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Coordination Games and Continuous Strategy Spaces More Complicated Simultaneous Move Games

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Page 1: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Coordination Games and Continuous Strategy Spaces

More Complicated Simultaneous Move Games

Page 2: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Other Coordination GamesOther Coordination Games• Suppose you and a partner are asked to choose one element 

from the following sets of choices If you both make the samefrom the following sets of choices. If you both make the same choice, you earn $1, otherwise nothing.– {Red, Green, Blue}

– {Heads, Tails}

– {7, 100, 13, 261, 555}

• Write down an answer to the following questions If yourWrite down an answer to the following questions. If your partner writes the same answer you win $1, otherwise nothing. – A positive number

– A month of the year

– A woman’s name

Page 3: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Anti‐Coordination GamesAnti Coordination Games

• Not the same dress! (Fashion)Not the same dress! (Fashion)

• Not the same words/ideas (Writing)

S di h l d i d i• LUPI, a Swedish lottery game designed in 2007:– Choose a positive integer from 1 to 99 inclusive.

– The winner is the one person who chooses the lowest unique positive integer (LUPI).

– If no unique integer choice, no winner.

Page 4: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Another Example of Multiple Equilibria in PureAnother Example of Multiple Equilibria in Pure Strategies: The Alpha‐Beta game.

• Strategies for Alpha (Row)  are Up (U), Middle (M) or Down (D). Strategies for Beta (Column)  are Left (L) or Right (R).

Page 5: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Finding Equilibria by Eliminating Weakly Dominated Strategies....

• Strategies U and M are weakly dominated for Player Alpha by t t Dstrategy D. 

• Suppose we eliminate strategy U first. The resulting game is:

• If eliminate L and then M, the solution is D,R.

Page 6: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Can Lead to the Wrong Conclusion...Can Lead to the Wrong Conclusion.

• Suppose instead we eliminated Alpha’s M strategy first. The resulting game is:game is:

• Now if we eliminate R and then U, the solution is D,L.

• Lesson: If there are weakly dominated strategies, consider all possible orders for removing these strategies when searching for the Nash equilibria of the gameequilibria of the game.

Page 7: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Finding Equilibria via Best ResponseFinding Equilibria via Best Response Analysis AlwaysWorks:

• There are two mutual best responses: (D,L) and (D,R).These are the two Nash equilibria of the ( , ) qgame.

Page 8: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Cournot Competitionp• A game where two firms (duopoly) compete in terms of the quantity sold 

(market share) of a homogeneous good is referred to as a Cournot game after the French economist who first studied it.

• Let q1 and q2 be the number of units of the good that are brought to market by firm 1 and firm 2. 

• Assume the market price, P, is determined by market demand:P=a‐b(q1+q2) if a>b(q1+q2),  P=0 otherwise.Pa

q1+q2

aSlope =‐b

• Firm 1’s profits are (P‐c)q1 and firm 2’s profits are (P‐c)q2, where c is the marginal cost of producing each unit of the good.

• Assume both firms seek to maximize profits.

Page 9: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Numerical Example, Discrete Choices

• Suppose P = 130‐(q1+q2), so a=130, b=1• The marginal cost per unit, c=$10 for both firms.• Suppose there are just three possible quantities that each firm i=1,2 can choose qi = 30, 40 or 60.

• There are 3x3=9 possible profit outcomes for the t fitwo firms.

• For example, if firm 1 chooses q1=30, and firm 2 chooses q =60 then P=130 (30+60)=$40chooses q2=60, then P=130‐(30+60)=$40.

• Firm 1’s profit is then (P‐c)q1=($40‐$10)30=$900.Fi 2’ fit i th (P ) ($40 $10)60 $1800• Firm 2’s profit is then (P‐c)q2=($40‐$10)60=$1800.

Page 10: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Cournot Game Payoff MatrixyFirm 2

q2=30 q2=40 q2=60

q1=301800,1800 1500, 2000 900, 1800

Firm 1 q1=402000, 1500 1600, 1600 800, 1200

q1=601800, 900 1200, 800 0, 0

• Depicts all 9 possible profit outcomes for each firm.

Page 11: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Find the Nash EquilibriumFind the Nash EquilibriumFirm 2

q2=30 q2=40 q2=60Nash Equilibrium

q1=301800,1800 1500, 2000 900, 1800

Firm 1 q1=402000, 1500 1600, 1600 800, 1200

q1=601800, 900 1200, 800 0, 0

• q=60 is strictly  dominated  for both firms; use cell‐by‐cell inspection to complete the search for the equilibrium.

