and crossed voices closethis section of the cadenza.
The third section of the cadenza (measure I90) fur
ther develops the head motive of the first theme, begin
ning quietly and accompanied by a chromatically ascending
chordal pattern. A contrapuntal voice is added to the
chordal pattern, once again treating the head motive
canonically. In measure 19-5. the sixteenth-note presen
tation of the head motive reappears as in measure 54 of
the exposition. Intensity increases as the sixteenth notes
are broadened into eighth-note octaves and finally into
quarter-note allargando chords. A rapid ascending scale,
a chromatic ten-note pattern beginning on C but omitting
the notes E and A, concludes the cadenza and cadences on
a tonic E minor chord in the upper register.
The orchestra begins the recapitulation with the first
theme in E minor. Similar to the exposition, the piano
119
states the repetition of the theme. Whereas this phrase
modulated from E minor to G'T minor in the exposition, in
the recapitulation, the modulation is from E minor to B 1
minor. The third repetition of the theme is shared by the
piano and orchestra and is now in the key of Eb minor.
The transition is much shorter, and the a motive is
now inverted. Motives h and c. are omitted and the char
acter remains tranquil throughout the transition.
The piano finally is allowed to present the second L
theme (measure 24?), but the key center is now B' minor,
instead of the Gn center of the exposition. The orches
tra is completely subordinate, merely providing soft, long-
held chords as a background to the piano's expressive pre
sentation of the second theme. Finally returning to E
minor, the theme is given back to the orchestra, while the
piano provides a figurational accompaniment.
Similar to measure 95. the piano takes over with a
diminution of motive a in measure 263. A dotted figure
in the piano leads to an E minor cadence in measure 267.
As the piano sustains the E minor harmony, a transi
tion to the coda begins with a C major entry of the sec
ond theme in the horns. This theme is shared by the piano,
as it answers the orchestra.
The coda proper begins quietly with motive a in the
orchestra, accompanied by a high trill on E in the piano.
After three measures, the piano states an ascending
120
passage based on a sequential pattern emphasizing the tri
tone. The orchestra accompanies with a tremolo, also
using the tritone (derived from motives b and c.) .
A tremendous crescendo leads to the return of E minor
and the first theme (measure 277), heard in diminution in
both the piano and orchestra.
Motive £, is used for the final drive to the cadence.
Beginning loudly in both the piano and orchestra, after
one measure, the piano takes over. The motive is doubled
in octaves, building intensity as it sweeps to the top of
the keyboard, cadencing on an 2 minor chord. The orches
tra rejoins the piano, as it states the motive two more
times before the final crashing E minor chord.
As in the Piano Sonata. Barber uses the outlines of
sonata-form for the first movement of the Piano Concerto.
In the Concerto , however, Barber is even more economic in
his use of materials and more imaginative in his treat
ment of the form.
The opening three motives, presented as an introduc
tion, actually provide the motives for the entire move
ment. They are used exclusively in the transitions be
tween the first and second themes and in the development.
Not only are the motives closely related with each other,
but they are also closely related to the first and second
themes as well.
As Hanson observes, the key pattern in the ex-
121
position and recapitulation also merits attention:
In each case, the second statement of the main theme (measures 35 and 217) is in the key which the subordinate theme later enters, so there is key contrast within the main theme section as well as both unity and contrast between the two thematic sections.9
The opening movement is a synthesis of classical for
mal control, romantic lyricism and expression, as well as
contemporary rhythmic and harmonic elements.
Like the Sonata, the Concerto demands a virtuosic
technique. Perhaps the most difficult problem for the per
former is rhythmic stability and control. The primary
rhythmic problem is maintaining the meter through a steady
pulse and well-defined downbeat. In the introduction, the
second motive should be carefully pulsed, so that the first
sixteenth note is felt as a pick-up, not a downbeat. With
each recurrence of this motive, the pulse should be clear
ly established, i.e., measures 114 through 128; and mea
sures l60 through 174.
A related problem is the control of syncopations, as
in measure 56. The left hand should be extremely steady,
so that the syncopated right-hand figure can remain stable.
Many difficult technical passages in the movement can
be solved by carefully planned fingering: double sixths
^ Hanson, "Macroform," p. 17-
122
(measures 39 through 43; 221 through 225); rapid figura
tion (measures 46 through 53; measures 228 through 234);
fast scalar passages (end of cadenza; measure 275);
double thirds (measure 193)•
In addition, rapid octave passages frequently appear:
measures 19, 105, 179, 197 and 281. A loose wrist will
help the performer control these passages, preventing the
arms and fingers from becoming too tense. A loose wrist
will also help the performer control rapidly repeated
chords (measure 177) and juxtaposed extreme registers
(measure 187)•
As in all of Barber's piano music, a well-developed
legato technique is needed to project the espressivo. can
tabile melodies. While the first theme is legato in both
the exposition and recapitulation, the second theme should
be especially cantabile and expressive, as the piano has
to wait to present it until the recapitulation. In addi
tion to legato control, the performer should exhibit ex
pressive rhythmic flexibility, an obvious romantic quality,
in the lyrical passages.
Second Movement: "Canzone," Moderate
The lyrical second movement is monothematic, divided
into three sections. The resulting form is a three-part
123
, in Ctf mi nor, IS
strophic design: AA'A'' coda. 3
In a relaxed ^ meter, the main theme
first heard as a flute melody. Although the theme gradu
ally unfolds during the next eight measures, the one-
measure motive that begins the theme is the basis for the
entire melody. (This motive will be referred to as I.)
Example 1: first theme (I)
Typical of Barber's classical economy, the accompani
ment pattern for the theme is actually derived from the
melody.
Example 2: accompaniment p a t t e r n
Jp legato
Following the orchestral statement of the theme, the
piano states the opening two measures. In the third
measure, however, the piano introduces two new motives
heard simultaneously. Motive a, in the left hand, is re
lated to motive a of the first movement.
'Xaraple 3: a ( s e c o n d movement)
Sxarr.ple 4; a ( f i r s t movement)
12^
^ 3
^ P^^g
ff -'
S i m i l a r l y , the r-econd m o t i v e , b , i s d e r i v e d from t h e
b m.otive of ^he firs '", movement.
Example 5'- t ( second movement)
fe' JG-*
t» • -
5;ri ^ M %\ f^\
* J
Example 6: b (first movement)
I >"D -Ls-H—1—7 n
125
The section closes with an authentic cadence, modulating
up a step to Dr minor.
The second section. A', again begins in the orchestra,
but the piano answers in the second measure of the phrase.
Moving .ac. .o cl^.inor. motives . and , reappear as In
the first section, as the motive in the piano is accom
panied by b in the orchestra. This phrase, measures 18
through 21, is parallel to measures 12 through 15 in the
opening section.
A developmental style characterizes the following
phrase. A canon begins in the orchestra (measure 22),
answered two beats later in the piano. The canonic theme
is borrowed from measures 6 and 7* The piano finishes the
phrase with material from measures 8 and 9.
A transition begins in the orchestra in measure 26.
Treated imitatively, the motive used is derived from b,
as in measure 13-
A final repetition of A reverses the original pre
sentation, as the theme is first heard in the piano. In
three-voiced texture, the theme is heard in the middle
register. Accompanied by rapid figuration above and ar
peggios below, the theme, divided between the hands, is
expressively projected in this embellished variation.
The first eight measures of the section parallel the open
ing eight measures of the movement as stated in the orches
tra. The piano continues to provide a figurational accom-
126
paniment as the orchestra restates the theme in the sec
ond phrase (measures 37 through 42, corresponding to mea
sures 10 through 15). A two-measure extension of the
opening motive leads to the codetta.
Beginning in the orchestra, the codetta opens with
imitative entries of motive b. This material is similar
to the transition at the end of the second section (mea
sures 26 and 27). The piano concludes the movement with
a final statement of the opening motive in the last mea
sure .
The Canzone is representative of Barber's expressive
lyricism. The flowing melody, slow tempo, and emphasis
on repetition rather than development create the sense of
relaxation, a welcome relief from the intensity of the
opening movement.
