Cooking Supports.

Depictions and Descriptions from Military and Civilian Camps, late 17th through early 19th Centuries.

(4th Draft.) Added Excavated Earthen Hearths and Firepits.

Forked Boughs and Cross Pole.

The most commonly seen and described method.

Below: Dutch Camp. Pieter Van Bloemen, "Riders Resting at a Military Encampment," ca. late 17th c. Hooks are present sometimes, other times the kettle bale is just hung over the lug pole.

http://www.wga.hu/index1.html

Below: French camp. Jérôme François Chantereau, "Rue d'un Camp". Engraved by J. P. Le Bas, Paris. 1742. Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection, Brown University Library.

http://library.brown.edu/cds/catalog/catalog.php?verb=render&id=1162263726842875&colid=13

Below: French camp. Detail from Charles Parrocel, "La Cantiniere". Ca. 1740's. Typical forked supports, but the camp kettle appears to have a frying pan cover.

Tannahill, Reay; "Food in History." Stein and Day. New York. 1973. p. 274.

Below: French camp. Detail from Charles Parrocel, "La Cantiniere". Ca. 1740's. Interesting variation, appears to be lashed together.

Laffont, Robert, "The Ancient Art of War". Volume 2. Time-Life and New York Graphic Society. Greenwich, Connecticut. 1966. p. 21.

Below: French camp. A Sutler. Anonymous artist, "Soldat du régiment du Roi", ca 1740's. Musée de l'Armée, Paris.

http://www.photo.rmn.fr/cf/htm/CSearchZ.aspx?o=&Total=345&FP=8198477&E=2K1KTSGFSL8IC&SID=2K1KTSGFSL8IC&New=T&Pic=210&SubE=2C6NU0P1NK62

Below: French camp. "L' excercise à feu (and) Soldats faisant le cuisine" Published by Basset, 1795. Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection, Brown University Library.

http://library.brown.edu/cds/catalog/catalog.php?verb=render&id=1137114781199414&colid=13

Below: French camp. "Le feu. Pour le noir démon de la guerre le sort des hommes n'est qu'un jeu. Il vit des malheurs de la terre en mettant l'univers en feu". Published by Basset, c.1813.

http://library.brown.edu/cds/catalog/catalog.php?verb=search&task=run&colid=13&keywords1=Feu+Basset&operand1=AND&field1=ti_all&output=record

German.

Below: From a German military text. 1788.

"Was jedem Offizier Waehrend eines Feldzuges zu Wissen", Goettingen, 1788. Plan 3.

British.

Below: British camp. David Morier, "Grenadiers, 19th and 20th Regiments of Foot, and 21st Royal North British Fusiliers, 1751." Royal Collection.

http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/collection/405584/grenadiers-19th-and-20th-regiments-of-foot-and-21st-royal-north

Below: British camp. A Sutler, or possibly, a washerwoman. David Morier, "Grenadiers, 22nd and 24th Regs. of Foot, and 23rd Royal Welch Fusiliers". ca 1751-60. Royal Collection.

http://www.royalcollection.org.uk/eGallery/object.asp?maker=12356&object=405585&row=38&detail=magnify

Below: A British or much more likely Hanoverian or other British-allied camp. Dirck Langendyck, "A British Encampment", 1799-1801. Yale Center for British Art.

http://collections.britishart.yale.edu/vufind/Record/3643412

Below: Loyalist camp. James Peachey, “Encampment of the Loyalists at Johnstown, a New Settlement, on the Banks of the River St. Lawrence in Canada, taken June 6th 1784” Collections Canada.

http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/008/001/008001-119.02-e.php?&page_id_nbr=259&brws=1&ts_nbr=8&&PHPSESSID=dc4is8d4el3lo41rd6e1irl7o4

1708.

"...pitching two forked Sticks into the Ground, putting it on a jointed Spit..."

Christian Davies aka "Mother Ross", when she was a Sutler with the army of the Duke of Marlborough in the campaigns of the War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714.

"I cut up my Mutton, laid by a Shoulder to roast, the Neck, and Breast to make Broth; dug a Hole with a Hatchet to boil my Pot in, which, the Fire being made, I set on with the Mutton and Sweet-herbs, and was enjoying myself by a glorious Fire when the Army came up. Col. Hamilton and Major Erwood came to my Fire, and were not a little surprised to see I had gotten so many Things in Readiness. I shew'd them my Provisions of all Sorts; upon which the Colonel suspecting that I had plundered his Quarters, asked where I had got my Barrel of strong Beer. I told him that falling in with some Boors, I drove them before me, and made them bring me what I wanted to which he civilly replied, D—n you, you are a lying Devil. Come, said I, you Mutton-Monger, will you give me Handsel? They called for a Gallon of Beer, and drinking a little, gave the Rest among some of the Men, and ordered the Shoulder of Mutton to be roasted, which I did by pitching two forked Sticks into the Ground, putting it on a jointed Spit, and setting a Soldier's Wife to turn it." p. 41.

