control of the rabbit in australia

Economic and Ecological Impact of Rabbits

"BREEDING LIKE RABBITS"

Control Of The Rabbit In AustraliaRabbits are one of Australia's foremost environmental pests. They have been one of the main causes of habitat destruction, native flora and fuana extinction, land degradation and crop destruction. This site explores the history of the rabbit and its impact on native Australian flora and fauna. Special emphasis is placed on immunocontraception- a current research project in biological rabbit control.

History Impact Biological

Control Culture

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History and Past Rabbit Control</head>

History of the European wild rabbit in Australia

●

Introduction and Establishment

● "The Grey Blanket"

● Past Control

● Traditional Control Techniques

● Photo Gallery

● References

● Home Page

Introduction and Establishment

Domestic rabbits were first introduced into Australia with the first fleet. They were imported on many

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subsequent occasions but did not become feral except in Tasmania. It was after Thomas Austin brought twenty four wild rabbits from England in 1859 and released them on his property in southern Victoria that the rabbit became established on the mainland (Rolls,19). There may have been other unpublicised releases in Victoria and South Australia at the same time, but Austin received the credit or rather, the blame for the introduction of the rabbit to the mainland.

The establishment of the rabbit was initially regarded as a great success for the sporting gentleman. In 1866, only 7 years after its introduction, 14,253 rabbits were shot for sport alone on Austin's property (Rolls, 28). This was Australia's first intimation at the amazing reproductive capability of the rabbit from which the saying "Breeding like rabbits" would work its way into the Australian lexicon.

"Sometime in the 1850's a man was charged at the Colac (Victoria) Police Court with having shot a rabbit, the property of John Robertson of Glen Alvie. He was fined 10 pounds. A few years later, Robertsons son spent 5000 pounds a year in an attempt to control rabbits" (pg 21 Rolls). By 1869 it was estimated that 2,033,000 rabbits had been destroyed on his property and that they were as thick as ever (pg 35 Rolls). This illustrates beautifully what happened so often in different parts of Australia. Domestic rabbits were initially highly prized and many attempts were made to establish them, until the inevitable invasion of the wild rabbit only a few years later. To control the rabbit numbers once the rabbit had invaded land was almost impossible.

The Grey Blanket

The spread of the rabbit across Australia

The rabbit spread from Austin's property and from other release points in both Victoria and South Australia. (see map) The rabbit took 15 years to reach the NSW border, another 15 years to reach Queensland and another 10 to reach Western Australia and the Northern Territory. Numbers were such that the movement of rabbits across the landscape was refered to as " a grey blanket". Australia witnessed the fastest rate of spread of any colonising mammal anywhere in the world. (Stodart & Parer)



The rabbit did not spread naturally across Australia. Its' social structure is such that only at the point of a population collapse at the brink of starvation will the young bucks and subordinate does leave to establish themselves else where. Floods, fire and other such extreme events such as hunting pressure will also cause an exodus of rabbits. Spreading across Australia may have taken a lot longer if it weren't for the sportmans and trappers who had an incentive to assist the spread of the rabbit to ensure their future prosperity.

The English gentlemen felt quite at content being able to shoot as they did `back home'. They could also congratulate themselves as accomplished shooters, shooting at times 1,200 in 3 1/2 hours, a figure unheard of in England, but so too were the figures for the number of rabbits in the landscape. Rabbits were also spread by those whose pastime was game shooting. These Gentlemen took rabbits from shooting farms to establish them in their own regions and so the rabbit was transported around the country as game for sporting purposes. "As the rabbits proliferated in numbers, the farmers began to bitterly complain, the sportsmen who were delighted, regarded the farmers as universal spoilers of gentlemen's sport" (pg 28, Rolls).

Past Control

Throughout Australia, shooters and trappers were being hired as rabbits devastated crops and reduced the carrying capacity of the land dramatically. The rabbiter did not attempt to eradicate the rabbit as that would be workings ones way out of a job. The rabbiters were known to release rabbits whilst travelling to ensure work in that area. In protest to the NSW Minister for Lands 1888 decision to stop subsidising farmers to pay bounties, the rabbiters simply allowed the rabbit to procreate by not

killing the young and by releasing trapped pregnant does. It was also hypothesised that the only reason that there were never plagues in Queensland was that there wasn't a meat or pelt industry.

Many fences were erected to control the spread of the rabbits, yet these were mostly unsuccessful. Early fences were destroyed by wombats, rabbits, kangaroos, buried by sand drifts and because of the vast lengths of the fences, they were poorly maintained. Often fences built to stop rabbits were not completed



until after the rabbit front had passed, such as the Queensland/NSW border fence and various fences in Western Australia. Rabbits were sometimes stopped by fences, but in plague proportions, there were so many rabbits piled up by the fences, that the rabbits acted as a ladder for others that simply walked over the fence. Rabbits also will climb fences and they have been known to climb trees up to five meters.

The States response was often too slow and inefficient. South Australia produced the first legislation in Australia concerning the rabbit which protected it during spring breeding and considered a valuable resource. Shortly after this legislation, South Australia was also the first state to legislate a Rabbit Destruction Act in 1875 (Williams,103). Other States legislated against rabbits with varying degrees of success.

There were concerns about the effectiveness of early programs. A correspondent to The Observer in 1886 described the governments policies for this control of the rabbit in South Australia as ` trying to stop the tide with a pitchfork' and almost all attempts rabbit control before myxomatosis could be described in similar terms. Methods were indiscriminate and often resulted in substantial deaths of native wildlife and considerable risk to people (Williams, 104).

The rabbit may have been contained by natural boundaries such as rivers and thick forest vegetation but the rabbit spread over and through these barriers was assisted by Sportsman and Rabbiters whose interest lay in its spread. The Squatters assisted the invasion of their own lands by clearing the very vegetation that the rabbit would not penetrate and leaving the fallen trees as rabbit harbour.

Present distribution of rabbits in Australia

Traditional Control Techniques

Many techniques of rabbit control have been used in attempts to lower the rabbit population eg; fencing, warren ripping, warren fumigation and 1080 poisoning. All of these techniques are expensive, time consuming, labour intensive and often have to be repeated over consecutive years to achieve low populations yet they are necessary if any attempt is to be made at rabbit control. Although historical attempts at rabbit proof fences were largely unsuccessful, netted fences can be highly effective if



maintained and control measures are taken within the boundary.

All of the traditional techniques are effective if performed properly and consistently. The key word is "consistently" and most farmers only respond with control techniques when a problem is perceived. This is not a very effective or cost effective way of controlling rabbits. In the rangelands, where the rabbit is periodically most abundant, traditional techniques are not regarded as being cost effective (Williams,1993).

Groups of Farmers that establish a regional rabbit control strategy are more likely to meet with success than a lone farmer. Such a strategy will lower rabbit numbers over a district and not merely push them over the fence. Several Landcare groups have received subsidies towards hiring tractors and other equipment, making a necessary job, quicker, easier and less expensive.

Although historical attempts at rabbit fences were unsuccessful, rabbit proof fencing can be highly effective if control measures are taken within the boundaries.