Although the relaxed character is maintained, the
music is tightly organized. While only one theme is used,
it evolves from the opening measure. The entire movement
is related to this opening motive, even the accompaniment
patterns.
An obvious relationship between the opening and clos
ing sections is apparent: the orchestra and piano merely
exchange material. A more subtle relationship is found
in the middle section. This section, functioning as a
quasi-development through the use of imitation and shift
ing tonal centers, begins with the second phrase of the
127
opening section (measures l6 through 21 corresponding to
measures 10 through 15)• The middle section then uses
material from the first phrase of the opening (measures 22
through 25 corresponding to measures 6 through 9). As a
final means of unity, the codetta is parallel to the tran
sition between the middle and last sections, ending with
the same motive that opened the movement. Once again we
see Barber's classical economy combined with romantic
expression.
Nathan Broder's description of this movement is most
appropriate:
This movement, which seldom rises to a forte and never above, is suffused with a quality that can only be described with a word rarely encountered in discussions of new music nowadays. The word is enchantment. Is this romanticism? Very well then, it is romanticism. But it is not Romanticism. The distinction is, I believe, useful rather than pedantic. It is helpful to maintain the difference between a term that is applicable to intense feeling as expressed in unlike ways in various periods of music history and a term that denotes the thought-habits and technical devices characteristic of one particular era. In Barber's Canzona no reminiscences of 19th-century music obtrude to break the spell. Instead, we have a lyric poem as fresh as it is lovely. It is the most consistently tonal of the three movements, departing only once from C-sharp minor.^^
The Canzone, perhaps one of Barber's most lyrical
movements, presents the fewest technical problems. A
^^ Nathan Broder, "Current Chronicle," The Musical Quarterly. XLIX (1963). 97-
128
legato, cantabile touch is the primary requirement. While
the melody is most often in the soprano, it appears in the
middle voice for the final strophe. As the theme is shared
by both hands, the performer should carefully project the
meoldy, creating the effect of a single voice. The orna
mental accompaniment should decorate the melody and never
interrupt.
Beginning in measure 37. complex rhythmic patterns
are presented: nine notes against six notes; twelve
notes against eight. The problem is simplified, however,
if the performer subdivides the patterns into three
against two.
Subtle rhythmic and dynamic nuances will greatly
enhance the performance of the Canzone. Because the form
is strophic, each section should display maximum tonal
control and variety to avoid a static quality.
Third Movement: Allegro molto
5 A perpetually driving rondo, in g meter, serves as a
blajzing, virtuosic finale to the Concerto. A five-note
ostinato and the emphasis on intervals of a second are
characteristic throughout much of the movement. Based on
a B* minor tonality, the overall form is ABACA coda.
Opening with fortissimo, secundal chords in the
129
orchestra, the g meter is established as a 2+3 grouping.
Example 1: orchestral introduction
Finally resolving to Bb, the piano enters with an
ostinato, in measure 6 (Example 2), as the orchestra
merely repeats a tonic pedal for the next forty measures.
Example 2: piano ostinato
J deal so, nan legato
^ ^
^ ^ ^
^s=^
Above the ostinato, the piano states the first theme,
A (Example 3). The theme, as well as the ostinato and
tonic pedal in the orchestra, firmly establishes the fib
center and exploits the interval of a second.
130
Example 3'- first theme (A)
In measure 15, the theme forcefully drives to the top of
the keyboard with an ascending pattern of major seconds.
The phrase closes with a broadened pattern of three dis
sonant, descending chords.
Beginning in measure 23. the piano states the theme
as at measure 8, modified by the use of octave displace
ment. The ascending seconds from measure 15 reappear in
measure 34. The opening orchestral chords appear in the
piano and once again lead to the ostinato figure.
The orchestra now states the opening theme (measure
42), accompanied first by the ostinato and later by ar
peggios in the piano. The roles are reversed again, how
ever, as the piano recaptures the theme in the repeated
presentation, ending with the opening chords at measure
71. After an orchestral repetition of the opening chords,
the piano states a brief two-measure transition: a de
scending pattern of major seconds.
The B section, slower and calmer, is introduced by a
five-note chromatic ostinato in the xylophone.
131
Example 4: xylophone ostinato
almando
Beginning in Et minor, the second theme is stated in
the clarinet. As in the second movement, the accompanying
pattern is derived from the theme itself.
Example 5'- B theme
Dropping to a B minor center, the piano states the
second theme. The texture is extremely thin: a single
line in the orchestra, and unisons in the piano, spaced
three octaves apart.
Accompanied by figuration in the piano, the ostinato
and descending major sevenths in the violins, the theme is
now stated by the trombones. The tonal center has shifted
to E. As the piano continues the figuration, the theme is
given to the strings. A brief transition (measure 108)
prepares for the return of A.
This section is a dramatic contrast to the opening.
While the entire A section did not change from the tonal
132
center of sb minor, the B section exhibits a fluctuation
in tonality. The orchestration provides variety as the
melody is heard in contrasting timbres. The theme itself,
a more lyrical, flowing line, greatly contrasts the jagged
contour of the opening.
The return of A in the tonic key begins in measure
112. The melody appears in the orchestra, accompanied by
an embellished ostinato in the piano. The piano joins
the orchestra ten bars later, in a canonic entry starting
three beats later. Enormous intensity is created by the
rhythmic complexity of the canon as well as the loud
dynamic level and dense texture» A climax, achieved in
measure l40, is extended in the orchestra. Reappearing in
measure 154, the piano begins a transition, returning to
the opening chords. A descending passage of fourths and
tritones disintegrates into a very low ranged unison os
tinato in the piano, preparing for the C section.
The orchestra introduces the C section, just as it
introduced the B section. In tertian structures in D
major, the woodwinds first state the new theme.
Example 6: G theme
133
Characterized by a graceful, dance-like quality, this sec
tion again is a release from and contrast with the opening.
The smooth contour of the melody, a descending first phrase
balanced by an ascending second phrase, provides a clas
sical sense of balance.
Following the orchestral presentation, the piano
states the theme in the upper register, embellished by
triplet sixteenth-note figuration. The orchestra returns
with a boisterous presentation of the theme (measure 201)
in the new key of FT minor. The piano merely punctuates
with a rapid, five-note octave pattern at the end of each
measure.
Finally asserting itself with crashing, dissonant
harmonies, the piano takes over in measure 2l4. After a
diminuendo, the piano begins the final statement of C.
Marked by extreme registers, the theme appears in the top
voice of pianissimo chords, at the top of the keyboard,
accompanied by an ostinato in the lower register. The
orchestra joins the piano four bars later, but the section
ends with the soloist repeating the F*f ostinato in the low
range of the keyboard.
An extended transition, developmental in style, begins
in measure 229. Opening in a soft, but menacing character,
the orchestra presents the opening chordal motive above a
cb pedal. The piano embellishes the motive with rising
and falling major seconds. The first theme appears to
134
prepare for the return of the initial tempo and character.
A second section of the transition (measure 248)
functions as a false return. Over .a D pedal, the orches
tra presents the first theme in successively higher regis
ters. A foreboding quality is achieved through the con
sistent use of a pianissimo dynamic level. The piano sud
denly enters with violent, fortissimo polychords, very
much like the opening of the first movement cadenza,
ushering in the final return of A.
The entire last section is marked by a relentless
drive to the final cadence. After a two-measure ostinato,
the piano states the first theme, accompanied by a tonic
fib pedal in the orchestra. In measure 295. the orchestra
presents fragments of A while the piano accompanies with
loud, rising glissandos.
The orchestra, in a pressing frenzy, states the
opening chordal motive, combined with the melodic outline
of the second theme. The piano repeats the same material
ei^t bars later over long-held pedals in the orchestra.
The chordal theme returns in the piano and is echoed in
the orchestra.
The opening theme returns in the orchestra (measure
329) while the piano accompanies with a sixteenth-note
secundal pattern. The broadened closing chords, empha
sizing the interval of a second, lead'to the end of the
work: a final repetition of the opening ostinato.