Anonymous; "The Life and Adventures of Mrs. Christian Davies, commonly call'd Mother Ross..." London. 1741.

1757.

Captain John Knox, 43rd Regiment of Foot.

“1757. December. 7th [Patrolling around Annapolis Royal.]... we possessed ourselves of a thicket on an eminence to the right of the road, (it being too late in the day to attempt anything farther, and we had neither halted or refreshed since we left Joseen’s Village this morning:) This is called Godet’s Village. Here we incamped, and indulged ourselves with fires: we made beds of spruce tops, laid in a circular form, with a fire in the center, and shaded round the windward side with larger branches: thus we lay after the manner of the Indians... In returning through a thicket to the eastward of our camp, we made a prize of thirteen sheep, which we instantly killed, and divided among the detachment, reserving only one for the officers and guides which we roasted after the Indian manner, + and afforded us a comfortable repast...

+ We fixed a quarter on a long faggot-stick, and as we sat round the fire, roasted it in the flames; we had no salt, therefore we relished it with some of the king’s pork, broiled on the embers. - -Note by Author.-” I, p. 121.

Knox, Captain John “An Historical Journal of the Campaigns in North America for the years 1757, 1758, 1759 and 1760.” London, 1769. Reprint, 3 Vols. Books for Libraries Press, Freeport, NY 1970.

1776.

Captain Johann von Ewald, Hesse-Cassel Jager Corps. October 22nd, 1776, near Rochelle, New York.

“The commanding General ordered the regiments to encamp and light fires in the same order of march, which was carried out promptly. No sooner had several fires blazed that we heard cries of chickens, geese, and pigs which our resourceful soldiers had discovered. Within the hour, several roasts hung from long sticks before the fire. The whole camp was as busy as an anthill. From this one can see how easily a good soldier knows his way about.” p. 8.

Tustin, Joseph, ed.; “Diary of the American War.” Yale University Press, 1979.

1782.

“‘Rivington’s /Royal Gazette/’, August 7, 1782, gives an account of a ceremony at Flushing...” on August 1, for the presentation of colours to the King’s American Dragoons and the visit of Prince William Henry. An ox was ‘spitted on a hickory sapling twelve feet long, supported on crotches and turned by handspikes.’” p. 435.

Flint, Martha Bockée; “Early Long Island, a Colonial Study.” G. P. Putnam’s Sons, The Knickerbocker Press. New York and London. 1896. Google Books.

Another book has a more complete reference:

“He was spitted on a hickory sapling twelve feet long, supported on crotches and turned by handspikes. An attendant dipped a swab in a tub of salt and water to baste the ox and moderate the fire.” p. 134.

Ellis, George E.; “Memoir of Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, with notices of his Daughter.” Volume I. Macmillan and Company, London. 1876. Google Books.

Civilian and Native American.

Below: Philip George Friedrich von Reck, "Huts in Friderica woven of palm leaves." Ca. 1736. Von Reck's drawings NKS 565 4

http://base.kb.dk/manus_pub/cv/manus/ManusPage.xsql?nnoc=manus_pub&p_ManusId=22&p_PageNo=12%20verso&p_Lang=alt&p_Mode=img

Below: "A Topographical Plan of the Indian Country through which the Army under the Command of Colonel Bouquet marched in the Year 1764 by Thos. Hutchins Assistant Engineer." 1765. John Carter Brown Library, Brown University.

http://jcb.lunaimaging.com/luna/servlet/detail/JCBMAPS~1~1~1243~100180008:02054a

1722.

Daniel Defoe, “Robinson Crusoe”, 1722. After Crusoe had rescued “Friday” from the cannibals. Defoe's work is of course a fictional novel, but set in context of his own times.

“I was resolved to feast him the next day with roasting a piece of the kid [i. e., young goat]; this I did by hanging it before the fire on a string, as I had seen many people do in England, setting two poles up, one on each side of the fire, and one across the top, and tying the string to the cross stick, letting the meat turn continually.” Defoe, p. 209.

Defoe, Daniel; “Robinson Crusoe.” Harvey Swados, ed. Signet, NY, 1961.

1745.

Dr Alexander Hamilton.

"Friday, August 31 [1744]...

Turtle Bay [Near New York.]

About three miles before I reached York I saw the man-of-war commanded by Commodore Warren lying in Turtle Bay. This was a festival day with the crew. They were a-roasting an entire ox upon a wooden spit, and getting drunk as fast as they could, Warren having given them a treat. I was overtaken here by a young gentleman who gave me a whole packet of news about prizes and privateering..." p. 211.

Hart, Albert Bushnell, LL.D., ed; "Hamilton's Itinerarium, Being a Narrative of a Journey from Annapolis, Maryland, through Delaware, Pennsylvania, New York, New Jersy, Connecticut, Rhode Island, Massachusetts and New Hampshire from May to September, 1744 by Doctor Alexander Hamilton." William J. Bixby. St. Louis, Missouri. 1907.