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gallery

Historic Photo Gallery

A rabbiters camp

Shooting was both a past time and a method of control

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gallery

Australia exported tinned rabbit meat to England

The rabbits meat and pelt were both sold


gallery

An early method of chemical control was to put foam filled with carbon monoxide into the warrens

and then seal the openings.


gallery

Rabbits competed with native wildlife and stock for resources in the rangelands

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References

Anon, (1988). The economic impact of pasture weeds, pests and diseases on the Australian wool industry. Report prepared by Sloane, Cook and King Pty Ltd for the Australian Wool Corporation.

Australian Rabbit Control Conference, Adelaide April 1993, pp. 26-34. Editor B.D. Cooke

CRC Promotional Folder for the Vertebrate Control Centre; The New Approach No.1 Oct 1992, New Rabbit Biological Control; Strategies for the 90s in Aust, No 2 Oct 1992 Fertility Control of Foxes in Australia

Fenner, F. & Ratcliffe, F.N. (1965) Myxomatosis,. Cambridge University Press, London.

Editors Coman,B.J &P Arundel,J.H Rabbit Control 1991, Australian Wool Corporation

Lange,R.T. & Graham, C.J. (1983) Rabbits and the failure of regeneration in Australia's arid zone. Acacia. Aust. J. Ecol.8, 377-81.

Editors Levin,M. & Strauss,H Risk assessment in Genetic Engineering.1991 McGraw-Hill

Report by the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Industry, Science and Technology Feb 1992 Genetic Manipulation: The Threat or The Glory?Aust. Gov. Publishing Services

Editors Mooney,H.A. & Bernardi,G. Introduction of Genetically Modified Organisms into the Environment Scope 44 1990, John Wiley and Sons, New York

Parer, I.P. PersComm, 5-14/5/1993. Research Ecologist, CSIRO.

Pickard,J. (1991). Sheep and Rabbits- the biological chainsaws. Search 22, 48-50

Fertility Control in Wildlife Conference, 21-24 November 1990, International House Uni of Melbourne, Program and speakers papers.

Rolls,E.C. (1969) " They All Ran Wild", Angus and Robertson, Sydney

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Short, J.(1985). The functional response of kangaroos, sheep and rabbits in an arid grazing system. J. Appl. Ecol. 22,435-47

Williams, K. Ecological and environmental risks in release of genetically modified organisms in Australia; A discussion paper. Unpublished

Williams, K. Pers Comm. 25/5/93, Research Ecologist, CSIRO

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Historycontrol

Techniques used to manage rabbit populations:

Rabbbit proof fencing was used to varying degrees of success to control the spread of the rabbit and to aid in the management of controling an isolated population. The

above photo compares the difference in vegetation cover between a paddock grazed by rabbits (left) and a paddock with no rabbit population (right).

Warren ripping when combined with other methods such as poisioning or fumigation (below) is an effective method of rabbit control. To be successful in sustaining low numbers or elimimate the rabbit population it is essential to have rabbit proof fences.

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Historycontrol

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Impact of the Rabbit in Australia

"The rabbit is one of the greatest pests of the pastoral industry in Australia, and has fundamentally altered ecosystems" (Wilson et al,10).

● Economic Impact

● Conservation

❍ Fauna

❍ Flora

❍ Soil Erosion

● Feral Animals

● References

● Home Page

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Economic Impact

It would be difficult to exaggerate the economic and ecological impact of the rabbit prior to myxomatosis. In good seasons there may have been one billion rabbits. As 16 rabbits eat as much as one sheep (Short,1985), this is equivalent to approximately 60 million sheep and the consequent loss of production. The economic impact of present day rabbit populations is not well quantified but is estimated to be in the order of 90

million dollars in lost production and about 20 million spent on control (Sloane et al.1988).

Conservation

A. Fauna

The rabbit impacts upon native wildlife in many ways:

● 1. By directly competing for food and habitat the rabbit has displaced many small to medium size marsupials such as the greater bilby, Macrotis lagotis (now an endangered species), and the burrowing bettong Bettongia lesueur, (now extinct on the mainland). The disapperance of these marsupials is reputed to have occured only after areas were invaded by rabbits. (Willson et al 10,1992)

Map of extinction intensity in Australia

● 2. Due to selective grazing the rabbit has changed ecosystem composition radically. When an ecosystem is changed, the dependant fauna are displaced by a depeletion in thier required food source and breeding grounds. This has marginalised various species into smaller populations and effected thier reproductive capability.

● 3. In its spread across Australia, the rabbit took advantage of pre-existing burrows and evicted



various burrowing mammals such as the rufous hare-wallaby Lagorchestes hisutus, the bilby Macrotis lagotis and the burrowing bettong Bettongia lesueur, from their burrows. This factor contributed to the regional extinction of the bilby and of the burrowing bettong.

● 4. A colony of rabbits will support a high number of predaters such as feral cat and foxes. These predators put stress on small populations of native mammals. After a crash in the numbers of rabbits during a drought, the predator numbers initially drop much less dramatically than the rabbit and remain high putting intense pressure on the small populations of native mammals. (Myer & Parker, in Williams et al, 79). Unlike the rabbit, which can quickly recover from a population crash, native mammals are not such prolific breeders and their numbers increase slowly. They rarely repopulate areas where they have become locally extinct due to isolation.

● 5. Wildlife were often killed by poisions and traps set for rabbits. Rat-kangaroos, tiger-cats and magpies were some of the species inadvertently effected. Goannas, wombats and bandicoots were often directly poisioned as they were percieved as a menace to the farmer (Rolls,173-5).

● 6. Late last century the populations of species plumeted as shooters hired to cull rabbits, also culled wildlife for the pelt trade.

● 7. In South East Australia and South Australia bounties and bonuses were paid for wombats scalps up untill 1966, as the wombat was destructive to rabbit proof fences (Rolls, 162-3).



Endangered species of the arid zone

B. Fauna - Impact on vegetation

1. Due to selective grazing, the rabbit has changed ecosystem composition radically "Biomass and cover are reduced as perennial grasses and shrubs are replaced with annual species and then an increasing number of unpalatable and woody weeds" (Williams).

click to see another ringbarked tree

2. During drought, rabbits will kill trees and shrubs by ring barking and digging to eat the roots in search of moisture. Hence, rabbits not only control species germination, but the species



composition of mature plants thus effecting biodiversity.

C. Soil Erosion

Due to high population numbers, the impact of rabbits prior to the introduction of myxomatosis was imense. In the semi-arid and arid zones the rabbit continues to degrade the soil by destroying the stability of the soil by the removal of vegetation cover. By denuding the landscape, as rabbits will in droughts, it is leaving the soil highly susceptible to various forms of erosion and loss of fertility. Phillip Island (above and below) has severe erosion problems due to the presence of rabbits.

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Introduced Wild Animals in Australia


Introduction

There are now many animals living in Australia that have been deliberately introduced to the wild. Some came by accident, others were escapees from aviaries, aquaria and zoos. They were introduced for a number of reasons that now may sound quaint or impractical. It is a good history lesson to examine past introductions so that the same mistakes are not repeated in the future.

