copyright © 2012 pearson education, inc. chapter 2 chemistry comes to life betty mcguire cornell...
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 2
Chemistry Comes to Life
Betty McGuireCornell University
Lecture Presentation
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Chemistry Comes to Life
The nature of atoms Compounds and chemical bonds The role of water in life Major molecules of life
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The Nature of Atoms
Everything that takes up space and has mass is called matter
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The Nature of Atoms
All matter is made of atoms, each containing a nucleus with protons and neutrons surrounded by a cloud of electrons Atoms are units of matter that cannot be
broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means
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The Nature of Atoms
Element A form of matter that cannot be broken down
into simpler substances Made of many atoms that are all the same
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The Nature of Atoms
Each element has an atomic number and atomic weight Atomic number
The number of protons in the nucleus Atomic weight
The number of protons plus the number of neutrons
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The Nature of Atoms
Elements with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes All carbon atoms have six protons in the
nucleus Common isotopes of carbon include 12C
(with six neutrons), 13C (with seven neutrons), and 14C (with eight neutrons)
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The Nature of Atoms
Radiation is energy moving through space, such as radio waves, light, and heat
Some elements have both stable and unstable isotopes
A radioisotope is unstable and emits radiation
Radiation can be very harmful, causing the death of cells, or very beneficial, as evidenced by its use in medicine
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Compounds and Chemical Bonds
Two or more elements may combine to form a compound
A compound’s characteristics are usually different from those of its elements
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Compounds and Chemical Bonds
The atoms in a compound are held together by either covalent or ionic bonds
When atoms form bonds, they lose, gain, or share electrons in their outermost shell
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Compounds and Chemical Bonds
Covalent bonds The strongest bonds They form when two or more atoms share
the electrons in their outer shells
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Compounds and Chemical Bonds
Molecule A chemical structure held together by
covalent bonds The chemical structure shows the number of
each element forming the molecule
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Compounds and Chemical Bonds
Ion An atom or group of atoms with a positive or
negative electrical charge
Ionic bonds Weaker than covalent bonds Result from the attraction of oppositely
charged ions, rather than shared electrons
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The Role of Water in Life
When the electrons of a covalent bond are shared unequally, the bond is called polar The resulting molecules are called polar
molecules Water is a polar molecule
Its unique properties such as its high heat capacity, its high heat of vaporization, and its superior ability as a dissolving agent can be traced to its polarity
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The Role of Water in Life
Hydrogen bonds The attraction formed between a slightly
positively charged hydrogen atom and another slightly negatively charged atom
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The Role of Water in Life
Hydrogen bonds account for the unique properties of water and the geometric shape of many biological molecules
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The Role of Water in Life
Web Activity: Water and Chemistry
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The Role of Water in Life
Acids and bases react differently to water Acids release hydrogen ions (H+) when
placed in water Bases produce hydroxide ions (OH–) when
added to water
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The Role of Water in Life
pH The negative logarithm of the concentration
of the H+ ion in solution The lower the pH on the pH scale, the
greater the acidity The higher the pH, the more basic a solution
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The Role of Water in Life
Buffers Prevent dramatic changes in pH Remove excess H+ from solutions when
concentrations of H+ increase Add H+ when concentrations of H+ decrease
Many body fluids have the buffering capacity to maintain a constant internal environment
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The Role of Water in Life
Acid rain Usually defined as rain with a pH lower than
5.6, the pH of natural precipitation Caused largely by the burning of fossil fuels
in cars, factories, and power plants Has devastating effects on the environment
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Major Molecules of Life
Biological macromolecules The giant molecules of life They are long chains called polymers made
of repeating units called monomers
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Major Molecules of Life
When polymers are made, water is removed, and the reaction is called dehydration synthesis
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Major Molecules of Life
Web Activity: Monomers and Polymers
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Major Molecules of Life
Conversely, when the same molecules are broken apart, water is added and the reaction is called hydrolysis
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Major Molecules of Life
Carbohydrates Polymers, made of monosaccharides Composed only of C, H, and O
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Major Molecules of Life
Glucose and fructose are examples of monosaccharides Simple sugars
Sucrose and lactose are examples of disaccharides Double sugars
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Major Molecules of Life
Polysaccharides Chains of monosaccharides that store