1765.

"A wooden trammel was made, and two crotches put up in a short time, and the kettle hung thereon."

Missionary Samuel Kirkland, journeying with Native American guides beyond Johnson Hall in the Mohawk Valley of New York.

"On the morning of the 17th [January, 1765.], having taken "an affectionate leave of Sir William," he commenced his journey, travelling upon snowshoes, and carrying a pack "containing some provisions, a few articles of clothing, and a few books, weighing about forty pounds.

It would have been a fine study for a painter, to watch his countenance, and trace its lines of high thought and holy purpose, as he turned his back upon Johnson Hall, the last vestige of civilization, and, amid the dreary desolation of winter, in company with two savages, whom he had first seen only two or three days before, and with whom he could hardly exchange a word, struck off into the forest on a journey of nearly two hundred miles.

The journey was performed, however, without any very great suffering on his part. "The second night," he says, "we encamped in good season in a wood near a brook. My convoy unslung their packs, and were very active in making the necessary preparations for a comfortable night's repose. One of them went with his little axe to cut wood for a fire; the other shovelled away snow, and gathered an armful of boughs of hemlock for my bed. I was forbid to do any thing but sit on the log near by and rest myself. By

half an hour after sunset we had a fine fire, which soon dried and warmed the hemlock boughs, whose aromatic flavor perfumed the air, and made it exceedingly agreeable, and we were well prepared to relish a good supper. I signified to them that I would take something out of my pack for supper, and that I wished one of them to take his small kettle, and wash it out clean, and bring it back full of water. I then took a ham out of my pack, (to tell the honest truth, I wished to have it lightened,) and cut off a number of slices, which I wished to have broiled. A wooden trammel was made, and two crotches put up in a short time, and the kettle hung thereon.

They then cut some sticks about two and a half feet long, sharpened one end, and split the other, part of the way down. They put two or three slices of ham in one of these splits, and tied the top with bark to prevent their falling out, then stuck the sharpened end into the ground, the top leaning over towards the fire; a bark put under to catch the drippings. I again opened my pack, and took out a large drinking of tea, which I procured lest I could not immediately get weaned from it, and when the kettle boiled flung it in, and gave it a handsome boiling. The ham, by this time, was done, and put upon clean bark, the tea ready, and wooden spoons close by. My convoy furnished bread. We sat around our dish, and ate like brethren, and a better supper I have seldom made. Could I have conversed freely with them, I might have had a sociable evening with them." p. 160-62.

Lothrop, Samuel K[irkland].; "Life of Samuel Kirkland, Missionary to the Indians." In Sparks, Jared, ed.; "The Library of American Biography" [2nd Series, Vol. 15. - B, 1848.]. Charles C. Little and James Brown. 1847-48.

1766-1768.

Jonathan Carver.

"The Naudowessies... When they roast, if it is a large joint or a whole animal, such as a beaver, they fix it as Europeans do, on a spit made of hard wood, and placing the ends on two forked props, now and then turn it. If the piece is smaller they spit it as before, and fixing the spit in an erect but slanting position, with the meat inclining towards the fire, frequently change the sides, till every part is sufficiently roasted." p. 221-22.

Carver, Jonathan; "Travels through the Interior parts of North America, in the years 1766, 1767, and 1768." S. Price, et. al., Dublin, Ireland. 1779. Google Books.

1772.

Rev. Dr. David McClure. September 15 1772. Journeying west from Fort Pitt.

"We left Logan's town, & proceeded on about one mile & came to a pleasant stream of water, where we encamped. My Interpreter kindled a fire & prepared a trammel supported by stakes drove in the ground, on which our kettle was suspended to boil, & assisted me to pitch the Tent. Nickels performed the office of cook, with which he was well acquainted. I spread a Bear skin & blanket for a bed, & my

portmantau [sic - portmanteau] was the pillow. We supped very comfortably on chocolate & roast venison, & committing ourselves in prayer, to the protecting care of heaven, we lay down to rest." p. 58.

Dexter, Franklin B., ed.; "Diary of David McClure Doctor of Divinity 1748-1820." The Knickerbocker Press, New York. 1899. Google Books.

1786.

"...a boiling pot hung on sticks, laid on two forked sticks stuck in the ground."

The Rev. James MacGregor, between Truro and Pictou, Nova Scotia, among the Highland Scots inhabitants. July, 1786.

"...a number of Pictou Highlanders were now cutting down the trees where the road was intended to be; for the Government had voted money to open it. My companions had taken with them a small flask full of rum and a ham of lamb, to refresh us by the way, as it was too far to travel fasting, and there was no public house. Just as we thought it time to take our snack, we came to a place where there was a patch of good grass, and a boiling pot hung on sticks, laid on two forked sticks stuck in the ground. Here we took our snack. The ham rather more than sufficing us, we agreed to put the bones and the remaining meat into the pot, that the roadmen might get the good of them. We then took each a mouthful out of the flask, and mounted our horses. By-and-by we met two men on foot going toward Truro, and coming to the roadmen, I told them in Gaelic that I was the minister expected to Pictou. They all came and shook hands with me, and welcomed me cordially." p. 93-94.