When populations of domestic animals such as livestock or household pets become established in the wild they are called feral animals. These include the feral cats, feral pigs, the hare, feral goats, and feral horse or brumby. However, the introduced species that did not originate from domestic livestock are referred to as exotics, exotic wild animals or introduced wild animals. Here are some reasons why these wild animals from other countries were introduced into Australia and just a few example of the species involved:

Biological control - cane toad, English starling, sparrow, mosquitofish

Sport hunting - rabbit, fox, deer

Fishing - trout, carp

Practical use - ostrich, camel, buffalo

Ornamental - blackbird, song thrush

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Accidental - two species of rat, house mouse, European wasp, cattle tick

Escapees - Indian Palm squirrel, goldfinch.

The introduced wild animals have had a great impact on the Australian environment and the productivity of many of its agricultural industries. The full impact of many species is still to be determined but sufficient is known to warn against any further uncontrolled introductions for the following reasons:

Loss of biological diversity - introduced species may not have the same natural controls as in their country of origin and can therefore displace Australian native plant and animals.

Disease and parasites - these usually are introduced accidentally such as the cattle tick that came with cattle or goldfish ulcer disease which was introduced through the aquarium trade and spread to wild stocks.

Pests - introduced animal pests now affect almost every aspect of the national economy and the community. There are the obvious pests to agriculture such as the European wild rabbit, the house mouse and the starling. Many of the birds and particularly the rodents, are serious pests in towns and cities.

The brown hare

Early attempts to establish wild populations of the brown hare Lepus capensis in Australia failed. The hare is now common through a wide belt of eastern Australia extending from central Queensland into South Australia. It spread from a colony established on the shores of Westernport Bay, Victoria in 1862. This was only a few years after the introduction of the wild rabbit but the hare has not spread as far as the rabbit or caused the same amount of damage. However, the hare can be a problem where farmers are trying to regenerate native vegetation or undertaking tree planting programs because it eats young trees seedlings. The hare does not burrow or reproduce as rapidly as the rabbit can be more easily controlled by shooting. It is not vulnerable to myxomatosis.

The European red fox

The European red fox Vulpes vulpes was released near Melbourne in 1845 for sport hunting. It spread rapidly and took only 50 years to cross the Nullabor into Western Australia. The fox is now found on most of the mainland except in the far tropical northern regions. It is not known whether climate or higher concentrations of dingoes have limited the spread of the fox into this region. The fox has not



established in Tasmania but together with the feral cat and the house mouse it is one of the three most widely distributed introduced wild animals in Australia.

It was believed that the only serious problem caused by the fox was that it preyed on lambs and goat kids. However, there is now evidence the fox is causing the decline of certain species of Australian wildlife. The smaller ground-dwelling native mammals are particularly vulnerable when their habitat has been reduced by disturbance such as land clearing for agriculture. Predation by foxes can tip the balance between survival and extinction for species such as the numbat and the black-flanked rock-wallaby. Consistent fox control on nature reserves in Western Australia in recent years has resulted in dramatic recoveries of populations of small native mammals such as the numbat.

The fox is also a potential carrier of rabies should it enter Australia. This disease primarily affects members of the dog family but can also be transmitted to humans, livestock and native birds and mammals. Rabies occurs in most parts of the world and is prevalent in South-East Asia and Indonesia. There is a serious risk it could enter Australia through the illegal importation of an infected dog. Wherever rabies has become established it has persisted despite all attempts to eradicate it.

The main forms of fox control are shooting and poisoning. A combination of both has proved successful in and around nature reserves in Western Australia but there is an enormous cost in maintaining such a program. In the past, commercial shooting of foxes for fur was a viable industry. This has changed since furs are out of fashion and the market value of fox skins is unstable. As with the rabbit, one hope for fox control lies in genetic engineering techniques that will induce infertility.

Deer



Wealthy colonists dreamed of being able to live the life of European nobility in the land they left behind on the other side of the world. They worked hard to make their dream a reality by establishing wild populations of deer to hunt. Dr John Harris of Sydney imported the first deer into Australia in 1803. They were chital deer from India and were running wild a few years later with strenuous efforts being made to protect them from poachers and dogs.

These first wild deer in Australia were seen as a great success and a

further five species of deer from different parts of the world were eventually established in the wild. They were fallow deer, red deer, sambar, rusa deer, chital and hog deer. However, none of them have become widely distributed. Each species has a different and fairly narrow set of requirements so that they are now found in widely varying climatic regions in small pockets of favourable habitat.

Only the sambar, found in the forested ranges of Victoria through to south-eastern New South Wales, could be regarded as having the potential to increase its range. However, hunting appears to prevent this deer from becoming a pest. Consequently, no species of deer is regarded as a serious pest and since their numbers are limited by environmental factors such as climate, cover and food supply, they are more likely to be viewed as a recreational resource. Farming deer for venison and antler velvet is a growing industry with approximately 100 000 deer on farms in Australia.

Rodents

The house mouse, the black rat and the brown rat probably came in the holds and with the cargo of the First Fleet but they could also have arrived with earlier seafarers that visited Australia's northern coastline. These rodents benefit from human habitation and the changes brought about by crops and horticultural practices. Both the black rat Rattus rattus and the house mouse Mus domesticus colonise natural areas with the rat implicated in damage to seabird colonies on offshore islands.

Modern hygiene has broken the link between rats and bubonic plague - the disease carried by the black rat that affected humans so disastrously in the past. However there is still reason to be concerned about



the ability of this species to spread leptospirosis and cause salmonella poisoning. Other problems caused by the black rat include damage to insulation covering electric conductors by chewing, and the increased fire risk and cost of repair involved.

The house mouse reaches plague proportions in the wheat belt regions when soil moisture conditions that allow easy burrowing coincide with abundant ripening grain. The plagues cause economic damage to cereal crops and oil crops such as soya bean. They are also a nuisance in houses. There is no effective control of mouse plagues. Research into biological control and improved methods of poisoning is proceeding.

Birds

In the past, many different groups devoted their energies to introducing any bird that might have been `useful'. The prevailing concept of usefulness covered the ornamental, sentimental and pragmatic. Birds were easy to obtain, relatively easy to transport and could be nurtured in aviaries before release in to the wild. For example, the house sparrow was introduced to alleviate the pangs of homesickness felt by those so far away from the familiar species of the Old World. It is now regarded as a pest because of its habit of nesting under roofs and fouling buildings with its nesting material.

The European goldfinch, now found in the farmlands of south-eastern Australia, was introduced as an ornamental addition to our avian fauna. The ostrich was introduced for its feather and meat and there is still a small wild population in South Australia. Other introductions for practical reasons, such as biological control of insects and farm pests, were all outstanding failures and merely resulted in another pest. The common starling is undoubtedly the best example of such a species. Apart from being a major agricultural pest is competes with native birds for nest sites such as tree hollows.

Another species which is believed to compete with native species is the nutmeg mannikin which was introduced from China as an Aviary bird but became established in the wild after escaping in Brisbane in the 1930s. It is now common in many parts of coastal Queensland and is rapidly extending its range.

