Copyright 2002 Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Chapter 2

Succeeding as a Systems Analyst

2.12.1

Learning Objectives

Discuss the analytical skills, including systems thinking, needed for a systems analyst to be successful

Describe the technical skills required of a systems analyst

Discuss the management skills required of a systems analyst

Identify the interpersonal skills required of a systems analyst

Describe the systems analysis profession

2.22.2

Organizational Responsibilities in Systems Development

Systems Analysts work in teams, organized on a project basis.

IncludesBusiness Managers IS ManagerSystems AnalystProgrammersOther specialistsUsers

1.31.3

Organizational Responsibilities in Systems Development

Characteristics of Successful TeamsDiversity in backgrounds, skills and goals.Tolerance of diversity, uncertainty.Clear and complete communicationMust trust each other Mutual Respect and putting one’s own goals

and view secondary to those of the teamReward team members that promotes

shared responsibility and accountability within the team.

Effective Management of the Team including feasible and realistic work plan and schedule, monitoring progress, coordinating the project with its sponsors, allocating resources to the project

Analytical Skills for Systems Analysis

Four Sets of Analytical SkillsSystems ThinkingOrganizational KnowledgeProblem IdentificationProblem Analyzing and Solving

2.102.10

Systems Thinking

System A system is an interrelated set of components

with an identifiable boundary, working together for some purpose.

ORA system is an interrelated set of business

procedures used within one business unit working together for a purpose

A system has nine characteristics

2.112.11

Systems Thinking

Characteristics of a System Components: A system is made up of components.

An irreducible part, which when aggregated with other components make up system. Also called subsystem.

Interrelated Components: The components are interrelated. The function of one subsystem is dependent on the function of one or more subsystems.

Boundary : A system has a boundary within which all of its components are contained and that establishes the limits of a system separating the system from other systems.

2.132.13

Systems Thinking

Purpose: All the components works together to achieve some overall goal or functions for the system.

Environment : A system exists within an environment. Everything external to a system boundary that interacts with the system is an Environment. The Information System interacts with its environment to exchange data and information.

Interfaces :Point of contact where a system meets its environment or where subsystem meet each other.

Systems Thinking

Interface functionsSecurity: protecting the system from undesirable data

Filtering : removing unwanted data

Coding/decoding : outgoing and incoming messages

Detecting and correcting errors : in its interaction with the environment

Buffering : providing a layer of slack to make the system and the environment compatible

Summarizing : transforming the raw data into more high level information

Systems Thinking

Characteristics of a System (contd.) Input : whatever a system takes from its environment

in order to fulfill its purpose Output : Whatever a system returns to its

environment in order to fulfill its purpose Constraints : A limit to what a system can do (in

terms of capacity, speed or capabilities) and how it can achieve its purpose within its environment. Constraints can be imposed inside a system ( e.g. a limited number of staff) as well as outside the system i.e. environment ( e.g. due dates or regulations).

Systems Thinking

Important System Principles or Concepts that guide the design of IS System’s relationship with its environment- a

key aspect of a system. Open system interacts freely with its environment,

taking in input and returning output. As the environment changes, an open system must adapt to the changes or suffer the consequences. All the business IS are open and constantly interacting with the environment.

Closed systems does not interact with the environment. Changes in the environment and adaptability have no effect on the system.

2.182.18

Systems Thinking

Decomposition The process of breaking down a system into smaller

components. These components may themselves be systems and can be broken down into their components as well.

It helps the systems analyst to: Break a system into small, manageable and easier to

understand subsystems Focus on one area of a system at a time making it

easier to think how to modify that part independently of the entire system.

Concentrate on component pertinent to one group of users

Build different components at independent times by different people

Systems Thinking

Important System Concepts (Contd.)Modularity

A direct result of decomposition It refers to dividing a system into modules of

a relatively uniform sizeModules can represent a system simply

making it not only easier to understand but also easier to redesign or rebuild.

2.202.20

Systems Thinking

Important System Concepts (Continued)Coupling

Coupling is the extent to which subsystems are dependent on each other. Subsystems should be as independent as possible. If one subsystem fails and other subsystems are highly dependent on it, the others will either fail themselves or have problems functioning.

CohesionCohesion is the extent to which a subsystem

performs a single function. Subsystems should be well differentiated and thus very cohesive.

Systems Thinking

Important System Concepts (Continued) Logical System Description

Portrays the purpose and function of the systemDoes not tie the description to a specific physical

implementation e.g. basic components of the system , their relationship to each other, focusing on its function.

Example : The function of this college is the logical description. The function of each department and the relationship between the different departments.

2.222.22

Systems Thinking

Important System Concepts (Continued) Physical System Description

Focuses on how the system will be materially constructed

e.g. It deals with the type of hardware, software and their distribution.Physical description of a computer would provide details on the construction of each subunit, design of ALU, the composition of memory etc.