Patterson, George; "Memoir of the Reverend James MacGregor". Joseph M. Wilson. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 1859. Google Books.

Below: "A Scots Entertainment", Published by Carington Bowles or Carington Bowles and Samuel Carver. Ca 1780's.

"Catchpenny Prints: 163 Popular Engravings from the Eighteenth Century, originally published by Bowles and Carver." Dover Publications. New York. 1970. p. 73.

Crossed Stakes.

Less common than forked boughs. A pair of straight stakes appear to be driven into the ground and lashed to support a cross pole.

Below: British camp. "Soldiers Cooking", published by Ackermann after Thomas Rowlandson, 1798. Anne S. K. Brown Collection, Brown University Library. The cooking supports seem to be driven into the ground at an angle and bound at the top where they cross. That one of the soldiers is seen using a bowl and spoon is a rare and interesting detail.

http://library.brown.edu/cds/catalog/catalog.php?verb=render&id=1196362235781250&colid=13

Below: British camp. Francis Vivares, untitled. 1739. British Museum.

http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/search_the_collection_database/search_object_image.aspx?objectId=3315490&partId=1&searchText=tent&fromDate=1700&fromADBC=ad&toDate=1800&toADBC=ad&orig=%2Fresearch%2Fsearch_the_collection_database.aspx&images=on&numPages=10&currentPage=5&asset_id=897957

Forked Boughs and Iron Spit.

Below: French camp. Laurent Cars after Antoine Watteau, "Escort d' Equipages", engraving of 1731, after the original painting probably ca. 1710-11. British Museum. Interesting use of a simple iron crank spit, possibly domestic.

http://www.wga.hu/index1.html

"Publication of Laurent Cars's print - which identifies the painting as 'du Cabinet de Mr. de Jullienne' -- was announced in the Mercure de France in April 1731."

http://www.invaluable.com/auction-lot/jean-antoine-watteau-valenciennes-1686-1721-nogen-89-c-stf1sgrjs2

Projecting Tree Limbs.

Forming a natural support.

Below: French camp. Antoine Watteau, "Bivouac", 1709-10. Pushkin Museum.

http://www.arts-museum.ru/data/fonds/europe_and_america/j/2001_3000/6640_Bivuak/index.php

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Antoine_Watteau_004.jpg

Clay, Brick or Turf Firebox.

Below: Louis Joseph Watteau, "Scène de camp". Ca 3rd quarter, 18th century. Musée des Beaux-Arts, Valenciennes.

http://www.photo.rmn.fr/cf/htm/CPicZ.aspx?E=2C6NU0N5NIA5

Below: British camp. Paul Sandby. Hyde Park, 1780. Center detail.

Paul Sandby. Hyde Park, 1780. Center detail. Credit: Christies.Mallalieu, H. L.; "The Dictionary of British Watercolour Artists up to 1920." Barron Publishing, Woodbridge, Suffolk, England. 1979. p. 502.

Below: British camp. Paul Sandby, "Scene of the Encampments in Hyde Park during the Gordon Riots, 1780". National Gallery of Canada.

http://www.gallery.ca/en/see/collections/artwork.php?mkey=3535

Stones for Fireplaces.

1776-1781. Sergeant Roger Lamb, 9th and 23rd (Royal Welsh Fusileers) Regiment of Foot.

"It is a pleasing sight to see a column arrive at its halting ground. The Camp is generally marked out, if circumstances allow of it, on the edge of some wood, and near a river or stream. The troops are halted in open columns and arms piled, pickets and guards paraded and posted, and in two minutes all appear at home. Some fetch large stones to form fire places; others hurry off with canteens and kettles for water while the wood resounds with the blows of the tomahawk. Dispersed under the more distant trees you see the officers, some dressing, some arranging a few boughs to shelter them by night, others kindling their own fires."

Courtesy of Don N. Hagist, "Unpublished Writings of Roger Lamb," Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research V89, #360, 2011.

Earthen Hearths and Firepits.

Christian Davies aka "Mother Ross", when she was a Sutler with the army of the Duke of Marlborough in the campaigns of the War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714.

July - October, 1708.

"I cut up my Mutton, laid by a Shoulder to roast, the Neck, and Breast to make Broth; dug a Hole with a Hatchet to boil my Pot in, which, the Fire being made, I set on with the Mutton and Sweet-herbs, and was enjoying myself by a glorious Fire when the Army came up." p. 41.

Anonymous; "The Life and Adventures of Mrs. Christian Davies, commonly call'd Mother Ross..." London. 1741.