There are now as many as 20 introduced species of birds living in the wild in Australia. Introductions are not a thing of the past. There are continuing efforts, both legal and illegal, to bring new birds into Australia. Most are for cage birds but given the past record of the potential for escapees to become established in the wild it is essential that extreme caution is applied when evaluating the risks of more unwanted additions to the bird fauna of Australia.

The Cane Toad



The outward appearance of the cane toad is living proof that good looks are not the only road to fame. This animal, introduced in 1935 to control two insect pests of sugar cane, has achieved a great deal of notoriety and publicity. One reason for this is its characteristic warty appearance and poisonous glands. The other reason is that its introduction as an agent of biological control was a failure. Both the insect pests and the cane toad continued to thrive.

The cane toad now occupies a range of over 500 000 square kilometres. It has been able to spread through a combination of natural advantages. It has a strong body covered with a tough skin and can live up to 15-20 years. Females can lay up to 30 000 eggs per year while Australian native frogs usually lay less than 1000 eggs per year.

In addition to such breeding efficiency, the cane toad is poisonous to native predators. The large glands protruding from its shoulders exude a creamy white toxin. Frog-eating reptiles have been seen to die after only grasping a cane toad between the jaws before rejecting it. There is no reliable safe method of reducing the cane toad population over the extensive areas of northern Australia where it occurs. A search for a disease that is specific to the cane toad is currently being undertaken by the CSIRO.

Fishes

The best known species of introduced fish are probably the brown trout and rainbow trout. They were introduced during the latter part of the last century when people craved a wider range of sporting fish. Trout have thrived in the cooler streams of south- eastern Australia and the extent to which they have changed the abundance and distribution of native species is still poorly understood. However, research in Tasmania strongly implicates the brown trout in the decline, almost to extinction, of native fish, the Lake Pedder Galaxia.

Five species of carp were also introduced to enhance the sporting and aesthetic qualities of Australian waterways. The common carp is the most widely distributed and is regarded as the worst pest. It is also possible that land degradation, through soil erosion and salinity and pollution, has had the greatest impact on reducing the stocks of native fish. The common carp has thrived under such conditions.

The mosquitofish was introduced to Australia from the Gulf of Mexico drainage system. It was released in Sydney in 1925 and Brisbane in 1929 to control mosquito larvae in dams. This fish has had a certain success in mosquito control but evidence is mounting that it also has a detrimental effect on native aquatic fauna. The mosquitofish attacks native fish and causes substantial damage to their fins as well as aggressively competing with them for food. It has caused the decline of a native fish on Stradbroke Island, Queensland.



Insects and molluscs

Most of the well known pests such as the garden snail, the fruit fly and the cattle tick found their way here by mistake and have become a great cost to Australian society. These accidental introductions are still occurring, with one of the best known recent examples being the arrival of the European wasp.

A queen wasp probably hibernated among cargo on a ship in New Zealand where it had also become established and was carried here to start the Australian population.

The honeybee was deliberately introduced but soon became established in the wild. The requirements of the honeybee for nectar overlap with numerous native species, and there is now concern that this exotic species is having a greater impact than previously thought. There is evidence that the honeybee is a more efficient forager than native pollinators and therefore competes with them for food. However, it is a less efficient pollinator than the native animals that have evolved with the Australian flora. This means that if the native pollinators are forced out by competition for food then some native plants may remain unpollinated and fail to reproduce.

Conclusion

With the great wave of animal introductions that followed Europeans into Australia came many species that we could now do without. There was either no concern or no system for identifying the truly useful from the truly troublesome. Consequently, there were many unforseen results from introducing a host of new animal species into Australia without considering what impact they might have.

Unscrupulous collectors still attempt to smuggle birds, reptiles and fish into Australia that can carry disease or become established in the wild if they escape or their owners tire of keeping them. With the greater reliance on world trade in increased overseas travel, the opportunities for the accidental introduction of new species has increased rather than diminished.

The major exotic animal pests now cost Australia many millions of dollars annually and this is why continued quarantine vigilance is essential. The main method of preventing further entry of undesirable exotic animals is to prevent the importation of all plants and animals without proper quarantine and thorough biological screening procedures. The great challenge is to balance the desire to import new species with the risk of them becoming pests.

Australia now has the knowledge and experience to make an even greater effort to protect its native plants and animals and primary industries so vulnerable to introduced pests. If we have learnt anything



from the past then it is the need for constant vigilance. However, the task can not be left to governments alone. A responsible and caring public is essential. Everyone eventually pays for the damage caused when introduced animals arrive in Australia where they are neither needed or wanted, only to become a pest.

There are few cases of introduced wild animals that are not controversial or without problems today. Even those species that are considered desirable by some sectors of the community, such as trout, cause concern and their impact is still be to be fully determined. A commercial use has been found for some of the introduced species such as the rabbit and this serves to complicate their management because they are both a pest and a resource. However, for the great majority of introduced wild animals in Australia there is the wish that we could turn back the hands of time and assess the costs and benefits in the light of current knowledge.

Further Reading

Feral animals in Australia Australian National Parks and Wildlife Service, Bureau of Rural Resources. Canberra. Information leaflet.

Breckwoldt, R., Wildlife in the home paddock: nature conservation for Australian farmers Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1936 (3rd ed.)

Readers Digest complete book of Australian birds Readers Digest Services Pty Ltd. Sydney, 1979 (2nd ed).

Rolls, E., They all ran wild Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1983.

Strahan, R., (ed) Complete book of Australian mammals Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1983.

Wilson, G et al., Pest animals in Australia: a survey of introduced wild mammals Kangaroo Press/BRR 1992.

For further information contact either:

Australian Nature Conservation Agency



GPO Box 636Canberra ACT 2601

or

Bureau of Resource SciencesGPO Box 858Canberra ACT 2601

Information on this page obtained from ERIN

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Endangered Species in the Arid Zone

Introduction

This is a story of arid Australia. It is part of the harsh, desert beauty of red sand and of weather-beaten rock, of spinifex, saltbush and of desert sheoak. Some parts of the story are like tracks in sand. We know some of what has passed but already the full story is lost. It is a story of earth, fire and water; of the scarce nutrients in ancient, eroded soils, of the pattern of fires and of rain and the vegetation that these produce. It is the story of foxes and cats, of lack of water, food and shelter, death and extinction. It is the story of the last 200 years in arid Australia where there has been a massive loss of native animal species.

What happened?

About half the land mass of Australia is arid land. Twenty-eight non-flying arid species of mammals are endangered or extinct. To this can be added other species, such as the brush-tailed possum, which are still common in coastal areas but which have become extinct or endangered in the arid areas. This catastrophic decline has no modern parallel in other continents. It is a uniquely Australian event which has taken less than 200 years - a millisecond in geological time. Aboriginal people have been aware of this decline but have been fighting their own battle for survival. Other Australians are only now beginning to understand the extent of the arid lands tragedy.