Page 12: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Continuous Pure StrategiesContinuous Pure Strategies• In many instances, the pure strategies available to players do 

not consist of just 2 or 3 choices but instead consist ofnot consist of just 2 or 3 choices but instead consist of (infinitely) many possibilities.

• We handle these situations by finding each player’s reaction function, a continuous function revealing the action the player will choose as a function of the action chosen by the other player.p y

• For illustration purposes, let us consider again the two firm Cournot quantity competition game.

• Duopoloy (two firms only) competition leads to an outcome in between monopoly (1 firm, maximum possible profit) and perfect competition (many firms, each earning 0 profits, p=c)p p ( y , g p , p )

Page 13: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Profit Maximization with Continuous Strategies• Firm 1’s profit π1= (P‐c)q1=(a‐b(q1+q2)‐c) q1=(a‐bq2‐c) q1‐b(q1)2.

• Firm 2’s profit π2= (P‐c)q2=(a‐b(q1+q2)‐c) q2=(a‐bq1‐c) q2‐b(q2)2 .

• Both firms seek to maximize profits. We find the profit maximizing amount using calculus:

– Firm 1: d π /dq =a‐bq ‐c‐2bq At a maximum d π /dq =0Firm 1: d π1 /dq1=a‐bq2‐c‐2bq1.  At a maximum, d π1 /dq1=0, 

• q1=(a‐bq2‐c)/2b. This is firm 1’s best response function.

– Firm 2: d π2 /dq2=a‐bq1‐c‐2bq2.  At a maximum, d π2 /dq2=0,2 / q2 q1 q2 , 2 / q2 ,

• q2=(a‐bq1‐c)/2b. This is firm 2’s best response function.

• In our numerical example, firm 1’s best response function is :q1=(a‐bq2‐c)/2b = (130‐q2‐10)/2=60‐q2/2.

• Similarly, firm 2’s best response function in our example is: 

q (a bq c)/2b (130 q 10)/2 60 q /2q2=(a‐bq1‐c)/2b = (130‐q1‐10)/2=60‐q1/2.

Page 14: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Equilibrium with Continuous Strategies• Equilibrium can be found algebraically or graphically.

• Algebraically: q1=60‐q2/2 and q2=60‐q1/2, so substitute out usingAlgebraically: q1 60 q2/2 and q2 60 q1/2, so substitute out using one of these equations: q1=60‐(60‐q1/2)/2 =60‐30+q1/4, so q1 (1‐1/4)=30, q1=30/.75=40. 

• Similarly, you can show that q2=40 as well (the problem is perfectly symmetric).

• Graphically:Graphically:q1120

60‐q1/2

40

60 q1/2

60‐q2/2

q212040

q2/

Page 15: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Multiple Equilibria: F f Lif P bl b R l d?Fact of Life or Problem to be Resolved?

• Suppose we have multiple Nash equilibria –the Alpha‐Beta game is an example.  What can we say about the behavior of players in such games?can we say about the behavior of players in such games?

• One answer is we can say nothing: both equilibria are mutual best responses , so what we have is a coordination problem as to which equilibrium players will select. Such coordination problems seem endemic to lots of interesting strategic environments.  – For instance there are two ways to drive, on the right and on the left and no amount of theorizing has led to 

the conclusion that one way to drive is better than another.  The U.S. and France drive on the right; the U.K and Japan drive on the left.

• A second answer is that if economics strives to be a predictive science, then multiplicity of equilibria is a problem that has to be dealt with.  For those with this view, the solution is to adopt some additional criteria, beyond mutual best response, for selecting from among multiple equilibria. 

S it i d• Some criteria used are:– Focalness/salience (we have already seen this in the coordination games).

– Fairness /envy‐freeness (we have already seen this in the alpha‐beta game).

– Efficiency /Payoff dominance

– Risk dominance

Page 16: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Efficiency• In selecting from among multiple equilibria, economists often make use of efficiency considerations: which equilibrium is most efficient?

• An equilibrium is efficient if there exists no other equilibrium in which at least one player earns aequilibrium in which at least one player earns a higher payoff and no player earns a lower payoff.

• Efficiency considerations require that all players know all payoffs and believe that all other player valueall payoffs and believe that all other player value efficiency as a selection criterion.– This may be unrealistic:  Consider the Alpha‐Beta game, for 

l i diexample: many pairs coordinate on D,R over D,L.• Efficiency may be more relevant as a selection criterion if agents can communicate/collude with one g /another. 

Page 17: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Efficiency Considerations Cannot Always be Used to Select an Equilibrium

• There can be multiple efficient equilibria.E l 1 D i i h l f (U K ) i h h d• Example 1: Driving on the left (U.K.) or right hand side (U.S.) of the road.

