copyright © 2010 pearson education, inc. all rights reserved. middle childhood physical and...
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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Middle ChildhoodPhysical and Cognitive Development
Chapter 8
8
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Middle ChildhoodPhysical and Cognitive Development
• Physical and Motor Development
• Cognitive Development
• Learning and Thinking in School
• Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities
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Physical and Motor Development
• Development in Middle Childhood
– Development is continuous
– Physical, cognitive, and psychosocial factors interact
– Development occurs in a broad social context
– Physical growth is gradual until children experience the adolescent growth spurt
– Age 9 for girls
– Age 11 for boys
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Physical and Motor Development
• Brain changes
– Brain development continues, neural plasticity remains high
– Between ages 6 and 8, forebrain undergoes growth spurt
– By age 6, brain is about 95% of its maximum size
– Lateralization of brain becomes more pronounced
– Brain development is clearly tied to rapidly developing cognitive functions
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Physical and Motor Development
• Skeletal Maturation– Skeleton matures, producing actual growing pains
sometimes
– Children’s permanent teeth begin to come in
• Motor Skills Development– Gross motor skills are expanded and children grow
stronger
– Fine motor skills are rapidly developing
– Control of their bodies enhances sense of competence and self-esteem
– Poorly coordinated children may be unpopular and feel rejected
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Physical Development in Middle Childhood
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Health, Fitness, and Accidents
• Problems that emerge include asthma (increasingly widespread) and visual problems
• Physical activity and exercise have been declining
• Obesity is increasing: over 17% of U.S. grade-school-age children are obese
• The leading cause of death is accidents, especially involving motor vehicles
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Video Clip
Describes New Jersey’s initiative to combat childhood obesity using health report cardshttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BXvDI3Lh9xQ
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Video Clip
Tyra Banks meets with young girls who already have a fear of becoming fat:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F734qbEXm1s
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Video Clip
Video produced by the Dove Corporation to highlight body image and self-esteem issues among girls in middle childhood:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IWzbIVwGd1E
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Major Causes of Deaths for U.S. Children, Ages 5-14, 2005
SOURCE: From America’s children: Key national indicators of well being, 2004, by the Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 2008. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
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Psychological Disorders
• About 20% children age 9-17 have mental disorders with at least mild functional impairment
• Some disorders, such as autism and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, are most commonly diagnosed in childhood
• Under-recognition of mental illness as a major problem of childhood is a concern
• Treatment decisions can be difficult
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Cognitive Development
• Piaget and Concrete Operational Thinking
– Children move from preoperational to concrete operational thought during the years from ages 5 to 7
– Thought becomes less intuitive and egocentric and more logical
– Thinking becomes more reversible, flexible, and complex
– Cause-effect evaluations are possible
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Preoperational Versus Concrete Operational Thought
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Piaget’s Matchstick Problem
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Cognitive Development
• Children become more skilled in using words to help them understand, structure, and solve problems
• Concrete operational children can theorize about the world around them
• Acquisition of concrete operational thought is gradual and occurs without formal education or prompting
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Cognitive Development
• Piaget and Education
– Piaget believed children are better off when they learn at their own pace and that learning is best when it is intrinsically motivated rather than extrinsically rewarded
– Use of concrete objects can enhance learning and cognitive development
– Use of concrete learning aides promotes active learning and constructivist knowledge
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Concrete Objects to Aid in Learning – Cubes and Spatial Arrays
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Cognitive Development
• Memory and metacognition– Children’s memory strategies and techniques
—control processes—improve with age
– Children are better able to monitor their own thinking, memory, knowledge, goals, and actions—metacognition
– Metacognition begins at about age 6 and emerges more fully between the ages of 7 and 10
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Control Processes Used by Children in Middle Childhood
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Language and Literacy Development
• Language learning expands, as vocabulary increases and complex grammar is mastered
• Reading and writing skills—literacy—are natural growths of language development
• Development of reading and writing skills during middle childhood is complex & multidimensional
• Teachers and peers aid in enhancing literacy skills
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Conditions That Promote Literacy
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Conditions That Promote Literacy (continued)
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Individual Differences in Intelligence
• Intelligence test scores are used in educational, career, and public policy decisions
• 2 commonly used assessments of intelligence:
– Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
– Wechsler (versions for varying ages: WPPSI, WISC, WAIS)
• IQ scores today assessed by comparing individual’s score with scores of other people in same age range—deviation IQ.
– Scores are distributed in bell-shaped curve.
– An IQ score of 100 is average.
– About two thirds of the population scores between 85 and 115; 96% score between 70 and 130.