A newspaper account of the training camp at Warley Common, 1778.

“A Trip To The Camp At Warley Common.*… our correspondent saw more than 300 of them [soldiers], in different parts, boiling beef in tin kettles, suspended on sticks laid across banks formed by cutting hollows in the earth."

*‘Morning Chronicle and London Advertiser, August 3, 1778.’” p. 33-34.

Holden, Robert Mackenzie; “Historical Record of the Third and Fourth Battalions of the Worcestershire Regiment.” Kegan, Paul, Trench and Company. London. 1887. Google Books.

Excavated individual earthen hearths or firepits.

Quoting Reginald P. Bolton, writing of a location associated with a military camp on Seaman Avenue in Manhattan.

“Sunday, March 22nd, being the first day in the field for exploration for 1908, W. L. Calver and the writer and the writer met at Seaman Avenue and Hawthorne Street, Manhattan, to discuss plans for further excavations of this Indian village site. The rains of the winter 1907-08 had washed the west bank where the layer of oyster shells and black dirt lay along the hill, and a patch of red burnt earth was observed, which on digging out, disclosed a fireplace, evidently of the period of the Revolution, having some large burnt stones, ashes, wood charcoal, brick, broken rum bottles, a wine glass nearly complete, a large open clasp-knife with bone handle, a hoop-iron pot-hook, various forged head nails and a curious folding corkscrew. Gold buttons of Revolutionary pattern and an officer’s button of the Royal Marines [sic], together with a pewter buttons of the 17th Regiment disclosed who had occupied the spot.

At one part of the fireplace, we came upon a pocket of oyster shells, evidently Indian, about two feet deep, and on removing some of these, had the good fortune to uncover a human thigh-bone.” [This is where they found that the firepit had overlapped a Native burial.] p. 51.

Skinner, Alanson; “The Indians of Manhattan Island and Vicinity. A Guide to the Special Exhibition at the American Museum of Natural History.” New York, 1909. Google Books.

A French Camp at Providence, Rhode Island, Ca. 1780.

“In the unploughed field, between the main street of the encampment and the woods, are seven black, oblong figures. These represent excavations, about three feet square and fifteen inches in depth,

used, probably, for fire-places of tents or huts. Against the southern side of each of these pits was found a stone fire-back, darkened with smoke, and at the bottom were remains of charred wood.” p. 319.

Stone, Edwin Martin; “Our French Allies.” Providence Press Company, Providence, Rhode Island. 1884. [Google Books.]

The fire-pits are rather interesting. Being about three feet square and at that time, about fifteen inches deep, the pit would be sufficiently deep for the ground to serve as a seat. These might be similar to the “tin kettles, suspended on sticks laid across banks formed by cutting hollows in the earth...” described at the camp at Warley Common.

Below. German camp. From a German military manual, 1788.

"Was jedem Offizier Waehrend eines Feldzuges zu Wissen", Goettingen, 1788. Plan 3.

No Supports.

Below: Detail from a tapestry by L. de Hondt. War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714. Barnett, p. 104.

Barnett, Correlli; "The First Churchill." G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1974.

Below. British camp. Paul Sandby, "The Encampment on Blackheath 1780 MDCCLXXX". British Library.

http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/kinggeorge/t/003ktop00000018u005a0000.html

Below: Loyalist camp. James Peachey, “Encampment of the Loyalists at Johnstown, a New Settlement, on the Banks of the River St. Lawrence in Canada, taken June 6th 1784” Collections Canada.

http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/008/001/008001-119.02-e.php?&page_id_nbr=259&brws=1&ts_nbr=8&&PHPSESSID=dc4is8d4el3lo41rd6e1irl7o4

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Barbecue and Jerk.

1722.

Robert Beverley. "They have two ways of Broiling, viz. one by laying the Meat itself upon the Coals, the other by laying it upon Sticks rais'd upon Forks at some Distance above the live Coals, which heats more gently, and dries up the Gravy; this they, and we also from them, call Barbacueing." p. 150.

Beverley, Robert; "The History of Virginia, In Four Parts." B. and S. Tooke. London. 1722.

https://archive.org/stream/historyofvirgini00inbeve#page/n175/mode/1up

1775.

English adventurer Nicholas Creswell, on the Ohio River past Bracken Creek but still upstream of Licking Creek.

"Thursday, May 18th, 1775. All hands employed in curing our Buffalo meat, which is done in a peculiar manner. The meat is first cut from the bones in thin slices like beefsteaks, then four forked sticks are stuck in the ground in a square form, and small sticks laid on these forks in the form of a gridiron about three feet from the ground. The meat is laid on this and a slow fire put under it, and turned until it is done. This is called jerking the meat. I believe it is an Indian method of preserving meat. It answers very well, where salt is not to be had, and will keep a long time if it be secured from the wet." p. 75-76.

Cresswell, Nicholas; "The Journal of Nicholas Cresswell, 1774-1777." Lincoln MacVeagh. The Dial Press, New York. 1924.