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Drought refuges

Prolonged droughts are normal in arid regions. At the end of long droughts surface water and food are restricted to isolated refuge areas. In times of prolonged drought many desert mammals are thought to have either died or retreated to refuge areas.

One theory is that these refuge areas were special because there was extra run-off water from rocky hills. In some cases refuges were formed where the ground water tables were close to the surface. Often, because of the runoff, the soil in refuge areas was slightly richer in nutrients. Extra water and nutrients create small oases where mammals could survive during droughts. With the return of the rains, desert dwellers would radiate from the refuge areas. In this way desert animals survived hundreds of severe droughts over many thousands of years.

Destruction of the refuge areas

Unfortunately, cattle, donkeys, camels and rabbits were also attracted to refuge areas. They ate the vegetation and what they did not eat, they often trampled. They fouled the waterholes. Their hard hooves cut up the soil and created erosion, filing the waterholes. The delicate balance between desert plants and plant eaters, forged over millennia, was shattered.

A fire is a fire is a fire... or is it?

One fire looks much the same as the next but the similarity often hides significant differences. The difference between fires, and patterns of fires is the difference between survival and extinction for many desert mammals. Animals depend on plants and many Australian plants depend on fires of a certain temperature, or fires at a certain time of year in order for seeds to germinate. Too frequent fires can cause some plants to disappear. Mulga, a very important arid plant, is an example. This shrub dies when burnt. The seeds germinate after fires and new stands of mulga appear. If another fire occurs before the young stands of mulga have had the chance to develop seed, then mulga disappears from the area. Fires which are too infrequent enable fire sensitive plants to crowd out other plants thus reducing species diversity in a particular area. It is now considered likely that much of the pattern of vegetation which existed in Australia in 1788 was the direct result of a pattern of fires which Aboriginal people lit deliberately as well as those caused by lightning.

In arid areas, the complex pattern of patch burning developed by Aboriginal people created a patchwork of areas of older vegetation and areas of vegetation with different food plant species, fresh shoots and vigorous young growth. The desert animals frequently used patches of older vegetation for shelter and fed on the patches of young vegetation.

The patch burning ceased when Aboriginal people were driven from their traditional country. Fuel built



up and huge wildfires swept over vast tracts of the arid country. Mammals which had developed a delicate balance with a patchwork of vegetation were either destroyed by the huge fires or found that the huge tracts of single-age vegetation no longer provided the variety so necessary for their continued survival.

What of the survivors?

Some of the desert species are still struggling for survival. Although extinct on the mainland, some species survive on small isolated islands off the coasts of Western Australia and South Australia. They have not had to deal with introduced foxes, cats, cattle, donkeys, camels and rabbits. The burrowing bettong and the banded hare- wallaby are examples.

Other species survive on the mainland, often in small isolated populations, which have somehow escaped a fatal combination of circumstances.

Some mammals have had an assisted passage to survival. The mala, or rufous hare- wallaby, has been bred in captivity by the Conservation Commission of the Northern Territory (CCNT). Its habits and habitat have been studied by scientists. Aboriginal people have given vital information on behaviour, habitat needs, and the appropriate fire patterns required to maintain suitable habitats. Based on this information, a cooperative attempt is being made between the Commission and Aboriginal people to re-establish the mala in the Tanami Desert. Partly funded through the Federal Government's Endangered Species Program, it is too early to tell how successful this recovery project will be.

In the 1970s there was increasing concern that the range of the numbat was dwindling. Scientists from the Western Australian Department of Conservation and Land Management studied the biology of the and showed that a big threat to the survival of this species is predation by foxes. Despite adequate food and shelter, despite breeding amble young to reproduce the species, the numbat could not replace the large number of individuals being taken by foxes. The species was in decline. Experiments with fox control showed that numbat numbers climbed quickly once foxes were removed.

This goes with this goes with that goes with this

In less than two hundred years since 1789 there has been a catastrophe. We are unsure exactly why each of the extinct species died out. For some the only traces are in museums and in the memories of old Aboriginal men and women... the last people to know them from seeing them alive in the wild.

We do know that mala, the rufous hare-wallaby, can survive in the desert provided the area is burnt in the traditional Aboriginal way; and there are no rabbits and foxes. We are becoming increasingly certain that the availability of nutritious food during times of drought stress has also been critical.

We know that some of these mammals are gone forever. Some of them were ordinary and some beautiful



but each was a unique part of our natural heritage.

On the other hand we know that some mammals which are on the brink of extinction can be saved.

Dingoes, foxes and cats

Scientists believe thatdingoes were brought to Australia at least 15 000 years ago by Aboriginal people. Although it is not certain, it is believed that dingoes had an impact on the native animals. For example, thethylacine (Tasmanian tiger) and the Tasmanian devil disappeared from mainland Australia but survived for much longer in Tasmania where dingoes were absent. The surviving desert animals have had about ten thousand years to adjust to dingoes. By 1788, a new balance had been achieved.

The introduction of cats and foxes fatally altered this balance. Some species simply fell off the scales and disappeared forever. Others maintain a precarious grip. Some mammals which have become extinct on the mainland survive quite well on islands. These islands do not have introduced foxes, cats and rabbits.

Some of the victims

It is painful to think about some of the arid mammals which have become extinct in our lifetime. For some we have beautiful illustrations by the early naturalist John Gould. The illustrations capture the light earthy colours so typical of many of the arid animals; their bright eyes and alert stance give a hint of quick, sure movement. But now they exist only in books. Examples of extinct desert mammals are the lesser bilby, the pig- footed bandicoot, and the central hare-wallaby.

Size is not everything?

A feature of the story is that 90 per cent of all mammal species with adult body weights between 35 and 5 500 grams are either extinct or endangered. It has paid desert mammals to be big or small but not medium. Why? The short answer is that we do not know for sure. One theory is that mammals which weighed less than 35 grams could survive in smaller-scale habitats and somehow missed the general destruction created by introduced animals and alterations to the fire patters. Larger mammals have the capacity to move along distances to surviving patches of habitat, as well as being too large for foxes and cats to attack.

Definitions

Several words are used to describe the population of a species:

Extinct: Species not definitely located in the wild during the past 50 years.

Endangered: Species in danger of extinction and whose survival is unlikely if the causal factors



continue operating.

Vulnerable: Species believed likely to move into the‘Endangered’ category in the near future if the causal factors continue operating.

The future

For many desert mammals there is no happy ending to this story. They are gone. The quality of our lives has been diminished by the loss of the rich variety of animals. For the survivors, it is now a story of a race against time and circumstances. We are in a position to alter those circumstances. We can tip the scales one way or the other.

Whether desert mammals survive, depends on the choices we make. We can make choices through governments by making laws to protect and conserve; through conservation agencies by making and carrying out management choices; through non-government organisations by increasing awareness and support for appropriate action;

and as individuals by choosing to consume less in order to put less pressure on the environment. We know that the choices are often difficult to make but we also know that all choices count.

Choices

We can choose:

● To use less resources in our personal lives. Every bit of paper, metal, wood, and energy comes from somewhere. The wastes from their production and use all go somewhere. Those `somewheres' are where animals live.

● To reserve areas of habitat and protect them from disturbance.