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Distribution of IQ in the General Population
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The Nature of Intelligence
• Intelligence is a composite of abilities, not a single attribute
• Howard Gardner promotes a broad-based model of intellectual abilities consisting of eight “types” of intelligence
• Robert Sternberg developed a broad triarchic theory of intelligence– Contextual intelligence: adaptation to environment,
common sense
– Experiential intelligence: ability to cope with new situations
– Componential intelligence: measured by IQ tests
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Gardner’s Eight Types of Intelligence
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Race and Intelligence
• Some U.S. minority groups typically score lower on average on tests when compared to Whites
• Some disparity may be due to cultural bias in tests.
• Research suggests that race is not a factor in determining intelligence, although culture probably is
• When social and economic circumstances are considered, group difference in intelligence all but disappear
• An IQ is a dynamic interaction of genetics and environment
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Learning and Thinking in School
• World customs differ as to when children enter school and how long they remain
• Children face a variety of new expectations and adjustments when they enter school
• Students must meet behavioral expectations when in school, and teachers spend a good amount of time enforcing rules, disciplining and praising, in addition to performing their teaching duties
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Youth Literacy Rates Around the World, 2000-2006
Source: From Table 5, “Youth literacy rates.” In The state of the world’s children (p. 133), by UNICEF, 2007. New York: Author. Copyright ©2007 by UNICEF. Reprinted with permission of the publisher.
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Developing Competent Learners and Critical Thinkers
• U.S. schools are placing greater emphasis on teaching learning and thinking schools
• Teachers try to develop different teaching strategies to teach different skills and to meet the individual needs and learning styles of students
• Group projects seem to aid in critical thinking. They also foster cooperative, rather than competitive, learning
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Success in School
• School success influenced by many factors
– Achievement motivation: the internalized need to persist toward success
– Gender differences
• Girls outperform boys in verbal skills
• Boys outperform girls in quantitative and spatial tasks
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Success in School
• Motivation for learning is influenced by the ways that teachers and parents encourage children
– Girls tend to adopt a “performance” focus while boys adopt a “learning” focus
– A critical goal is to encourage children to develop a “learning” orientation
– Praise is critical for children to develop a positive academic self-concept
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Evaluating Gender Bias in the Classroom: Questions for Parents
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Developmental Disorders
• Federal Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) mandates the right of all children to a free and appropriate education
• Key provisions– Inclusion with “regular” students, rather than “special”
classes
– Individualized Education Plan (IEP)
– Education in least restrictive environment
– Diagnosis of special needs is more targeted today, due to need for individualized assistance in the mainstream setting
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Intellectual Disability
• Condition characterized by– significantly subaverage intellectual functioning and
self-help skills
– may be genetic or caused by birth or early childhood trauma
– may result from social deprivation
– cause may not always by known
• Characterized by severity and extensiveness of impairment
• Only diagnosed when child can be tested, usually school age
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Diagnosis of Intellectual Disability
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Levels of Mental Retardation
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Learning Disorders
• Learning disorders involve difficulty in acquiring some specific academic skills but not others
– reading disorder: i.e., dyslexia
– disorder of written expression
– mathematics disorder
• Children with learning disorders often have social issues as well
• Treatment for LDs is more effective when begun early in life
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ADHD
• Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is not a learning disorder, but a behavioral disorder
• Characterized by:– extreme inattentiveness
– problems with impulse control
– high levels of activity
• In absence of hyperactivity, the diagnosis should be ADD (attention deficit disorder)
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Video Clip
A woman describes the process of her son being diagnosed with ADHD, then being diagnosed with ADD herself:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NTnVYGWWiWU
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ADHD
• Causes
– Irregularities in the way dopamine operates
– Brains of children with ADHD have structural differences
– Irregularities may be caused by genetic or environmental factors
• Treatment
– stimulant drugs, like Ritalin
– educational and behavioral management
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Characteristics of ADHD
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Summary
• Three themes run throughout development in middle childhood– Development is continuous
– Physical, cognitive, and social factors interact for each child
– Development occurs in a broad social context
• Physical growth is gradual until children experience a growth spurt—about age 9 for girls and age 11 for boys
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Summary
• Gross and fine motor skills continue to development
• Asthma and obesity are becoming major health problems for children in the United States
• The leading cause of death at this age is accidents, especially involving motor vehicles
• Piaget referred to cognitive development at this stage as the age of concrete operations. Their thinking is getting more logical, but they are still bound to concrete examples
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Summary
• Children face many challenges when they enter school, including achievement and behaving appropriately
• Children with development disabilities and special needs have rights under federal law
• Mental retardation, learning disorders and ADHD are some of the disorders and challenges that are faced during this stage of childhood