1784.

"We then put a row of forks on each side of the fire, and placed poles on the forks."

Spencer Records and three companions, ca. August 1784. Dry Run hunt.

"The last of the same month, four of us set out to hunt on a small stream, then known by the name of Dry run, about sixteen miles north of Lexington. We there killed the largest buffaloe bull I ever saw slain, which was good beef. This was at the time called bellowing time, when the bulls are following the cows. The calves are all produced at one time in the spring, and when young resemble our common red calves. We skinned the bull, and cut off all the meat in broad thin pieces, which we laid on the hide, and sprinkled salt thereon, letting it lay till we made a long fire. We then put a row of forks on each side of the fire, and placed poles on the forks. Small sticks were then laid on them, and the meat laid on the sticks over the fire, where it remained till half cooked; it was then turned over, and left to lay till morning, for by this time it was in the night. We then took our guns, saddles and blankets, slipped off and lay down in the darkest place we could find, for fear the Indians would stumble on us. In the morning we put the meat in bags and carried it home." p. 343.

Hougham, Naomi Mullendore and Carmony, Donald F., eds.; "Spencer Records' Memoir of the Ohio Valley Frontier, 1766-1795". In "Indiana Magazine of History". Volume LV. Number 4. December, 1959.

1784.

Captain Lawrence Butler to Mrs. Joseph Cradock.

“Westmoreland County Virginia, October 15, 1784.

Dear Madam...

I have the pleasure of informing you, I found all my relations and friends well. I have been very happy since my arrival in Virginia; I am continually at balls and barbiques. The latter I will try to describe; it is a lamb, and sometimes a sheep, and indeed sometimes a beef, split in two and stuck on spits. A large hole is dug in the ground into which they put coals made of the bark of trees; then they lay the meat over that within about six inches of the coals; and keep basting it with butter and salt water, and turning it every now and then until it is done. We then dine sumptuously under a large shady tree or at an arbour made of green bushes. We have a mile race-ground, and every horse on the field runs two and two together; by that means we have a deal of diversion; and in the evening we retire to some gentleman’s

house and dance awhile after supper, and then retire to bed. The company stay at the house all night (not like in your country) for every gentleman has ten or fifteen beds, which is sufficient for the ladies, and the men shift for themselves. In this manner we spend our time once a fortnight, and at other times we have regular balls as you have in England...

Lawrence Butler.” p. 41.

[According to the editor, Butler was an American officer who met Mrs. Cradock at the Hotel de York in Paris, which was the headquarters of John Adams. He lived on the Rappahannock River at Leeds Town, Westmoreland County, Virginia.]

“The Magazine of American History with Notes and Queries.” Vol. I. Part I. A. S. Barnes and Company, New York and Chicago. 1877. Google Books.

Roasting on a String.

Some further resources for roasting fowl by hanging them from a string as seen in one of the illustrations.

Military references.

1761.

"...we hung the Goose up by a string that she roasted finely.”

Pioneer Corporal William Todd, 12th Regiment of Foot. Near Cologne Germany during the winter of 1761. Provisions were very scarce but his men had foraged up several fowl and also had a goose, which he made a present to the officers.

“November 14th, 1761… I set my pioneers to work to make a good fire in a House next the House where the Officers remain’d that was of[f] Duty. And we hung the Goose up by a string that she roasted finely.” Todd, p. 223.

Todd, William; “The Journal of Corporal Todd, 1745 – 1762.” Cormack, Andrew and Jones, Alan, eds. Army Records Society, Sutton Publishing Ltd. Stroud, Gloucestershire, England, 2001.

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"...your wagoner is just as able to turn the string as I am."

Major Alexander Garden, an Aid-de-Camp to General Nathanael Greene, writing of Baron von Steuben.

"Dining with him shortly after the resignation of Mr. Robert Morris, as Financier of the United States, the cause of which appeared inexplicable to the company present, 'To me,' said Baron Steuben, 'there appears no mystery. I will illustrate my sentiments by a simple narrative. When I was about to quit Paris to embark for the United States, the better to insure comfort when in camp, I judged it of importance to engage in my service a cook of celebrity. The American army was posted at Valley Forge, when I joined it. Arrived at my quarters, a wagoner presented himself, saying that he was directed to attach himself to my train, and obey my orders. Commissaries arriving, furnished a supply of beef and bread, and retired.

My cook looked around him for utensils, indispensable, in his opinion, for preparing a meal, and finding none, in an agony of despair, applied to the wagoner for advice. 'We cook our meat,' replied he, 'by hanging it up by a string, and turning it before a good fire till sufficiently roasted.' The next day - and still another passed, without material change. The Commissary made his deposit. My cook showed the strongest indications of uneasiness by shrugs and heavy sighing; but, with the exception of a few oaths, spoke not a word of complaint. His patience, however, was completely exhausted; he requested an audience, and handed his dismission. 'Under happier circumstances, mon General,' said he, 'it would be my ambition to serve you, but here I have no chance of showing my talents, and I think myself obliged, in honour, to save you expense, since your wagoner is just as able to turn the string as I am.' 'Believe me, gentlemen,' continued the Baron, 'the Treasury of America is, at present, just as empty as my kitchen was at Valley Forge; and Mr. Morris wisely retires, thinking it of very little consequence who turns the string?'" p. 345.