● To control exotic plants and introduced animals.

● To err on the side of caution. Once a species is extinct it is too late to go back and make the right decision.

● To learn more about how animals depend on their habitats and about how habitats are affected by our actions.

● To farm in a way which supports wildlife; for example, by planting shelter belts of native plants.

● To join a group which seeks to support the needs of endangered species and their habitats.



● To grow native plants in your garden or town park as an example to others that people care enough to act for the environment.

● To talk with family and friends about the choices which can be made.

Endangered Species Program

In response to the crisis, the Commonwealth Government has taken a number of steps:

● It is seeking to develop a nation-wide endangered species and habitats strategy, in cooperation with the States and Territories.

● It has established an Endangered Species Advisory Committee to provide expert scientific advice from interested groups such as farmers and non-government conservation groups.

● It has funded an Endangered Species Program. This year $4.6 million has been allocated to 100 projects aimed at reducing the threats to endangered species.

Endangered mammal species of the Australian arid zone

● long-tailed dunnart Sminthopsis longicaudata

● Sandhill dunnart Sminthopis psammophila

● numbat Myrmecobius fasciatus

● western-barred bandicoot Perameles bougainville

● bilby Macrotis lagotis

● brush-tailed bettong Bettongia penicillata

● burrowing bettong Bettongia lesueur

● rufous hare-wallaby Lagorchestes hirsutus

● banded hare-wallaby Lagorchestes fasciatus

● bridled nail-tail wallaby Oncychogalea fraenata



● greater stick-nest rat Leporillus conditor

● Shark Bay mouse Psudomys praeconis

● dusky hopping mouse Notomys fuscus

Extinct mammal species of the Australian arid zone

● desert bandicoot Perameles eremiana

● lesser bilby Macrotis leucura

● pig-footed bandicoot Chaeropus ecaudatus

● desert rat-kangaroo Caloprymnus campestris

● eastern hare-wallaby Lagorchestes leporides

● crescent nail-tail wallaby Onychogalea lunata

● white-footed rabbit-rat Conilurus albipes

● lesser stick-nest rat Leporillus apicalis

● central rock rat Zyzomys pedunculatus

● Alice Springs mouse Pseudomys fieldi

● big-eared hopping mouse Notomys logicaudatus

● short-tailed hopping mouse Notomys amplus.

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http://rubens.anu.edu.au/student.projects/rabbits/biodiversity.html

The Strategy for Biodiversity Conservation

Written by Randel O'Toolehttp://www.fen.cug/fen/pageone/strategy.html

The goal of biodiversity conservation is broad, and support for biodiversity must likewise be broad. Successful action should address the full range of factors causing the loss of biodiversity and embrace the opportunities that genes, species, and ecosystems provide for sustainable development.

The campaign can be broken down into three basic elements: saving biodiversity, studying it, and using it sustainably and equitably.

Saving Biodiversity means acting to protect genes, species, habitats and ecosystems. The best way to maintain species is to maintain their habitats by effectively managing and protecting natural ecosystems and preventing their degradation. The program must include measures to maintain diversity on lands and water that have already been disturbed.

Studying Biodiversity means documenting its composition, distribution, structure and func tion; understanding the roles and functions of genes, species and ecosystems; and using this understanding to support sustain able development. It must build public awareness of biodiversity's values by providing opportunities to appreciate nature's variety.

Using Biodiversity Sustainably and Equitably means using biological resources so that they last indefinitely and are shared equitably. The best economic use of biodiversity may be to maintain it in its natural state for its ecological or cultural values. Biodiversity con servation must take place at all levels, from the individual through the global. Immediate action is needed. Irreplaceable genes, species, and ecosystems are disappearing at a rate unprecedented in human history.

Effective conservation efforts begin where people live and work: in the fields, forests, watersheds, grasslands, coastal zones and settlements. Unless local munities have the incentive, the capacity, and the license to manage bio diversity sustainably, national and international actions are unlikely to produce results. Local biodiversity conservation cannot succeed unless communities receive a fair share of the benefits. But this will be achieved only if conservation actions have an economically sound basis. Benefits to local communities must be increased through such mechanisms as nature tourism and the sustainable use of non-timber forest products.

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Refugia for Biological Diversity in Arid and Semi-arid Australia

MANAGEMENT ISSUES FOR THE ARID ZONE

The terms of reference for our investigation ask for consideration of the types and extent of threats to biological diversity in refugia, of the potential to reverse degradation within them, of the possibilities of eliminating threats, and of current land uses and land management. Our approach is first to ask whether the threats to biological diversity within the refugia we have recognised differ in any important ways from those discussed in the wider literature concerning arid Australia. It becomes quickly apparent that such is not the case. The threatening processes that have been identified and discussed repeatedly over the last 20 years or more are precisely the same ones mentioned in numerous other places (e.g. Foran et al. 1990; Morton and Price 1994; James et al. 1995). They are as follows:

● • Land degradation and potential loss of biological diversity resulting from over-grazing by domestic stock. This vital issue has been the subject of substantial debate, research, and extension and management effort. Although there is dispute as to the exact extent and significance of degradation, all scientists who are active in the arid zone agree that it continues to occur (e.g. Morton and Price 1994).

● • Land degradation resulting from over-grazing by feral animals (horses, donkeys, goats, pigs, and camels) and rabbits. Again, the losses to animal production in the rangelands and the potential loss of biological diversity are widely recognised by land-managers and scientists alike (e.g. Morton and Price 1994).

● • Alterations in hydrology due to human activities, primarily but not exclusively drawdown in the Great Artesian Basin due to numerous uncapped bores (e.g. Harris 1992).

● • Removal of the environments on which animals depend through clearing. This effect is occurring only at the margins of the arid zone, where land is still being cleared for agriculture (e.g. Noble et al. 1990).

● • Depredations of exotic predators, the fox and the cat, but in some insular situations also introduced rats and mice. Many authors have identified these animals as a serious threat to the persistence of the vertebrate component of our fauna (e.g. Kinnear et al. 1988; Burbidge 1989; Newsome 1993).

● • Invasions by weeds constitute an acute and formidable problem for biological diversity. Although arid Australia seems to be experiencing relatively fewer problems in this regard than other parts of the continent, invasions tend to be focussed on certain key habitats (Humphries et al. 1991).

● • Uncontrolled fire is significant in some places (e.g. Pearson 1991).

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Each of these threatening processes has been discussed at length elsewhere. Each has the potential to compromise the integrity of the refugia we have nominated. Indeed, some of the refugia exist primarily because some or all of those threatening processes do not exist in a particular location; this is the case especially with the Islands, which escape the effects of most of these problems (and, for that reason, managers fully understand the importance of continuing to ensure the exclusion of such effects from these islands). Although we have not exhaustively surveyed the management plans that might apply to all the refugia described here, it is clear that there is widespread recognition among managers of these problems. There are formidable technical barriers to be overcome, as well as social and political effects, before such threatening processes can be brought under control. What is the prognosis for such advances?