135
The last movement, a brilliant and exciting finale,
provides an extreme degree of contrasting elements. The
main theme, characterized by a sweeping gesture and empha
sis on clashing seconds, contributes to the driving quality
of the movement. In contrast, the second theme is narrow-
ranged and much more lyrical. As previously mentioned, the
orchestral timbres also supply a great deal of variety.
The third theme, having a Mediterranean flavor, provides
contrast by its smooth contour as well as its tertian har
monies .
The entire Concerto remains traditional in the sense
of formal design and tonal centers. In addition, Barber's
classical economy provides a cohesive unity within each
movement. The effective use of contrapuntal writing and
motivic transformations also contribute to the greatness
of this work. These rather "classical" principles are
combined with "romantic" qualities of wide-ranged inten
sity, broad lyricism and bravura piano technique to create
a very significant contribution to the contemporary con
certo repertoire.
As in the first movement, rhythmic control is the
primary concern for the performer. Because the tempo is
extremely fast, the g meter should be felt as one main
pulse per measure. Although, the meter is consistently
I, the subdivisions within the measure do change. Most o often the grouping is 2+3. but the lyrical B sections
136
reverse the grouping to 3+2.
Particular care needs to be given to the ostinato of
the A section. While a 2+3 grouping is indicated, the
tonic accents occur on beats 1 and 4, implying a 3+2
division. To avoid confusion, the pianist should pulse
the third note and should refrain from using a heavy
thumb on the fourth note.
If the pianist feels the meter in 1,- complicated
subdivisions will be easier to play, i.e.. measure 59
(seven notes in the measure) and measures 22, 64, and 69
throu^ 70 (three equal notes in a measure).
Cross rhythms are frequent in the movement. Measures
75 through 76, 121 through 122, 129 through 131. and 138
through 139 will be easier to control if they are felt in
a ^ meter. Measures 232 through 235 and 238 through 240
should be felt in j meter.
A further rhythmic complication occurs in measures
123 through 129. The piano and orchestra present canonic
entries. While the orchestra preserves the original 2+3
grouping, the piano (entering three beats late) presents
a 3+2 grouping. A similar cross rhythm occurs at measure
l62: the orchestra is in g, but the piano is actually
. 4 m g.
In addition to rhythmic problems, many technical
problems are posed. Rather atypical of Barber's music,
there are few cantabile passages, the B section being the
137
exception. Instead, a percussive touch is more often
needed. Because there are no fingerings provided in the
score, the pianist should take special care in selecting
successful fingering solutions.
The emphasis on harmonic seconds presents a problem,
especially in passages of rapid figuration, requiring a
particularly agile thumb. (Because examples of harmonic
seconds appear throughout the movement, the discussion of
this particular technical problem will consider these
examples as a whole.) Beginning in measure 15. a pattern
of ascending harmonic seconds is presented. Analyzing the L
passage as an ascending B'' diminished seventh arpeggio,
doubled in seconds, will make the pattern easier to play.
A possible fingering would begin with fingers one and two
on the B'^-C interval, followed by three and four on the
2^-Z^ interval. The pianist could continue to alternate
this fingering throughout the entire passage. (The same
fingering can be repeated in measures 34, 283 and 292.)
At measure 58. "the harmonic seconds appear in the lower
staff, but will be easier to execute if the right hand is
used instead. The pattern returns again in measure 329,
but here, both hands are involved, as the right hand fol
lows the left a sixteenth-note later.
A similar passage occurs in measure 232, the left
hand playing the first two seconds and the right, playing
the last two. A possible fingering would be to play AH-
138
BII with the left-hand thumb and the C-DH with the right-
hand thumb.
Measure l62 presents aparticularly difficult passage.
By conceiving the pattern as a series of four descending
thirds, the following fingering is possible: 3 " ^ " i " 5 4
2 - 5 ^ - 3 - 2 " ^ ' ®^c.
Perhaps the most difficult passage occurs in measure
187. Special attention should be given to the double-
stemmed notes in the soprano, taking care to project the
melody above the figuration.
Another technical demand involves playing rapid,
pesante octaves. Contrary to the notation, the pattern
at measure 201 will be easier to control if the left hand
plays the first, third amd fifth octaves, while the right
hand plays the second and fourth octaves.
An additional technical problem is presented in mea
sure 295: a series of rapid, fortissimo glissandos. More
control and support can be attained if the wrist remains
parallel with the keyboard (not rotated). Using fingers
2 and 3, firmly braced, the wrist should be slightly
angled so that the fingers point to the top of the key
board. By keeping the wrist and fingers in a well-support
ed position, the glissandos can be played evenly in a
loud dynamic range.
CHAPTER VII
BALLADE
In 1976, the Van Cliburn Foundation, Inc. Board of
Directors commissioned Barber to compose a piece for the
fifth Van Cliburn InternationalQuadriennial Piano Compe
tition. The commission was made possible by a gift from
Mrs. J. Lee Johnson, III, in honor of her mother, Mrs.
Nenetta Burton Carter. Part of the required repertoire
for the competition which was held in Fort Worth, Texas
in September, 1977, the Ballade was performed by each of
the twelve semi-finalists as part of a one-hour recital
requirement. By commissioning a work from Samuel Barber,
the Van Cliburn Foundation has maintained its tradition
of commissioning works by American composers as part of
the required repertoire. Commissions for the previous
four competitions have included the following works by
living American composers: I962, Lee Hoiby's Capriccio on
Five Notes; I966, Willard Straight's Structure for Piano;
1969, Norman Dello Joio's Capriccio on the Interval of a 2
Second; and 1973, Aaron Copland's Night Thoughts.
^ "Samuel Barber Work Commissioned," Music Clubs Magazine, March 1976, p. 15-
^ Ibid.
139
140
Like the Nocturne. the Ballade is modeled after a
nineteenth-century character piece. Although perhaps in
spired by epic and tragic poetry, the piano ballades are
not associated with specific literary models. Most often,
ballades are simple ternary designs although Chopin's
ballades were conceived as larger and more elaborate than
the simple structure commonly used for a character piece.
With Brahms, however, the ballade is no longer the large-
scale, virtuoso piece. In fact. Barber's influence appears
to be more from Brahms than Chopin.
An important element of the ballade is the use of the 3
same theme in varied form throughout. A frequent device
in nineteenth-century music, thematic variation replaces
the use of developmental procedures. In contrast to the
Sonata, the Concerto and the Nocturne (with its develop
mental middle section), Barber avoids developmental pro
cedures in the Ballade. making this piece perhaps the most
Romantic of all the piano works.
The Ballade is ternary in design (ABA). In addition,
the opening and closing A sections, which are identical,
can also be subdivided into ternary forms, (aba). Basic
ally homophonic, with the melody in the soprano, the over
all character is one of restless melancholy, conveyed by
the emphasis on minor harmonies and descending half-steps.
^ Kirby, Keyboard Music, p. 280.
l4l
The entire composition is based on two motives con
tained in the opening eight measures:
Example la: motive 1
^ l ^ / fi M ' mp
^: 1 b—:H-. y yW' ^
1 r • —^
«» '0
. >—J,u '
V
Zxam.iDle lb: motive 2
The opening a section consists of three phrases, building
to a climax in measures 10 and 11. Preparing for the cli-
T.az in measures 8 and 9, the texture becomes more dense,
with low bass octaves supporting five-part chords in the
ri^ht hand. As the climax is achieved, the rhythm is
much broader, with the descending motive now appearing in
half-notes, rather than quarter and eighth-notes. Opening
m n minor, the section modulates to F in measure 11.
142
Although tertian structures are used consistently, the
unusual harmonic progressions provide interest by oscil
lating between freely borrowed major and minor chords.
The use of traditional chords gives the piece somewhat of
am amtique character, while the novel harmonic progressions
provide a more contemporairy quality.
Following a cadenza-like passage after the climax in
measure 11, the b-section begins in measure 12. The tonal
center is now F major and the character is more aggres
sive, supported by fortissimo, marcato chords. The melo
dic material for b is derived from motive 2.