• Example 2: The Pittsburgh Left‐Turn Game.Example 2: The Pittsburgh Left Turn Game.– Consider 2 cars who have stopped at an intersection opposite one another. Driver 1 is signaling with the turn signal that she plans to make a left turn. The other driver, g p ,Driver 2, by not signaling indicates his plan is to proceed through the intersection.

– The light turns green. Drivers 1 and 2 have to g gsimultaneously decide whether to proceed with their plans or to yield to the other driver.

– What are the payoffs to each strategy?

Page 18: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

The Pittsburgh Left‐Turn GameThe Pittsburgh Left Turn GameDriver 1

Driver 2Driver 2

Payoffs are in terms of seconds gained or lost (with minus sign)

Driver 2 (Plan: proceed through intersection)

Proceed with Yield to(with minus sign) Proceed with Plan

Yield to Other Driver

Proceed with -1490, -1490 5, -5

Driver 1 (Plan: make

left turn)

Plan

Yield to Other Driver

-5, 5 -10, -10)

Page 19: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Equilibria in the Pittsburgh Left‐Turn GameEquilibria in the Pittsburgh Left Turn Game

• Both equilibria have one driver proceeding, while the other yields.

B th ilib i ffi i t• Both equilibria are efficient. 

• In such cases, governments often step in to impose one         equilibrium by law.

This game is a particular version of the game of

“Chicken”

Driver 2 (Plan: proceed through intersection)

Proceed with Yield toChicken Proceed with Plan

Yield to Other Driver

Proceed with -1490, -1490 5, -5

Driver 1 (Plan: make

left turn)

Plan

Yield to Other Driver

-5, 5 -10, -10)

Page 20: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

k d d l b lRisk Considerations and Equilibrium Selection.

• Consider the following gameConsider the following game

X Y

X 75, 75 25, 60

Y 60, 25 60, 60

• What are the Nash equilibria?• Which equilibrium do you think is the most likely one to be chosen?

Page 21: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Risk Dominance• The two equilibria are X,X and Y,Y.

• X,X is efficient (also known as payoff dominant) but Y,Y is less risky, or what we call the risk dominant equilibrium – why?q y

X Y

X 75, 75 25, 60

Y 60, 25 60, 60

• In choosing Y, each player insures himself a payoff of 60 regardless of what the other player does.  So, Y is a risk‐free or “safe” strategy.

• How can we evaluate the expected payoff from playing X?

Page 22: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

The Principle of Insufficient Reason• If you are completely ignorant of which of n possible outcomes will occur, 

assign probability 1/n that each outcome will occur.X YX Y

X 75, 75 25, 60

Y 60 25 60 60

• Applying this principle to this two state game, we assign probability ½ to our opponent choosing X and probability ½ to our opponent choosing Y.

Y 60, 25 60, 60

opponent choosing X and probability ½ to our opponent choosing Y. 

• The expected payoff from playing X is: ½(75)+½(25)=50.

• The expected payoff from playing Y is: ½(60)+½(60)=60.

• Since the expected payoff from playing Y 60 is greater than the expectedSince the expected payoff from playing Y, 60 is greater than the expected payoff from playing X, 50, Y is the preferred choice. If both players reason this way, they end up at Y,Y.

Page 23: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies

• Some games have no pure strategy equilibria.

• Consider, for example, the following “tennis game” between the Williams i t S d Vsisters, Serena and Venus.

• Suppose Serena is in a position to return the ball and and can choose between a down‐the‐line (DL) passing shot or a cross‐court (CC) diagonal h tshot.

• Venus (on defense) has to guess what Serena will do, and position herself accordingly. DL positions Serena for the DL shot, and CC for the CC shot.

• Payoffs are the fraction (%) of times that each player wins the point.

Venus WilliamsDL CC

Serena DL 50, 50 80, 20Williams

, ,CC 90, 10 20, 80

Page 24: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy

In such cases, playing a pure strategy is p y g p gyusually not a winning strategy

• Using best response/cell by cell inspection we see that• Using best response/cell‐by‐cell inspection, we see that there is no pure strategy Nash equilibrium; Serena’s best response arrows do not point to the same cell as Venus’s best response arrows.

• In such cases, it is better to behave unpredictably using a mixed strategymixed strategy.

Venus WilliamsDL CCDL CC

SerenaWilli

DL 50, 50 80, 20CC 90 10 20 80Williams CC 90, 10 20, 80

Page 25: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy
Page 26: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy
Page 27: Coordination Games Continuous Strategy Spacesecon.ucsb.edu/~garratt/Econ171/Lect05_Slides.pdf · Some Games Have No Equilibrium in Pure Strategies • Some games have no pure strategy