Systems Thinking

Benefiting from Systems Thinking Identification of problem area as a system involves

recognition of each of the system’s characteristics e.g. components, boundary, input, output, environment etc.

The S.A. is able to know the various characteristics of a problem area for which he wants to develop a system.

Visualizing a set of things and their interrelationships as a system allows you to translate a specific physical situation into more general abstract terms, which helps us to think about the essential characteristics of a specific situation so that we can manipulate the abstract system without disrupting the real situation.

2.242.24

Systems Thinking

Applying Systems Thinking to Information Systems Information systems are subsystems in larger

organizational systems, taking input from and returning output to their organizational environment.

Data flow diagrams can be used to represent information systems as systems, showing all the seven characteristics.

Other two characteristics - Purpose and Constraints are difficult to illustrate and therefore must be documented.

2.252.25

Symbols used in Data flow diagrams

Source or Sink

Process

Data flow

The information system is depicted as a data flow diagram.

D1 Data Store

Example : Hoosier Burger’s Customer Order System Hoosier Burger uses an information system known as

Customer Order Information system which is used to keep a track of how much goods (burgers etc.) were sold and the stock position of the goods in the Store. The customer, acting as the source places the food

order to the system. The system is divided into four functions or

processes. Receive and Process : It receives the customer

orders given by the customer and outputs theKitchen order data receipt dataGoods sold data Inventory data

Example : Hoosier Burger’s Customer Order System

The receipt goes back to the customer. The kitchen order goes to the kitchen which act as

an environment i.e. sink, Goods sold data generated Updates GOODS

SOLD DATA FILE Inventory data generated also Updates

INVENTORY DATA FILE Management Reports are produced for the

Restaurant manager based on the inputs i.e. updated GOODS SOLD DATA and updated INVENTORY DATA.

Hoosier Burger’s Customer Order System (Logical Description) Logical System:

It focuses on the flow and transformation of data. Components (logical):

Process customer Food order Update goods sold file Update inventory file Produce Management Reports

Boundary: Shown by the dotted line

Input: Customer order

Hoosier Burger’s Customer Order System (Logical Description)

Output: A receipt for the customer A Kitchen order Management Reports Intermediate outputs

Goods sold data Inventory data etc.

Purpose: General purpose: To facilitate customer orders,

monitor inventory and generate reports Specific Purpose: To improve the efficiency of the

restaurant’s operations.

Hoosier Burger’s Customer Order System (Physical Description) Hoosier Burger Customer order system is a physical

system that takes input, processes data, and returns output. The physical system consists of a computerized cash register that a clerk uses to enter a customer order and returns a receipt to the customer. Another piece of paper, the kitchen order is generated from the printer in the restaurant kitchen. The cash register sends data on the order about goods sold and inventory to a computer in Hoosier Burger’s office, where computer files on goods sold and inventory are updated by applications software. Other application software uses data in the goods sold and Inventory files to generate and print reports on a laser printer in the office.

Organizational Knowledge

Understanding of how organizations work Knowledge of specific functions and

procedures of organization and department How work officially gets done in a Particular

Organization Internal politics of the organization Understanding the Organization’s Competitive

and Regulatory Environment Understanding the Organizational Strategies

and Tactics

2.332.33

Problem Identification

Problem: Difference between an existing situation and a desired situation

Problem Identification is process of defining differences

Differences are defined by comparing the current situation to the output of a model that predicts what the output should be

Problem Solving is the process of finding a way to reduce differences

2.342.34

Problem Analyzing and Solving

Once a problem has been identified, the SA must analyze (finding more about the problem) the problem and determine how to solve it.

This approach for analyzing and solving problems as described by Simon has four Phases Intelligence

All information relevant to the problem is collected Design

Alternatives are formulated Choice

Best alternative solution is chosen Implementation

Solution is put into practice2.352.35

Technical Skills for Systems Analysis

Technical skills are required by SA, not only to perform tasks assigned to him but also to communicate with other people with team members.

Constant re-education is necessary as technology changes rapidly

Activities to keep skills up-to-date Read Trade publications Join Professional societies Attend classes or teach at a local college

2.362.36

Technical Skills for Systems Analysis

Activities to keep skills up-to-date (contd.)Attend any courses or training sponsored by

organizationAttend professional conferences, seminars

and trade showsRegularly browse Websites, focusing on

industry newsParticipate in new groups and conferences

on national or international network

Technical Skills for Systems Analysis

Understanding of a wide variety of technologies is required Microcomputers, workstations, minicomputers and

mainframe computers Programming languages Operating systems Database and file management systems Data communication standards Systems development tools and environments Web development languages and tools Decision support system generators

2.382.38

Management Skills for Systems Analysis

Management skills are very important for anyone in a leadership role. An Analyst should need to know how to manage her own work or how to use organizational resources in the most productive ways possible. Four categories of Management skills Resource Management Project Management Risk Management Change Management

2.392.39

Resource Management

Systems analyst needs to know how to obtain and work effectively with resources (such as system documentation, IT, people and money) of an organization. Includes the following capabilities Predicting resource usage Tracking and accounting for resource consumption Learning how to use resources effectively. Evaluating the resource quality Securing resources from abusive use Relinquishing resources when no longer needed

2.402.40

Resource Management

Most important resource is people.A team leader must learn how to best

utilize the particular talents of other team members.