Example 2: opening of b
^ # = ^ f f l'^ aSII
The b section is carefully balanced, with the forceful
opening amd closing phrases (measures 12 through 15 and
measures 19 through 22) framing a tranquil phrase, which
Barber marks "distant." These dramatic and abrupt dynamic
contrasts (from fortissimo to pianissimo and back to for
tissimo) reinforce the expressive, romantic quality which
we have observed as characteristic of Barber's style.
The A section closes with a return to the opening
143
phrase at the end of measure 22. After a literal repeti
tion of the first two measures, a rhythmic variation occurs,
as the block chords are changed to an arpeggiated sixteenth-
note pattern.
A new phrase in measure 27 begins the closing section.
The character is changed by an allargando marking and rhy
thmic augmentation in measures 27 and 28. The final
phrase of the section (measures 30 through 33) ends with a
polytonal cadence: a low At] pedal point is sustained for
three measures (held in the sostenuto pedal) while a D b
major chord is reiterated in a high register. The final
cadence ends on the Neapolitan chord of the opening C
minor tonality.
The B section, beginning in measure 33. is a dramatic
contrast to the opening section: 1) the register is ex
tremely low, with the octave melody in the left hand, 2)
the texture is more contrapuntal and 3) the character is
more aggressive and energetic.
.The melody is a transformation of motive 2.
Example 3' transformation of motive 2
/ /
l44
Centered on A, the ascending and descending half steps
(A5^) suggest the Phrygian mode. The opening three bar
phrase is then sequenced on C^^ , with the melody moving to
the right hand.
A one-bar transition, leads to the second section of
B. Although the key signature is now four flats, the E'
bass pedal, sustained for eight measures, and the fre
quent use of AH im.p ies a Mixolydian mode. Contrapuntal
voices are now heard (measure ^0), as the soprano voice
sings a lyrical transformation of motive 2, accompanied by .
a countermelody in the tenor, derived from the four-note
descending motive of fig -xre 1. The bass sustains the ped
al tone, Eb, while the alto voice provides rhythmic and
r.armiOni C^ v-»
xamiDle 4: t ransform.a t ion of motive 2
Ringing
This phrase is repeated in measure 44, increasing in
intensity as the soprano is heard an octave higher and
the tenor is expanded into octaves. An augmented presen
tation of the motive is used in measure 48, beginning
145
quietly and building to a fortissimo climax in measures
50 through 52. After a complete moment of silence, a
three-bar transition prepares for the return of A. The
transition is another transformation of motive 2, the char
acter now being calm and serene. (Compare example lb.
Example 2, Example 3. Example 4.)
Example 5- transition
allarg, e morendo ^^
^m ^
^t^ w^$ J - J i l ^ b77»
o
The return of A is a literal restatement of the open
ing section.
The most significant feature of this piece is the ex
tremely limited amount of melodic material: 1) a four-
note ascending or descending motive and 2) the rising and
falling semi-tone. The character transformations of
these figures create an expressive, romantic sense of
drama. The performer should clearly define the differ
ences in the transformations if the performance is to be
interesting and convincing. The lyrical statements should
be played in a cantabile style with a broad, singing tone,
while the aggressive figures of section B should be sharply
rhythmic and well articulated by a more percussive touch.
146
The success of a piece that is built upon such limited
thematic material demands an extreme range and variety of
touch, dynamic and rhythmic control.
CHAPTER VIII
CONCLUDING STATEMENT
Those concerned with the developments of twentieth-
century compositional techniques may give the piano music
of Samuel Barber a mere cursory glance. Those who examine
these works more closely, however, will be justifiably
rewarded.
In a traditional formal and tonal framework. Barber's
music has more in common with the nineteenth rather than
the twentieth century. The striking aspect of Barber's
music, however, is that it expresses the thoughts and ideas
of a previous century through a contemporary vocabulary.
The 1930s witnessed a turbulent period of musical
activity in the United States. Anxious to express their
new-found freedom from European domination, American com
posers such as Aaron Copland, Roy Harris, and William
Schuman were developing new and individual styles. In
contrast. Barber's emphasis on lyricism remained a rather
uncommon quality for music of this period.
Nathan Broder writes:
The ferment of such a time produced important and exciting works, but was not conducive to calm contemplation of beauty for its own sake.
147
148
Barber, primarily a lyric poet, remained aloof from the swirling currents in which many of his colleagues were immersed. His visions were not of the sort that required the forging of an individual idiom; they could best be expressed in an existing and well-known tongue.^
Lyricism emerges as a definitive stylistic element
throughout Barber's works. His melodic emphasis stems
from a deeply felt emotional point of departure, creating
an accessible idiom characterized by a romantic sensitiv
ity. Much of Barber's success is a result of his poetic
lyricism. Robert Sabin has described the effect of this
quality:
His ^Barber's] music does not stun us, or terrify us, or tear us to pieces; but it refreshes our spirits and stimulates our perceptions and imaginations. Its victories are quieter, but not, for that reason, less lasting.^
The third movement of the Piano Sonata, with its aria
like melody, and the Canzone from the Piano Concerto ex
emplify Barber's elegant and refined melodic style.
Other examples include the second theme from the first
movement of the Piano Sonata, the Nocturne and the first
two themes from the opening movement of the Piano Concerto.
In addition to lyricism. Barber's music consistently
•'• Broder, Samuel Barber, p. 58.
^ Robert Sabin, "Samuel Barber," International Cyclopedia of Music and Musicians. 10th ed. U975)•
149
adheres to traditional forms. The Sonata and Concerto re
main faithful to their eighteenth- and nineteenth-century
prototypes of sonata form. Even when a germ motive is
used to provide structural unity, as in the first move
ment of the Sonata, traditional formal procedures are main
tained. The opening movement of the Concerto, based on the
three motives of the introduction, is also adapted to tra
ditional sonata form principles.
Although Barber effectively imposes the discipline
of sonata form in the first movements of the Sonata and
the Concerto. his neo-Romantic tendencies are more obvious
in ternary, strophic and rondo forms. Melodic transfor
mation and variation, a definite romantic influence, re
place strict developmental procedures in the more repeti
tive structures.
In addition to sonata form, Barber employs ternary
structures (Piano Sonata, third movement; . Excursions,
fourth movement; Ballade; Nocturne), scherzo (Piano
Sonata, second movement), fugue (Piano Sonata, fourth move
ment) , strophic forms (Piano Concerto, second movement;
Excursions, first and second movements), rondo (Piano
Concerto, third movement) and variation form (Excursions,
third movement).
Related to the constant use of traditional forms is
the tonal element of Barber's music. Although often dis
guised by shifting levels and extensive chromaticism, a
150
tonal center is always present. Even his experiments with
serialism, as in the Sonata or the Nocturne. preserve to
nality as the principal organizing element.
Barber's earliest piano composition. Excursions, is
largely diatonic. The Sonata, however, written five years
later, exhibits a departure from diatonicism. In addition
to the serial techniques found in the third movement, hints
of twelve-tone writing occur in the first and last move
ment as well. Although these movements avoid serial pro
cedures, several motives appear in which all twelve chro
matic tones are used. These melodic gestures, however,
are based on well-defined tonal centers and are chromatic
motives, rather than twelve-tone rows.
In addition to major, minor and chromatic scales.
Barber occasionally draws upon Phrygian modes (Fuga and
Nocturne). Implications of bitonality are also found as
well as the combination of serialism and tonality (Noc
turne and Sonata, third movement).
Consistent with Barber's conservatism, tertian struc
tures (mostly triads and seventh chords) prevail, but
quartal harmonies and tritones are effectively used to
provide variety. In addition, harmonic seconds occur fre
quently, especially in the Concerto, coloring the texture
with a more dissonant quality.
Scalero's emphasis on counterpoint is evident through
out the piano music. Barber's mastery of contrapuntal
151
devices is seen not only in his effective use of strettos,
canons and imitative writing, but especially in the Fuga
of the Sonata. Employing all the devices of learned
counterpoint (inversion, augmentation, diminution, etc.).
Barber creates one of the finest examples of twentieth-
century polyphony.
Another important element of Barber's style is his
economy of means. As seen throughout the piano works, a
lir.ited number of motives is used to generate an entire
composition. By exploring the implied potential of these
limited motives. Barber creates tightly cohesive struc
tures that express variety and contrast through their
unity.