Garden, Alexander; "Anecdotes of the Revolutionary War in America: With Sketches of Character of Persons the most distinguished, in the Southern States, for Civil and Military Services." "By Alexander Garden; Aid-De-Camp to Major General Greene; and Honorary Member of the Historical Society of New-York." Printed for the Author by A. E. Miller. Charleston. 1822.

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Civilian references.

1717.

"To roast a Fowl with Chesnuts.

Roast some chesnuts very carefully, so that they may not be burnt, and then take off the skins, and peel [page blotted or stained] Cut about a dozen of them small, and bruise them in a mortar. Parboil the liver of the fowl, bruise it, and cut about a quarter of a pound of ham or bacon, and pound it. Then mix them all together, with a good quantity of chopped parsley, sweet herbs, some mace, pepper, salt, and nutmeg. Mix these together, put it into your fowl, and roast it. The best way of doing this is to tie the neck, and hang it upon the legs to roast with a string, and then baste it with butter. For sauce, you may take the rest of the chestnuts peeled and skinned, put them into some good gravy, with a little white wine, and thicken it with a piece of butter rolled in flour. Then lay your fowl in the dish, pour in the sauce, garnish with lemon, and send it up to table." p. 10-11.

Williams, T.; "The Accomplished Housekeeper, and Universal Cook." Printed for J. Scatcherd. London. 1717. Google Books.

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Daniel Defoe, “Robinson Crusoe”, 1722. After Crusoe had rescued “Friday” from the cannibals. Defoe's work is of course a fictional novel, but set in context of his own times.

“I was resolved to feast him the next day with roasting a piece of the kid [i. e., young goat]; this I did by hanging it before the fire on a string, as I had seen many people do in England, setting two poles up, one on each side of the fire, and one across the top, and tying the string to the cross stick, letting the meat turn continually.” Defoe, p. 209.

Defoe, Daniel; “Robinson Crusoe.” Harvey Swados, ed. Signet, NY, 1961.

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Below, William Hogarth, "A Harlot's Progress", Plate 5. 1732. Lewis Walpole Library Digital Collection.

Here the son struggles to cook for himself. It seems that he would have better success using only one of the two hooks.

http://images.library.yale.edu/walpoleweb/oneitem.asp?imageId=lwlpr22237

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1747.

Lord Delawarr, whose kitchen was being refurbished, wrote to the Duke of Richmond,

“August the 2d 1747…

I shall stay here till next Sunday Fortnight, and by that time I believe I shall have no Place to roast a Piece of Meat in the whole house, unless it is by the Help of a string, which method of cooking I have not much admired since I left Eaton.” March, p. 621.

March, Charles; Earl of; “A Duke and His Friends; the Life and Letters of the Second Duke of Richmond.” Hutchinson & Co., London, 1911.

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When James Boswell collected anecdotes for his “Life of Samuel Johnson,” he noted that on being asked in April 1772 how his dinners were prepared, the witty but rather eccentric Dr. Johnson replied:

“Why, Desmoulins has the chief management of the kitchen; but his roasting is not magnificent, for we have no jack.”

“No jack! Why how do they manage without?”

“Small joints, I believe, they manage with a string, and large are done at the tavern. I have some thoughts (with a profound gravity) of buying a jack, because I think a jack is some credit to a house.”

“Well, but you’ll have a spit, too.”

“No, sir, no. That would be superfluous, for we shall never use it; and if a jack is seen a spit will be presumed.” Hibbert, p. 349.

Hibbert, Christopher, ed., Boswell; James; “The Life of Samuel Johnson.” NY, 1986.

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1751.

Below, John June, "A Description of the Miseries of a Garreteer Poet...", 1751. Lewis Walpole Library Digital Collection.

This appears to be a gimlet; a tool for boring holes.

http://images.library.yale.edu/walpoleweb/oneitem.asp?imageId=lwlpr01507

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1784.

"To roast a Fowl with Chesnuts.

First take some chesnuts, roast them very carefully, so as not to burn them; take off the skin and peel them; take about a dozen of them cut small, and bruise them in a mortar; parboil the liver of the fowl, bruise it, cut about a quarter of a pound of ham or bacon, and pound it; then mix them all together, with a good deal of parsley chopped small, a little sweet herbs, some mace, pepper, salt, and nutmeg; mix these together and put into your fowl, and roast it. The best way of doing it is to tie the neck, and hang it up by the legs to roast with a string, and baste it with butter. For sauce, take the rest of the chestnuts peeled and skinned; put them into some good gravy, with a little white wine, and thicken it with a piece of butter rolled in flour; then take up your fowl, lay it in the dish, and pour in the sauce. Garnish with lemon." p. 75.