● • The causes of land degradation by grazing stock are well understood, and the scientific solutions are also moderately clear, i.e. at critical times, reduce the numbers of herbivores that are eating too much plant biomass on land of inherently low productivity (Pickard 1993). However, these problems will not be solved until the key social and political issues are the subject of public debate.

● • Land degradation springing from feral herbivores is technically more difficult to solve than that caused by domestic stock because the animals causing the damage are uncontrolled and usually economically less valuable than stock. Intensive efforts continue into improvement of traditional methods of control as well as investigations of novel techniques.

● • Drawdown of artesian waters has long been recognised as a substantial problem, and efforts have begun to cap bores and thereby limit the problem. The primary limitation here is money to complete the process.

● • Clearing of land seems to be continuing apace. Solutions to this problem must involve careful cost/benefit analysis, land-use planning and public debate.• Control of exotic predators relies upon the same suite of issues as discussed above under control of feral herbivores.

● • Control of weeds is dependent upon better management of grazing animals, both domestic and feral; on more stringent control of plant introductions (Lonsdale 1994); and on protection from invasion of areas with high conservation value, such as refugia. In instances of existing weed invasions, some direct control measures may be urgently required.

● • The principles of fire management are, in general terms, understood well enough for action to begin: protect fire-sensitive environments by burning away from them at strategic times; elsewhere, create a diversity of fire regimes by judicious intervention. The major limitation is financial, although debate may sometimes be necessary to convince the public that management burning is necessary for persistence of biological diversity in certain places.

Is there any evidence that refugia might be important for maintenance of natural populations which help regulate pest outbreaks, or assist in reducing land degradation? The only example which emerged from our literature review concerns the straw-necked ibis Threskiornis spinicollis, which depends for breeding on some of the wetland refugia which have figured so prominently in our review. Straw-necked ibis are major predators of Orthoptera (grasshoppers and crickets) in farmlands (Carrick 1962), and thus the protection of their breeding refugia may enhance pest control. The Macquarie Marshes constitute an



example of such an effect (Brooker 1992).

In brief, then, refugia in arid Australia suffer from the same threatening processes that affect the remainder of the landscape. Thus, management of refugia requires that the same suite of issues be addressed as have been widely discussed with respect to arid Australia in recent times. Despite the universal nature of these management issues, though, it must be recognised that the refugia identified in this report require the utmost care if their relictual, endemic and significant species are to persist. These refugia are some of the places where our community stands to lose the most unusual organisms unless our management improves. They might act as a stimulus to action, such that mitigation of the threatening processes described above benefits refugia first of all but spreads outward into the rest of the arid landscape.


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http://rubens.anu.edu.au/student.projects/rabbits/numbat.html

Numbat - an Endangered species

Australian Endangered Species Profile Sheet

Common Names: Numbat, Banded Ant-eater, Walpurti

The name 'Numbat' comes from Aboriginal people in the York and Toodyay districts (east of Perth), and the name 'Walpurti' is used by desert language groups in parts of Western Australia, South Australia and the Northern Territory.

Scientific Name: Myrmecobius fasciatus

The scientific name comes from myrmex meaning ant, bios meaning life, fasciatus meaning striped or banded.

Conservation Status: Endangered

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DESCRIPTION

Amongst the most beautiful of marsupials, Numbats are mostly reddish brown with a horizontal black stripe through their eyes. On the animal's rump are from four to 11 wide black and white bands. Each Numbat can be recognised by its individual pattern of bands. Under their body, Numbat's have off-white hair and their tails are covered with long brown hairs, some with white tips. The underside of the tail near the body is brick-red.

Adult Numbats have a head and body length of 20 to 25cm and a tail length of 15 to 18cm. Females weigh about 500g while males are usually heavier weighing around 700g. Numbats have a small flat head with a long nose, pointed ears and a very long tongue. They also have 50 to 52 small teeth.

DISTRIBUTION

Numbats were once spread widely but sparsely through much of southern Australia from the west coast to western NSW. Numbats disappeared from New South Wales soon after 1900 but were in north-west South Australia until about the 1950s. In Western Australia Numbats were still widespread in the 1950s but disappeared from the arid zone between the 1950s and 1970s. Numbats decreased to about seven small populations in the 1970s, and by 1986 only two populations were left.

Since then, Numbats have begun to make a comeback as a direct result of recovery actions. There are now three populations in a small area of south-west Western Australia, with another three being re-established nearby.

HABITAT

Numbats used to occur in a number of different habitats including eucalypt forest and woodland, mulga woodland and spinifex country. They are now mostly found in shrubby Eucalypt woodlands in the wettest parts of their former range. These woodlands provide Numbats with hollow logs and branches for shelter, and termites to feed on. Numbats will only live where termites are available for food.

ECOLOGY

Numbats feed only on any species of termite available. They also eat ants by accident with the termites. Numbats detect termites in shallow soil using their front feet to dig an access hole into the insect's gallery, then rapidly extract them with their long sticky tongue. Each individual eats from 15 000 to 20000 termites in a day.

Unlike most marsupials, Numbats are active during the day and rest at night. They use hollow logs or burrows for resting at night or during the day as a refuge from predators. Burrows are mostly used in



colder weather and for rearing young. They are one to two metres long with a nest at the end made from bark and leaves. The entrances are well hidden under logs or piles of branches.

Numbats usually have up to four young, born between late January and late February. Adult females have four teats and no pouch. The young attach themselves to the teats and grip onto the short hairs surrounding the nipples. After six months the young are placed in a burrow and the mother continues to suckle them. Juveniles are carried on the mother's back if she has to move them from one nest to another. By October the young feed independently, but they do not leave their mother's home range until November or December, when they are at least nine months old.

Numbats are solitary and territorial. Once a juvenile has established its home range, it will stay in or close to that area for the rest of its life.

THREATS TO SURVIVAL

Numbats have disappeared from more than 90% of their former range for several reasons. Their habitat has been cleared in many places for agriculture and housing, and in other places the fire pattern has changed. Fox numbers have increased in recent years and are causing problems for much of Australia's wildlife. Feral cats are also becoming a greater problem.

RECOVERY ACTION

In 1982 fox control was started in one of the few remaining woodland areas where Numbats could be found. This was very successful and Numbat numbers increased dramatically. All Numbat populations are now protected by fox control.

Putting Numbats back into areas where they used to live (reintroduction) has also helped numbers to increase. If there are only one or two populations left then Numbats are more likely to become extinct because of predation or disease. Each new population also allows for more Numbats in total.

Numbats have proven difficult to breed in captivity, and most of the animals released into other areas have come from wild populations. It is useful to have Numbats breeding in captivity for education and in case something drastic happens to the wild populations.

Numbats now occur in areas secure from clearing, mostly in State Forests and Nature Reserves. But even in these areas of good habitat, Numbats have recently disappeared. By keeping suitable habitat and constantly controlling foxes, we may be able to save Numbats.

RELATED SPECIES

Numbats are the only species in the family Myrmecobiidae. Their closest relatives are the carnivorous


http://kaos.erin.gov.au/life/end_vuln/Threats/wildanim.html#HDRfox


marsupials of the family Dasyuridae, which includes the Chuditch and the Red-tailed Phascogale, both endangered species found only in Western Australia.