She must also be able to delegate responsibility, allowing people to do the tasks they have been assigned to.

Project Management

Two Goals Prevent projects from coming in late Prevent projects from going over budget

Assists manager in keeping track of project’s progress. Consists of several steps

Decomposing project into independent tasks Determining relationships between tasks Assigning resources and personnel to tasks

It’s goal is also to manage people working on the project by motivating people at work together and instill a sense of trust and interdependence among them.

2.422.42

Project Management

Assists Managers in managing vendors and contractors working on the project.Very well specified contracts, defining what

is expected and when.Explicit sanctions for non performance Involving relationship Managers, acting as a

liaison between the firm and the contractor. They can sense trouble before it happens and works with both the parties.

Risk Management

Ability to anticipate what might go wrong in a project

Minimize the occurrence of risk and/or Minimize damage that might resultPlacement of resources ( such as

people), where they can do the most good

Prioritization of activities to achieve greatest gain

2.442.44

Change Management

Ability to assist people in making a smooth transition to a new system, giving up their old ways of doing tings and accepting new ways.

2.452.45

Interpersonal Skills for Systems Analysis

Mastery of interpersonal skills is paramount to success as a Systems Analyst

Four types of skills:Communication skillsWorking alone and with a teamFacilitating groupsManaging expectations

2.462.46

Communication Skills

Ability to communicate clearly and effectively with users, other IS professionals, management.

Effective communication helps to establish and maintain good working relationships with clients and colleagues

Communication Skill improve with experience Three types used by Systems Analyst

Interviewing and ListeningQuestionnairesWritten (memos, reports) and Oral (phone

calls, face to face conversation) and Visual (presentations slides, diagrams)

2.472.47

Interviewing and Listening

Means to gather information about a project

Listening to answers is just as important as asking questions

Effective listening leads to understanding of problem and generates additional questions that may be even more revealing and probing.

2.482.48

Written and Oral Presentations

Used to document progress of project and communicate this to others

Written Communication takes several forms: Meeting agenda Meeting minutes Interview summaries Project schedules and descriptions Memoranda requesting information, an interview,

participation in a project activity, or the status of a project.

Requests for proposals from vendors and contractors Oral presentations

2.502.50

Steps to Improving Communication Skills

Take every opportunity to practice Conduct a training class Volunteer to speak Participate in Toastmasters, to improve oral

communication skills. Videotape presentation and do a self-appraisal

of your skills Make use of college writing centers Take classes on business and technical

writing

2.512.51

Working Alone and with a Team

Working alone on certain aspects of project involves organizing and managing: Time ( schedule) Commitments Deadlines

Team work involves establishing standards of cooperation and coordination that guide their work

Table 2-2 presents characteristics of a high-performance team

2.522.52

Shared vision or goal

Sense of team identity

Result driven structure

Competent team members

Commitment to team

Mutual trust on each other

Characteristics of a high-performance team

Interdependence among team members

Effective Communication

Sense of autonomy

Sense of Empowerment

Small team size

High level of enjoyment

Characteristics of a high-performance team

Facilitating Groups

Involves guiding a group without being a part of the group

Useful skill for sessions such as Joint Application Development (JAD)

Specially trained to facilitate the groups, to help them work together, and to help them to resolve conflicts and achieve their goals.

Facilitator has to remain unbiased. lists guidelines for running a successful

meeting ( refer to fig 2.9 page 49)

2.552.55

Managing Expectations

Managing expectations is directly related to successful system implementation

Skills for successful expectation management Understanding of technology and what it can do Understand the workflows that the technology will

support and how the new system will affect them Ability to communicate a realistic picture of new

system to users Effective education of management and users

throughout systems development life cycle

2.562.56

Systems Analysis as a Profession

Standards have been established for education, training, certification and practice

Several aspects:Standards of PracticeEthicsCareer Paths

2.572.57

Standards of Practice

Endorsed Development Methodology Specific procedures and techniques to be used

during development process Promote consistency and reliability across all of an

organization’s development projects

Approved Development Platforms Organizations standardize around a specific

platform, sometimes tied to development methodology

2.582.58

Standards of Practice

Standardization of RolesRoles are becoming better defined across

organizationsDevelopment of a Common Language

Common programming languagesCommon modeling languages, such as

Unified Modeling Language (UML)

2.592.59