Beginning with Excursions, motivic unity is observed
as the important structural element. The first two move
ments are unified by their repetitive harmonic progres
sions as well as by the use of limited melodic motives.
Variation of a single theme is the obvious principle of
structural unity in the third movement. The fourth move
ment is unified by the consistent use and juxtaposition of
only two motives throughout.
Economy of means is a fundamental structural element
of each movement of the Sonata. A germ provides unity
in the first movement. While two contrasting themes are
presented, both are derived from the germ. The scherzo
presents two motives in the opening section from which the
152
entire movement is generated. The twelve-tone row of the
Adagio permeates the entire third movement, dramatically
transformed in the middle section. Creating the most ef
fective thematic transformations, the entire Fuga is de
rived solely from the subject and countersubject.
The Nocturne and Ballade, although ternary in design,
also exhibit extreme unity. While dramatic contrast is
provided in the B sections, unity is achieved through the
close motivic relationship of the A and B sections in
both compositions.
The first movement of the Concerto presents, perhaps,
the most unique example of motivic unity. The opening
section introduces three motives, the third being derived
from the first two. Both the first and second themes are
derivatives of the opening motives as well. Displaying
the most economic use of material, the Canzone presents
only one main theme in its strophic design, accompanied by
a motive derived from this theme. The last movement, how
ever, contains the greatest number of themes, but unity
is preserved by the recurrence of the rondo theme (A).
Barber's traditional use of form and tonality, as
well as his lyrical emphasis, reveal the conservative
elements of his style. His use of rhythm, however, dis
plays a more contemporary spirit. In general. Barber tends
to avoid the obvious, preferring irregular patterns in
stead. The third movements of both the Concerto and
153
Excursions, contain many examples of complex figures and
cross rhythms. In addition, hemiolas are effectively
used in the Scherzo fromthe Piano Sonata. Barber's rhyth
mic style also reflects jazz influences, particularly ap
parent in the Fuga (Piano Sonata) and the blues movement
of Excursions. While driving, aggressive rhythmic ele
ments occur in the opening movements of the Sonata and the
Concerto. smooth, flowing lines (compatible with Barber's
lyrical persuasion) are more commonly found. Particularly
effective examples include: the Nocturne. the third move
ment of Excursions, the third movement of the Sonata, and
the Canzone from the Concerto.
While Barber has preferred to avoid such twentieth-
century techniques as complete serialism or atonality,
his contribution to contemporary music is considerable.
Barber's lyricism and sense of form, which many contempo
rary composers have chosen to reject, contribute to the
high artistic level as well as accessibility of his music.
As a significant contribution to the twentieth-cen
tury repertoire. Barber's piano music provides the per
former with both interpretive and technical challenges.
While the formal procedures are based on eighteenth- and
nineteenth-century models, the harmonic and rhythmic ele
ments demand an understanding of a contemporary vocabulary
In addition, Barber's idiomatic treatment of the keyboard
itself explores a wide range of tone color possibilities.
154
Because lyricism is the most important element of Barber's
style, the pianist must be skilled in cantabile. legato
technique. Most melodies are long, and the performer must
sing these lines as a vocalist would, disguising and avoid
ing the innate percussive quality of the instrument.
In addition to a well-developed legato technique, the
piano music requires a virtuosic technique, particularly
in the Sonata and Concerto. As in eighteenth- and nine
teenth-century keyboard works, control of rapid scales,
arpeggios, and broken chords is mandatory. This technique,
however, must be adapted to contemporary rhythmic and har
monic patterns. The thumb needs to be particularly agile,
as it is often required to play on black keys in rapid
figuration passages. Barber also employs the extreme
registers of the keyboard, requiring a rapid and con
trolled forearm rotation. A large hand extension is also
necessary for the many widely spaced harmonic structures.
A further technical demand involves precise control of the
sostenuto pedal, a somewhat neglected skill for many pia
nists .
As in any great music, the understanding of formal
principles and stylistic elements of Barber's piano music
has direct bearing on the interpretation. The most ef
fective performances are those which project the meaning
found in the musical structure itself, resulting from an
interpretation based upon valid analytical principles.
APPENDIX A: LECTURE RECITAL
^exasTech Umversih/ Departmenl-of Alusc Lubbock, Texas
SUSAN BLINDERMAN CARTER Piano
Ph.D. Lecture-Recital The Piano Music of Samuel Barber"
Sunday, Februarv 17, 1980, 3:00 p.m. Hemmie Recital Hall
Sonata for Piano, Op. 26 Samuel Barber Allegro energico (1910- )
BIOGRAPHY OF SAMUEL BARBER SURVEY OF THE PIANO MUSIC THE PIANO SONATA, OPUS 26
INTERMISSION
Sonata for Piano, Op. 26 Barber Allegro energico Allegro vivace e leggero Adagio mesto Fuga; Allegro con spirito
This recital is presented in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree in Fine Arts. Ms. Carter is a student of Dr. Thomas Redcay and Dr. Paul F. Cutter.
156
157
LECTURE
Introduction
Good afternoon, Ladies and Gentlemen. The music that
you have just heard is the first movement of Samuel Bar
ber's Sonata for Piano. Op. 26. composed in 19^9. The
Sonata is one of Bsirber's finest works, and a significant
contribution to the twentieth-century keyboard repertoire.
While still in his twenties, Samuel Barber established
a secure position in the forefront of American composers.
His many awards for composition are eloquent testimony to
his achievements: the Beams Prize from Columbia Univer
sity (1928), the Prix de Rome (1935). the New York Music
Critics Circle Award (19^7). and two Pulitzer Prizes (1958
and 1963). In addition, Barber received many honors for
his overall contribution to American music, including mem
bership in the Academy of Arts and Letters (1935). appoint
ment as a consultant at the American Academy of Rome (19^8),
and the award of an honorary Doctorate from Harvard Univer
sity (1959).
158
Biography
Samuel Barber was born on March 9, I910, in West
Chester, Pennsylvania, a small town near Philadelphia.
His early musical training included cello and piano les
sons, beginning at the age of six. He studied the piano
for six years with West Chester's leading piano teacher,
William Hatten Green, a former pupil of Theodore Lesche
tizky.
Barber's interest in composition also appeared at an
early age. When once asked how he happened to become a
composer, he replied, "I began writing music at seven and
I just never stopped." His first composition was a twen-
4:y-three measure piano piece called Sadness. but he soon
became more ambitious, even composing an opera at the age
of ten.
By the age of fourteen. Barber had begun his profes
sional musical career; he was the organist at the West
minster Presbyterian Church in West Chester, earning a
salary of one hundred dollars per month. During this same
year, 192^, Barber was accepted as a charter student at
the newly organized Curtis Institute of Music.in Philadel
phia, where he remained as a student and teaching assis
tant for the next nine years.
While at Curtis, Barber majored in three areas:
piano, composition and voice. He also studied conducting
159
under Fritz Reiner.
During his sophomore year at Curtis (1928), Barber
befriended a new composition student from Italy, Gian-
Carlo Menotti. This was the beginning of a friendship
that would prove to be most influential on Barber's pro
fessional as well as personal life.
In the same year (1928), Barber won his first award
for composition: the Beam's Prize, a $1,200 award spon
sored by Columbia University. The piece that Barber sub
mitted was a violin sonata which, however, has remained
unpublished.
The money earned from this prize was used to finance
the first of many trips to Europe. While there, he met
two famous musicians: George Antheil, an important con
temporary composer, and Eusebius Mandycewski, his compo
sition teacher's mentor, and a friend of Johannes Brahms.
In the early 1930s, Barber wrote several important
compositions: Overture to the School for Scandal. Dover
Beach. and the Sonata for Cello and Piano.
After leaving Curtis in 1933. Barber pursued a pro
fessional singing career, performing lieder recitals for
the NBC radio network as well as recording his composition
Dover Beach for voice and string quartet. The first per
formance of Barber's music by a major orchestra also oc
curred in 1933: the Overture to the School for Scandal,
performed by the Philadelphia Orchestra under Alexander
160
Smallens. With this composition. Barber won his second
Beams Prize.
