copyright © 2008 by nelson, a division of thomson canada limited chapter 9 part 2 designing...

Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited

Chapter

9

Part 2

Designing Research Studies

OBSERVATION

LEARNING OBJECTIVESLEARNING OBJECTIVESLEARNING OBJECTIVESLEARNING OBJECTIVES

1. To distinguish between scientific observation and casual observation

2. To discuss the characteristics of observation research

3. To give examples of nonverbal behaviour that can be observed

4. To discuss the various situations in which direct observation studies may take place

5. To discuss scientifically contrived observation

6. To discuss some ethical issues in observation studies

7. To define physical-trace evidence

What you will learn in this chapter

Copyright © 2008 by Nelson, a division of Thomson Canada Limited 9–1

LEARNING OBJECTIVES (cont’d)LEARNING OBJECTIVES (cont’d)LEARNING OBJECTIVES (cont’d)LEARNING OBJECTIVES (cont’d)

8. To define content analysis and explain the purposes of content analysis

9. To describe the various types of mechanical observation

10. To discuss the techniques for measuring physiological reactions

What you will learn in this chapter


• ObservationObservationThe systematic process of recording the behavioural

patterns of people, objects, and occurrences as they are witnessed

• Observation is a tool for scientific inquiry when:Observation is a tool for scientific inquiry when:It serves a formulated research purposeIt is planned systematicallyIt is recorded systematically and related to general

propositions rather than simply reflecting a set of interesting curiosities

It is subjected to checks or controls on validity and reliability

When Is Observation Scientific?When Is Observation Scientific?When Is Observation Scientific?When Is Observation Scientific?


Physical action Example: A shopper’s movement pattern in a store

Verbal behaviour Example: Statements made by airline travellers while

waiting in line

Expressive behaviour Example: Facial expressions, tones of voices, and other

forms of body language

Spatial relations and locations Example: How close visitors at an art museum stand to

paintings

What Can Be Observed?What Can Be Observed?What Can Be Observed?What Can Be Observed?


Temporal patterns Example: How long fast-food customers wait for their orders

to be served

Physical ObjectsPhysical Objects Example: What brand-name items are stored in consumers’

pantries

Verbal and Pictorial Records Example: Bar codes on product packages

Observation research cannot provide an explanation of why a behaviour occurred or what actions were intended

What Can Be Observed? (cont’d)What Can Be Observed? (cont’d)What Can Be Observed? (cont’d)What Can Be Observed? (cont’d)


• Visible ObservationVisible ObservationObservation in which the observer’s presence is

known to the subject

• Hidden ObservationHidden ObservationObservation in which the subject is unaware that

observation is taking place

Advantage of observation studies over surveys: The data do not have distortions, inaccuracies or other

response biases due to memory error, social desirability bias, etc.

The Nature of Observation StudiesThe Nature of Observation StudiesThe Nature of Observation StudiesThe Nature of Observation Studies


• Nonverbal behaviour can be a communication Nonverbal behaviour can be a communication process by which meanings are exchanged process by which meanings are exchanged among individualsamong individuals

• Head nods, smiles, raised eyebrows, and other Head nods, smiles, raised eyebrows, and other facial expressions or body movements have facial expressions or body movements have been recognized as communication symbolsbeen recognized as communication symbols

Observation of Human BehaviourObservation of Human BehaviourObservation of Human BehaviourObservation of Human Behaviour


• The results of observation studies may amplify The results of observation studies may amplify the results of other forms of research by the results of other forms of research by providing providing complementary evidence complementary evidence concerning concerning individuals’ “true” feelingsindividuals’ “true” feelingsFocus group interviews conducted behind one-way

mirrors from which marketing executives observe what is occurring—allows for interpretation of nonverbal behaviour to supplement information from interviews

Observation of Human Behaviour (cont’d)Observation of Human Behaviour (cont’d)Observation of Human Behaviour (cont’d)Observation of Human Behaviour (cont’d)


• Direct ObservationDirect ObservationA straightforward attempt to observe and record

what naturally occurs; the investigator does not create an artificial situation

• Response LatencyResponse LatencyThe amount of time it takes to make a choice

between two alternatives; used as a measure of the strength of preference

Direct ObservationDirect ObservationDirect ObservationDirect Observation


• Errors Associated with Direct ObservationErrors Associated with Direct ObservationObserver bias

A distortion of measurement resulting from the cognitive behaviour or actions of a witnessing observer

• Scientifically Contrived ObservationScientifically Contrived ObservationContrived observation

Observation in which the investigator creates an artificial environment in order to test a hypothesis

Direct Observation (cont’d)Direct Observation (cont’d)Direct Observation (cont’d)Direct Observation (cont’d)


• Researchers observe individual consumers’ Researchers observe individual consumers’ behaviour in everyday situations; during or after behaviour in everyday situations; during or after the in-depth observations, individuals are asked the in-depth observations, individuals are asked to explain the meaning of their actionsto explain the meaning of their actions

Combining Direct Observation and InterviewingCombining Direct Observation and InterviewingCombining Direct Observation and InterviewingCombining Direct Observation and Interviewing


• Respondent’s right to privacyRespondent’s right to privacy• Deception and Deception and entrapmententrapment

Ethical Issues in the Observation of HumansEthical Issues in the Observation of HumansEthical Issues in the Observation of HumansEthical Issues in the Observation of Humans


• Physical-trace evidencePhysical-trace evidenceA visible mark of some past event or occurrence

Observation of Physical ObjectsObservation of Physical ObjectsObservation of Physical ObjectsObservation of Physical Objects


• Content AnalysisContent AnalysisThe systematic observation and quantitative

description of the manifest content of communication

Content AnalysisContent AnalysisContent AnalysisContent Analysis


• Television MonitoringTelevision MonitoringComputerized mechanical observation used to

obtain television ratings

• Monitoring Web Site TrafficMonitoring Web Site TrafficHit and page views

Example: Nielsen//NetRatings and comScore Networks

Mechanical ObservationMechanical ObservationMechanical ObservationMechanical Observation


• Scanner-Based ResearchScanner-Based ResearchScanner-based consumer panel

A type of consumer panel in which participants’ purchasing habits are recorded with a laser scanner rather than a purchase diary

At-home scanning system A system that allows consumer panellists to perform their

own scanning after taking home products, using hand-held wands that read UPC symbols

Mechanical Observation (cont’d)Mechanical Observation (cont’d)Mechanical Observation (cont’d)Mechanical Observation (cont’d)


• Measuring Physiological ReactionsMeasuring Physiological ReactionsEye-tracking monitor

A mechanical device used to observe eye movements. Some eye monitors use infrared light beams to measure unconscious eye movements

Pupilometer A mechanical device used to observe and record changes

in the diameter of a subject’s pupils

Psychogalvanometer A device that measures galvanic skin response, a measure

of involuntary changes in the electrical resistance of the skin



• Measuring Physiological Reactions (cont’d)Measuring Physiological Reactions (cont’d)Voice pitch analysis

A physiological measurement technique that records abnormal frequencies in the voice that are supposed to reflect emotional reactions to various stimuli



copyright © 2008 by nelson, a division of thomson canada limited chapter 9 part 2 designing...

Documents

scientific observation

observation scientific

observation studies7

direct observation studies

storeverbal behaviour

communication process

facial expressions

scientific inquiry