Glasse, Hannah; "The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy..." Printed for R. Strachan, et. al. London. 1784.

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1789.

Below, George Morland, "The Effects of Extravagance and Idleness." 1789. Sterling Times.

Note the string hanging from the fireplace.

http://www.sterlingtimes.co.uk/morland3.htm

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Richard Elliot Smith. Born in 1817. Lewistown, Juniata Valley, Pennsylvania.

"The cooking of our tavern was done at a liberal wood fire, in the ample kitchen hearth, with pot, and skillet, and frying pan, and dutch-oven, and waffle irons, and griddle, together with the 'tin kitchen' for roasting the beef, or turkey, or saddle of venison. Such roast turkey as you never saw, my young friend, and cannot have, from the oven of a common stove or a hotel range. The tin kitchen was a half cylinder, placed horizontally before the fire, with an iron rod to impale the turkey. Sometimes a turkey would be hung up by a string before the fire to roast, when on court days two turkeys were needed for dinner." p. 8.

Elliot, Richard Smith; "Notes taken in Sixty Years." Studley & Co. St. Louis, MO, 1883. Google Books.

Hooks.

Hooks are sometimes used, other times not, depending on the kettle used and the height of the supports. The following are artifacts from 18th century sites. The great majority are simply made from scrap metal.

Sprague House, Andover, Connecticut. Destroyed by fire in the 1750's. The item on the right is identified as a pot leg, but may be the handle from a cast iron skillet.

http://www.ahs-inc.biz/Sprague/foodways.html

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Governor Calvert House, Annapolis, Maryland.

http://www.aia.umd.edu/seeking_liberty/GCtools_utilitarian.html

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Governor Calvert House, Annapolis, Maryland. Unusual type might have been used in the hearth or in the pantry.

http://www.aia.umd.edu/seeking_liberty/GCtools_utilitarian.html

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Fort Michilimackinac. The lower one is made from a section of gun barrel.

Stone, Lyle M.; "Fort Michilimackinac, 1715-1781. An Archaeological Perspective on the Revolutionary Frontier." Mackinac Island State Park Commission and Michigan State University. Lansing, Michigan. 1974.

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Fort Stanwix, abandoned 1781.

"Assorted rods and straps of bent iron bent into S- or C-shaped hooks and presumably used in fireplaces to hang pots (table 26) (fig. 70c) have the following dimensions: length, 11.5 to 28.9 cm., average, 16.5 cm. Two appear to have been made from old door hinges." p. 135.

Hanson, Lee, & Hsu, Dick Ping; “Casemates & Cannonballs: Achaeological Investigations at Fort Stanwix National Monument.” U. S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Washington, 1975.

https://archive.org/stream/casematescannonb00hans#page/134/mode/2up

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West Point.

"Barrel Hoop, Twisted into Crude Hook, Recovered from Redoubt 3 during Pedestrian Survey (Surface Collection)" Cubbison, p. 50.

Cubbison, Douglas R.; "Historic Structures Report: The Hudson River Defenses at Fortress West Point, 1778-1783". Directorate of Housing and Public Works U.S. Military Academy West Point, New York. January 2005

http://www.hudsonrivervalley.org/library/pdfs/articles_books_essays/historicstructuresrprt_westptdefenses_cubbison.pdf

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Fort Loudon. 1756-1760.

"Figure 143. Cooking and Kitchen Related Items...

F-G. Iron wire kettle hooks. H-J. Strap iron kettle hooks..." p. 409.

Kuttruff, Carl; "Fort Loudon in Tennessee: 1756-1760. History, Archaeology, Replication, Exhibits, and interpretation." Report of the Tennessee Wars Commission and Tennessee Division of Archaeology, Research Series No. 17." Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Inc. Waldenhouse Publishers Inc. Walden, Tennessee. 2010.

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Fort Loudon. 1756-1760.

"Figure 143. Cooking and Kitchen Related Items...

K. Wrought iron kettle hook..." p. 409.

Kuttruff, Carl; "Fort Loudon in Tennessee: 1756-1760. History, Archaeology, Replication, Exhibits, and interpretation." Report of the Tennessee Wars Commission and Tennessee Division of Archaeology, Research Series No. 17." Alexander Archaeological Consultants, Inc. Waldenhouse Publishers Inc. Walden, Tennessee. 2010.

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Fort De Chartres. p. 186, Fig. 6.11.

Keene, David J.; "Beyond Fur Trade: The Eighteenth Century Colonial Economy of French North America as seen from Fort De Chartres in the Illinois Country". PhD dissertation. University of Wisconsin, Madison. 2002.

http://www.arch-res.com/pdf_files/Beyond%20Fur%20Trade.pdf