In October, 193^. he presented some of his compo
sitions to Carl Engle, president of the music publishing
firm G. Schirmer, Inc. Following this meeting, Schirmer
became Barber's sole publisher, and has remained so ever
since. This important event opened many doors for the
aspiring young composer, resulting in a performance of
the Music for a Scene from Shellev by the New York Phil
harmonic and an all-Barber radio program on March 23. 1935-
In the spring of 1935. Barber won a $1,500 Pulitzer
Traveling Scholarship as well as the Prix de Rome. The
following year, he won a second Pulitzer Scholarship,
becoming the first person to receive this award twice.
Perhaps the most significant early performance of
Barber's music was a concert on November 5. 1938. The
world premiere of Adagio for Strings and First Essay for
Orchestra, by Arturo Toscanini and the NBC Orchestra,
firmly launched the internationally acclaimed career of
Samuel Barber.
Barber returned to Curtis as a faculty member from
1939 to 19^2. In 19^3. he was inducted into the United
States Army and was commissioned to compose a symphony for
the Army Air Force, an unprecedented act in the history
of the American military. The Symphony Dedicated to the
Army Air Forces was premiered by Serge Koussevitsky and
161
the Boston Symphony Orchestra on March 3, 19^4.
Returning to Capricorn, the home he shared with Gian-
Carlo Menotti in Mt. Kisco, New York, after his discharge
from the army in 19^5. Barber composed many of his finest
works: the Cello Concerto (winner of the 19^7 New York
Critics Circle Prize); the ballet Cave of the Heart.
later retitled Medea, for Martha Graham; Knoxville;
Summer of 1915. for Eleanor Steber; Melodies Passagres.
premiered by Pierre Bernac and Francis Poulenc in 1952;
and Hermit Songs for Leontyne Price.
In 1956, Menotti wrote the libretto for Barber's
opera Vanessa, which was awarded a Pulitzer Prize in 1958.
A second venture by Barber and Menotti resulted in the one-
act opera, A Hand of Bridge. in 1959-
Important compositions in the 1960s included the
Piano Concerto, commissioned in I96I, for the one hun
dredth anniversary of G. Schirmer, which also won a Pulit
zer Prize in I963. Barber's most ambitious work of the
1960s was the opera Antony and Cleopatra, written in I966,
for the opening of the new house for the Metropolitan
Opera at Lincoln Center.
Barber's more recent compositions include Three Songs.
written for Dietrich Fisher-Dieskau in 197^, and the piano
Ballade, composed for the 1977 Van Cliburn Piano Competi
tion.
162
Personality
Barber's rather conservative tastes, as well as his
easy elegance, charm and unpretentious sophistication are
reflected in his music, which is most often described as
"avowedly Romantic, quiet, elegant, and wholeheartedly
traditionalist." The personality of Samuel Barber and
his music are one. Nathan Broder, in his biography of
Barber, gives the following description:
His work, as a whole, is like a living organism with a clearly stamped individuality, enriching itself as it grows, and this organism mirrors the qualities of the man -- his dedication to art, the elegance and refinement of his taste, his unswerving adherence to the highest standards, his constant search for new means of creating beauty, a search guided by a sense of discrimination and a power of self-criticism that prevent him from being stampeded into adopting novel techniques merely because they are novel and widely used.
The legend of Samuel Barber has been a different sort
of story for an American composer. While most twentieth-
century American composers have struggled against indif
ference and neglect, success discovered Barber early in
life and has followed him, with very few exceptions,
throughout his career.
163
The Piano Music
Samuel Barber, along with Aaron Copland, is perhaps
the most important composer of twentieth-century American
keyboard music. As is typical of other twentieth-century
composers, his reputation as a composer of keyboard music
is based on very few works: the set of four Excursions
(Op. 20) of 19^5; the Sonata for Piano of 19^9; the
Nocturne of 1959; the Piano Concerto of I962, and his
most recent composition for piano, the Ballade of 1977-
Before examining the Piano Sonata. I will briefly discuss
the other keyboard works in chronological order.
Excursions. first performed by Vladimir Horowitz in
19^5. are, as Barber states in the score, "excursions in
small classical forms into regional American idioms. Their
rhythmic characteristics, as well as their source in folk
material and their scoring, reminiscent of local instru
ments, are easily recognized." The opening piece is a
stylized boogie-woogie; the second, a blues piece; the
third, a theme and variations on the cowboy song, "The
Streets of Laredo;" and the fourth, a barn dance. This
piece is Barber's sole effort in a nationalistic vein.
The Nocturne, subtitled "Hommage to John Field,"
reflects the expressive spirit of nineteenth-century
nocturnes, but the harmonic idiom is wholly contemporary.
Basically homophonic and set in a ternary design, the
l6^'
first and last sections are based on a twelve-tone row,
while the middle section freely develops motives derived
from the row.
The Piano Concerto, written for the celebration of
G. Schirmer's one hundredth anniversary, was premiered
on September 24, I962, during the inaugural week of Lin
coln Center for the Performing Arts in New York City.
The soloist was John Browning, for whom the work was writ
ten, performing with the Boston Symphony Orchestra under
the direction of Erich Leinsdorf. Cast in three tradi
tional movements, this work has been widely performed both
in the United States and abroad.
Barber's most recent piano piece is the Ballade.
composed for the 1977 Van Cliburn Piano Competition.
Like the Nocturne. the Ballade is a ternary structure with
the outer homophonic sections framing a more contrapuntal
and dramatic middle section. This piece reveals a return
to Barber's more conservative approach, similar to his
earlier compositions.
The Piano Sonata
Premiered at Carnegie Hall on January 23, 1950, by
Vladimir Horowitz, the Piano Sonata was hailed by many
critics as one of the most outstanding contributions to
165
the contemporary keyboard repertoire. Hans Tischler de
scribed the work as, "standing head and shoulders above
any other sonata written by an American composer in the
past thirty years." Writing in The Musical Quarterly in
April, 1950, Nathan Broder states that this Sonata repre
sents "Barber's final emancipation from the neo-Romantic
traits that dominated his early compositions and is thus
the culmination of a development that had taken a decade
to reach its goal." In the biography of Samuel Barber,
written in 195^, Mr. Broder continues his praise of the
work by saying, "Its grand sweep, its largeness of ut
terance, is reminiscent of Beethoven, and its intensity
makes one think of Bartok." Tischler also compares this
work with Beethoven's examples by virtue of its drama, and
humor, in the tendency to develop motives rather than
merely repeat them, and in the propounding and solution of
musical problems. The successful fusion of serial tech
niques, contemporary harmonic vocabulary, traditional
sonata form, and contrapuntal control stamp this work as
a landmark of the twentieth century.
The Sonata was commissioned by Irving Berlin and
Richard Rodgers on September 23. 19^7. in honor of the
twenty-fifth anniversary of the League of Composers in
1950. With the premiere by Vladimir Horowitz, the Sonata
achieved the status of being the first American piano
piece of major importance to be performed by a leading
166
piano virtuoso.
The romantic influences of broad lyricism and dramatic
expression are balanced by Barber's complete understanding
of classical formal structures, but the harmonic and rhyth
mic vocabulary are unmistakably in a contemporary idiom.
Traditional formal procedures are observed in each of the
four movements: sonata form in the opening movement; a
Mendelssohn-like scherzo in the second movement; a lyrical
ternary Adagio, reminiscent of the dirge-like Baroque la
ment in the third; and a brilliant fugue in the fourth.
Inherent dramatic implications of sonata form are ex
ploited in the opening movement, including conflicting to
nalities in the exposition, highly contrasting first and
second theme groups, and a thorough working out of the mo
tives in the development section. The formal design sup
ports Barber's dramatic intentions, heightened by an ef
fective use of chromaticism, extremely contrasting dynamic
levels, as well as the use of extreme registers of the key
board . L
Typical of sonata form, the first theme, in E' minor,
is strongly rhythmic and aggressive. The first two notes
of the melody form a germ idea, used consistently through
out the entire movement. Exam.ple la: germ
^ ^P
167
The important short-long rhythm of the germ, as well as
the descending half-step motion, allow the listener to
easily identify it.