energy or provide structure The storage polysaccharide in plants is
starch In animals it is glycogen, which humans
store mainly in the cells of liver and muscles
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Major Molecules of Life
Cellulose A common example of an indigestible
polysaccharide made of repeating units of glucose
Humans lack the enzyme necessary to digest cellulose
It is an important form of dietary fiber in the human diet
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Major Molecules of Life
Lipids Water-insoluble molecules made of C, H,
and O Store long-term energy Protect vital organs Form cell membranes
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Major Molecules of Life
Fats and oils are examples of triglycerides Polymers made of one molecule of glycerol
and three fatty acids The fatty acids bond to glycerol through
dehydration synthesis
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Major Molecules of Life
If there are double bonds between carbon atoms and fatty acids, triglycerides are classified as unsaturated; if not, they are called saturated
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Major Molecules of Life
Web Activity: Lipid Structure and Function
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Major Molecules of Life
Phospholipid molecules have A glycerol head that is polar and hydrophilic A fatty acid tail that is nonpolar and hydrophobic
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Major Molecules of Life
Phospholipids are the main components of plasma membranes The hydrophilic heads mix with watery
environments inside and outside the cell The hydrophobic tails point inward and help
hold the membrane together
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Major Molecules of Life
Steroids A type of lipid that consists of four carbon
rings attached to molecules that vary from one steroid to the next
Estrogen and testosterone are examples of steroids, as is cholesterol, which is a risk factor for heart disease when found in high levels in the blood
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Major Molecules of Life
Proteins Amino acids
The building blocks of proteins Consist of a central carbon atom bound to
a hydrogen (H) atom, an amino group (NH2), and a carboxyl group (COOH) in addition to a unique side chain (R)
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Major Molecules of Life
Amino acids that form proteins are linked by bonds called peptide bonds, which are formed through dehydration synthesis
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Major Molecules of Life
Chains of only a few amino acids are called peptides
Chains of 10 or more amino acids are called polypeptides
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Major Molecules of Life
Proteins Polypeptide chains of at least 50 amino
acids that provide structure, transport, and movement for the body
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Major Molecules of Life
Proteins have four distinct levels of structure that affect their function in the body Primary Secondary Tertiary Quaternary
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Major Molecules of Life
Web Activity: Protein Structure
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Major Molecules of Life
Changes in the chemical environment of a protein can cause it to lose its structure, resulting in a loss of function
This is called denaturation
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Major Molecules of Life
Enzymes are almost always proteins They speed up chemical reactions without
being consumed Without enzymes, chemical reactions within
our cells would occur far too slowly to sustain life
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Major Molecules of Life
Enzymes Are very specific in their activity
Specificity is due to the unique shape of each enzyme’s active site
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Major Molecules of Life
Enzymes bind to substrates at the active site, forming an enzyme-substrate complex Sometimes cofactors, often called
coenzymes, bind at the active site to facilitate the reaction
The substrate is converted to one or more products
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E + S ES E + PEnzyme Substrate Enzyme-substrate Enzyme Product
complex
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Major Molecules of Life
Nucleic acids Genes are segments of polymers called
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
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Major Molecules of Life
DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are the two types of nucleic acids
Both are polymers of smaller units called nucleotides
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Major Molecules of Life
A nucleotide is made up of a five-carbon sugar bonded to one of five nitrogen-containing bases and a phosphate group
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Major Molecules of Life
The sequencing of the nucleotides in DNA and RNA determines the sequence of amino acids in proteins
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Major Molecules of Life
RNA and DNA have structural differences related to the sugar, bases, and number of strands
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Major Molecules of Life
RNA Is single stranded Has the sugar ribose Has the nitrogen-containing bases adenine,
guanine, cytosine, and uracil
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Major Molecules of Life
DNA Has two strands that form a distinctive
double helix Has the sugar deoxyribose Has the nitrogen-containing bases adenine,
guanine, cytosine, and thymine
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Major Molecules of Life
A special nucleotide is adenosine triphosphate (ATP) A molecule capable of storing energy in its
phosphate-to-phosphate bonds
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Major Molecules of Life
All energy from the breakdown of molecules, such as glucose, must be channeled through ATP before the body can use it
ATP is often described as the energy currency of cells
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Major Molecules of Life
Web Activity: Nucleic Acids