The first theme is merely an expansion of the germ.
Example lb: first theme
I'; uMuiij.j^ij te
¥ i r i il J
-w ¥m^^^ The texture of the first theme is contrapuntal, with
an important countermelody in the bass. A loud dynamic
level, low range and rhythmic drive create an intense cli
max that is released in the transition which begins with
the first theme, inverted in the bass. A new figure, a
triplet pattern using all twelve chromatic tones, accom
panies the inverted theme. Following this phrase, an im
portant new motive is introduced: an expanding triplet
figure, which reappears in the closing sections and the
coaa.
Example Ic: triplet figure
168
A second important motive is also heard in the transi
tion: an arpeggiated figure again using all twelve tones
of the chromatic scale. This motive is used as a melodic
gesture, not as a twelve-tone row. It also reappears in
the coda, in a much faster tempo.
Example Id: twelve-tone row
iJJtfjT^i ITiffii
A lyrical second theme is now presented in the sopra
no. Flowing rhythm, in both the melody and accompaniment,
helps establish the more r9la:<:ed atmosphere.
Example le: second theme
liifrffjiri
The smooth contour of this theme, the homophonic texture
and the broader sixteenth note show an extreme contrast to
the opening. Although the second theme begins in the up
per range, the melody is soon shared by the lower voice.
A new motive, derived from the second theme appears and
is used extensively in the development and coda.
169
Example If : d e r i v e d motive
uP-^ I
Another important motive is introduced in the closing
section: a four-note repeated figure which is combined
with the germ, the triplet figure, the twelve-tone motive
and the motive derived from the second theme.
Example Ig: repeated figure with germ
iiijjnjijii
The development section consists of three parts.
The opening section employs the first theme, beginning
mysteriously in the lower register and building to a
climax twelve bars later at the top of the keyboard.
The second section, slower and more lyrical, uses the
motive derived from the second theme combined with the
repeated note figure.
170
Example Ih: second section of the development
The third section begins loudly with the repeated note
figure, but the accent is now on the last note. A trans
formation of the second theme, heard in the soprano, pre
pares for the return of E' minor, and an intensely dramatic
build up ushers in the recapitulation.
Example Ii: transformed motive
A fortissimo dynamic level, thick texture and ex
treme registers mark the return of the first theme. The
recapitulation unfolds much like the exposition, with only
slight modifications. The second theme is now based on
J, as opposed to the B center of the exposition.
The coda begins in a tranquil character, much like
the second section of the development. All of the motives
171
are used, but the return of the first theme is saved for
the last phrase, ending with a powerful reiteration of the
germ.
-he second movement, a sophisticated and witty
scherzo, provides a release from the intensity of the
opening movement. The release is achieved by: 1) the use
of a G major tonality; 2) a very light, mostly two-voiced
texture; 3) a simple rondo form (ABACA), with an emphasis
on repetition rather than developmental procedures; and
^) basically diatonic melodies and harmonies. The fast
temipo and exploitation of the upper registers also enhance
the light, lance-like character.
Rhythmic subtleties perm:eate the movement. The open-/•
ing meter is :; , but hem.iolas are implied throughout. The
opening tneme presents a shifting of major and minor har
mony, as well as a subtle rhythmic pattern.
Example 2a: opening theme
ly^rJ•l -^ lf¥^
An excellent example of hemiola occurs at the end
of the first section, defined by the bass melody.
172 -xample 2b: hemiola
^%. ' . 'U 'H i ' i j i i a ; ;^
An obvious display of humor is heard at the opening
of the B section, illustrating another rhythmic subtlety.
This section, a stylized waltz, alternates ^ and ^ meters
T.te slurs and staccatos in the accompaniment also provide
a touch of humor.
Example 2c: B section of scher zo
(VdUihjw ti -r-
I'V r \y^ £=J
Following the waltz, a return of the opening section
is heard in the tonic key. A new section, C, functions
as a brief development. A bit of humor is observed as the
final return of A occurs, the first fifteen measures being
m A major, a hali-step too high.
After returning to the tonic key of G major, the
opening theme makes its final appearance. The movement
closes, or rather disappears, as the theme becomes faster
173
and softer, vanishing off the top of the keyboard.
The somber third movement is a tragic lament. The
form is ternary: ABA coda. The opening section is an
aria, presenting a long flowing melody in the soprano,
accompanied by a slow arpeggiated figure in the bass. A
complete transformation of the theme, building to a drama
tic and passionate climax, is found in the middle section.
Following this climax, the opening section returns, em
bellished with a new countermelody in the alto.
This movement reveals Barber's first use of serial
techniques, but his style of twelve-tone writing is highly
individual. The row is used only as an accompaniment pat
tern ajid has a tonal center of B minor, departing from an
equal treatment of all twelve tones. The construction of
the row itself further departs from rigid twelve-tone pro
cedures, emphasizing the consonant interval of a minor
sixth. As an introduction to the movement, the row is
first heard in a harmonic pattern, followed by an arpeg
giated figure used to accompany the soprano melody.
Example 3a: introduction
17^
Example 3b: arpeggiated accompaniment
The long melodic phrases are conjunct, using very
few leaps. Falling seconds are emphasized, reminiscent
of a Baroque-sigh, and contribute to the melancholy char
acter of the theme.
Example 3c: opening theme
^i^x"^\^ujM m
The melody is most often heard in the soprano voice
in the A sections. In the 3 section, however, the melody
alternates between the bass and soprano voices.
The tempo is very slow and the persistent eighth-
note pattern in the accompaniment enhances the relentless,
tragic quality of this movement. A fluid rhythm in the
melody contrasts with the accompaniment and implies a
vocal aria-like quality.
The dramatic expression spans the extreme dynamic
limits, from pianissimo to fortissimo. The soft, inti
mate mood of the A sections contrasts greatly with the
175
intense outbursts heard in the middle section. The move
ment closes with a feeling of complete despair as the
theme disintegrates in the lower register.
The fourth movement, a four-voiced fugue, is a bril
liant finale to the sonata --a tour de force for both the
composer and performer. The architecture and craftsman
ship of the movement are reminiscent of Bartok. The over
all form is an arch design, which could be diagrammed
ABCBA coda, with development sections framing the central
C section. Barber exhibits masterful control of fugal
techniques throughout the movement, but the powerful emo
tional communication is never overshadowed by the expert
handling of compositional devices.
This movement is an excellent example of Barber's
ability to construct an expansive com.position from very
limited material. The entire movement is built on the
subject and countersubject of the fugue. Both the rhyth
mic and harmonic structure of these themes display a strong
jazz influence. The subject is made up of two segments,
labeled a and b. The first segment outlines a tonic ninth L
chord, beginning and ending on the root, E^ ; the second
segment is a sequential pattern that modulates to the L
dominant, B''.
;xample ^a: subjec t
176
tri g h'i i\^\'\fiUr%j^\[^f\((f
\[W\JUi\>Wr^\^^ The countersubject. also a sequential pattern, ends
with an important closing motive of four ascending,
heavily accented step-wise tones.
Example ^b: countersubject
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ m ^ ^
In the first exposition, both the subject and counter-
subject are heard in all four voices. An episode, built
on the countersubject, leads to a second exposition, marlced
•oy a series of stretto entries in a higher register and
thinner texture. ^ ,.,-;-(->. a Gtprips of partial entries, The B section opens with a seri-.s ux ycu.
using the a segment of the subject. A rhythmic variation
of both the a motive and the countersubject in now heard.
177
Example 4-0: s u b j e c t
W i^ui mWtUf^^^
Example ^d: c o u n t e r s u b j e c t
?>V>^'^^tjfV;Vjl^'^f'te'L!^
C-ollowing a dynarriic building to a bass pedal on A,
the development section begins in a more lyrical vein.
Barber employs contrapuntal devices of augmentation and
inversion in this section. The augmented version of the
subject, married espressivo. is heard in the middle voice
Example 4e: augm.entation
Immediately following, we hear the inversion of this
same motive, no// in the soprano.
Example 4f: inversion
Avri^um^
,_-,a.
-178
The development section builds again to a climax, marked
by extreme registers, dense texture and a fortissimo dy
namic level. A brief transition leads to the C section.
The middle section, C, provides a release from the
previous tension. The key is S major and the scherzando
character is conveyed by a folk-like melody, derived from
the countersubject. The contrapuntal alto line is also
derived from the same motive, now heard in an augmented
and inverted version.
Example ^g: opening of scherzo
m jm UJ f
A second development follows this section, once again
beginning very quietly. We now hear a transformation of
the second phrase of the subject in a light and playful
manner.
Example ^h: transformation of b
179
While the dynamic level is still very soft, Barber
begins a complex presentation of the subject. The first
segment of the subject, a, is heard in the lower voice in
augmentation, while the upper voice treats the same theme
in diminution. The entire phrase is then repeated, but
the soprano now has the augmentation while the lower voice
has the diminution.
Example ^i: bass augmentation
f -
The 3 section follows, transposed up a step, and pre
pares for the return of the subject in the tonic key of
E' minor. A powerful presentation of the A section is
introduced by a two-measure phrase based on the counter-
subject .
180
Example 4 j : r e t u r n of A
^ ^ v>^" C7 Us i f-r
BEi E H ^ ^ E E ^ ^ ^ ±r
^)TH.V^ ^"**—^
Following an in .ense build-up of stretto entries only
an eighth-note apart, the coda tegins. Opening quietly
and building to the biggest climax in the piece, the
countersutject is once again used. Heard in the lowest
register as a canon between the hands, the rhythm is
identical to that used in the B section.
Example ' k: coda
.,-Ji Wif^^?'^ 7^n^ ? ¥
••
181
The subject finally returns in octaves in both hands,
ending the work in a blaze of brilliance.
Conclusion
Resulting from an analytical study of the Sonata. I
have become increasingly convinced of its eminent position
in twentieth-century keyboard repertoire. The profound
impact of this work can be attributed to its formal beauty
and expressive power, as well as to its exploration of an
idiomatic treatment of the keyboard.
Although Barber uses traditional formal procedures
throughout, his ability to realize the implied potential
of extremely limited motivic material provides each move
ment with a cohesive unity. The result is a tightly
organized structure that exhibits a maximum degree of
thematic transformations through rigid formal control.
In addition to control of form aind compositional de
vices. Barber is a master at creating logical sequences of
mounting intensity, as well as carefully prepared moments
of relajcation, both within and between movements. The
powerful preparation for the recapitulation in the first
movement, some twenty measures building from a thin, high
register to a dense, low texture all above a tonic pedal,
is a particularly effective example of his expertise in
182
creating mounting tension. Similar examples will be heard
in the coda, as well as in the development of the fugue
subject and its return in the coda of the last movement.
Barber's beautiful melodic writing is further tes
timony to the greatness of this work, particularly in the
third movement Adagio. The fluid rhythm of this melody
contrasts greatly with the dotted rhythm of the first
movement, the humorous rhythmic subtleties of the second
movement, or the perpetual rhythmic drive of the fugue.
Barber's treatment of the keyboard itself is extra
ordinary. He explores extreme ranges of touch, dynamics
and registers. Imaginative use of all three pedals add
greatly to the expressive power of the music. The techni
cal interpretive demands of this work provide a constant
challenge for both the performer and listener as well.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMRY SOURCES
Barber, Samuel. Excursions. On. 20. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 19^5.
. Sonata for Piano. Op. 26. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1950.
• Nocturne. Op. 33. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1959.
. Piano Concerto. Op. 38. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., I962.
. Ballade. Op. 6. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1977.
SECONDARY SOURCES
Apel, Willi, ed. Harvard Dictionary of Music. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, I969.
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Broder, Nathan. "Current Chronicle." The Musical Quarterly. XLIX (1963), 93-97.
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. "The Music of Samuel Barber." The Musical Quarterly. XXXIV (19^8). 325-335.
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18^
185
Bull, Storm. Index to Biographies of Contemporary Composers. Vol. I. New York: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 196^.
• Index to Biographies of Contemporary Composers. Vol. II. New York: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. , 197 -.
"Capacity Throng Hears Horowitz." New York Times. March 21, 1950, p. 33.
Chittum, Donald R. "The Synthesis of Materials and Devices in Non-serial Counterpoint." The Music Review. XXXI, No. 2 (1970), 12^-135.
Copland, Aaron. Copland on Music . New York: W. W. Norton and Co., I962.
Cowell, Henry. "Current Chronicle." The Musical Quarterly. XXXVIII (1952), 35-^37
Dexter, Harry. "Samuel Barber and His Music." Musical Opinion. LXXII (19^9), 285-286, 343-3 4-4.
Downes, Olin. "Horowitz Offers Barber's Sonata." New York Times. January 24, 1950, p. 27.
Edmunds, John and Gordon Boelzner. Some Twentieth Century American Composers: A Selective Bibliography. Vol. II. New York: New York Public Library, i960.
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Farleigh, James P. "Serialism in Barber's Solo Piano Works." The Piano Quarterly. Summer 1970, pp. 13-20.
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Freed, Isadore. "American Composition Committee Reviews." Music Clubs Magazine. December 1950, pp. 22-23.
Friedewald, Russell E. "A Formal and Stylistic Analysis of the Published Music of Samuel Barber." Diss. State University of Iowa 1957.
Gerber, Leslie. "Cliburn: Supple, Virile, Prokofievian Barber (and Prokofiev, too)." The American Record Guide, XXXVIII (1972), 355-
Gillespie, John. Five Centuries of Keyboard Music: An Historical Survey of Music for Harpsichord and Piano. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co., Inc., 1965.
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Hanson, John R. "Macroform in Selected Twentieth-Century Piano Concertos." Diss. University of Rochester 1969.
Harrison, Jay S. "The New York Music Scene." Musical America. December 19^3. p. 178.
Helm, Everett. "Lincoln Center Opening." Musical America. November I962, pp. 18-19.
Henehan, Donal. "A Talk With Samuel Barber." New York Times, January 28, 1979. Sec. D, pp. 19. 24T
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Horn, David. Th^ Literature of American Music in BoQks and Folk Music Collections: A Fullv Annotated Bibliography. New Jersey: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1977.
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187
Kolodin, Irving. "Farewell to Capricorn." Saturday Review. June 1, 197^, pp. 44-45.
. "Music to My Ears: Barber Concerto." Saturday Review. November 23, I963, p. 33.
Luther, Arlton Dean. "American Piano Sonatas of the Twentieth Century: Selective Analyses and Annotated Index." Diss. Columbia University I968.
Machlis, Joseph. American Composers of Our Time. New York: Crowell, I963.
Introduction to Contemporary Music. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., Inc., I96I.
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Osborne, Chaxles. The Dictionary of Composers. London: The Bodley Head, 1977.
Parks, Gordon. "U. S. Composers in a Bright Era." Life, May 21, 1956, p. l42.
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"Piano Sonata Performed by Horowitz in January." Rev. of Barber Piano Sonata. Op. 26. The Musical Quarterly. XXXVI (1950), 276-279.
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"Samuel Barber Composes Effective Piano Sonata." Musical America. February 1950, p. 332.
Salzman, Eric. "Samuel Barber." HiFi/Stereo Review. October I966, pp. 77-89-
"Samuel Barber Work Commissioned." Music Clubs Magazine. March 1976, p. 15-
Sargeant, Winthrop. "Musical Events: The Main Stream." The New Yorker. April 13, 1963. PP- 153-15^.
Schwartz, Elliot and Bamey Childs, eds. Contemporary Composers on Comtemporary Music. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1967.
188
"Sonata to Honor League." New York Times, September 24, 1947, p. 20.
Tischler, Hans. "Barber's Piano Sonata, Op. 26." Music and Letters. XXXIII (1952), 352-35^.
"Some Remarks on the Use of Twelve-tone and Fugue Technics in Samuel Barber's Piano Sonata. Journal of the American Musicological Society. V (Summer 1952), 145-146.
Vinton, John, ed. Dictionary of Contemporary Music. New York: E. P. IDutton and Co., Inc., 1971-