DEFINITIONS

Presumed extinct: An animal or plant species that has not been found in the wild during the past 50 years, despite thorough searching.

Endangered: An animal or plant species that is in danger of extinction and will probably not survive if threats to it continue.

Vulnerable: An animal or plant species that will probably become endangered if threats to it continue.

MORE INFORMATION

Friend J A (1994) Numbat Recovery Plan Available from the Australian Nature Conservation Agency for $10.

Flannery T (1990) Australia's Vanishing Mammals. R D Press, Sydney.

Endangered Species UnitAustralian Nature Conservation AgencyGPO Box 636CANBERRA ACT 2601Phone: 06 250 0200

February 1994

URL: http://www.erin.gov.au/portfolio/anca/esu/numbat.html Last modified: 21 September 1995


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http://rubens.anu.edu.au/student.projects/rabbits/easterbilby.html

The Easter Bilby -

The Rabbits Rival

Bunny or Bilby ?

Although all the cultural conditioning of the many famous bunnies exist in Australia, we do not think too fondly of the dear little critters. We may cringe to see one squashed on the road and may not approve of animal testing but when an animal has been a primary cause in the extinction of native flora and fauna, a cause of major land degradation and a financial burden to the country, we just dont think that the rabbit makes a good role model to represent Easter.

Easter is the time to celebrate new life and although the rabbits certainly represent new life, (a female as young as 6 months can produce up to 50 young a year) thats not the kind of life Easter is in celebration of. The Easter Bunny may now be in decline due to a movement that set out to change the look of the supermarket shelves, but more importantly, the attitudes of the Australian Pshyce. Australia has recieved a new Easter mascot, the Bilby.

The greater bilby Macrotis lagotisis a small mammel whose populations and potential habitats have been severly depleted due to direct competition of rabbits and foxes. There is presumed to be only several hundred left in the wild and predicted to become extinct in the wild. The lesser bilby Macrotis leucra is presumed extinct(Hoser, R. 1991). The bilby resembles the rabbit in only two ways, it has large ears and digs burrows. The one significant difference is that the bilbly's population and habitat has suffered from a sharp decline. This is largely to the rabbit, foxes and farming which have either destroyed the bilby or its habitat. Let us hope that this new mascot of life may benefit, not just by populating the supermarket shelves, but by an awareness of Australians that may help the Bilby raise its own population and save it from extinction.

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BIOLOGICAL CONTROL

"Control or Curse ? "

● Myxomatosis - A current reality

● Immunocontraception- A future reality?

● Rabbit Calcivirus Disease- A future reality?

● References

● Home Page

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Myxomatosis

Myxomatosis is a benign disease of the American cottontail rabbits transmitted by fleas and mosquitos. It is specific to leporids and is caused by the myxoma pox virus.

It was first field tested in 1938 and successfully released in Australia in 1950 (Fenner and Ratcliffe) and resulted in a estimated 99% mortality rate. In the first two years it reduced the rabbit population from 600 million to less than 100 million. However at Cowra rabbit numbers recovered to approximately half of premyxomatosis levels only two years after the first outbreak.

The innate resistance of rabbits to myxomatosis increased rapidly in the first few years after its release and the rabbits with a genetic resistance to the disease became more common. Resistance appeared to reach a plateau until 1968. Recent evidence suggests that rabbits in Victoria developed an increased resistance to the myxoma virus between 1975 and 1985, an by 1990 even the highly virulent Lausanne strain of myxoma (Willaims).

The impact of the disease was greatest in the semi-arid areas where the carriers (vectors) of the virus, mosquitos are seasonally abundant. Myxomatosis was not as successful in spreading in areas where there are few mosquitos, such as Tasmania, Western Australia and some tableland regions. The introduction in 1968 of the European rabbit flea (Spilopsyllus cuniculi), an alternative, more perennial vector, resulted in large reductions in rabbits populations in Tasmania, south-western Western Australia, on tablelands, and in parts of South Australia. The 1993 introduction of an arid adapted Spanish flea(Xenopsylla cunicularis) is intended to cause a similar reduction in the drier rangelands and its spread and efficacy are currently being evaluated (Williams).

Most field strains of myxoma are now of intermediate virulence and rabbits infected with these strains have relatively long survival times (>20 days) and have a high titre of virus in the skin; both of these factors promote transmissibility. Highly virulent strains do not transmit well because of short survival times and highly attenuated strains do not transmit well because they do not have a high titre of virus in the skin (Parer).

The efficacy of myxomatosis declined in the 1950Õs but has remained more or less constant since then and myxomatosis still plays a major role in limiting rabbit numbers. The present density of rabbits in Australia compared to the situation before myxomatosis is not known. On average, rabbit numbers are thought to be about 5% of premyxomatosis abundance in the higher rainfall areas and perhaps 25% in the rangelands. Although the resistance of the rabbits to the virus has increased, this has probably been balanced out by the evolution of more virulent strains of the virus. The effectiveness of the virus in the

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long term cannot be predicted, so no reliance should be placed on its continued effiacy (Fenner & Ratcliffe).

Rabbits with some degree of genetic resistance were selected for and populations became more resistant. Myxomatosis now kills about 50% of susceptible rabbits which are infected. In many areas this degree of myxoma mortality is sufficient to keep rabbits at low numbers. As rabbits become more resistant stronger myxoma strains are selected for to maintain transmissibility and the percentage mortality remains about the same. Until the virulence of the myxoma virus reaches some biological limit myxomatosis can be expected to exert about the same level of control in the future as it does at present.

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IMMUNOCONTRACEPTION

Fertile Grounds For Debate?

● Introduction

● The Co-operative Research Centre

● Why Biotechnology?

● How does it work ?

● Will it work

● Bioethics

● Conclusion

● References

● Home Page

Introduction

Immunocontraception is a new and exciting CRC research project that is taking bold steps in genetic manipulation. The aim is to manipulate the fertility of rabbits through gene insertions on the myxoma virus, rendering the infected rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) infertile.

It is a new approach to rabbit control in two ways - one is that it uses genetic engineering and the other is that, contrary to all usual methods of rabbit control, it effects the birth rate rather than the death rate. As

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the project is a new and attractive hi-tech approach costing a considerable amount of money there is the possibility that it will be enthusiastically promoted and adopted without due consideration. As in any genetic manipulation the ethical issues, the possible social and ecological outcomes, both positive and negative should be considered.

It is not my aim to encourage or discourage the project, but to review it and to examine the issues that it raises.

The Cooperative Research Centre

The Co-operative Research Centre for biological control of vertebrate pest populations (CRC) was established in 1992 by the Commonwealth Government for the purpose of bringing together all the necessary specialists from a wide range of specific disciplines to work on the project.

Initial development on the concept from 1985-92 was funded by the Wool Research and Development Corporation and CSIRO. The CRC is funded by five partners which are:

● Commonwealth Government ● CSIRO ●

Why Biotechnology?

Problems with some of the current control methods such as 1080 poisoning are that they affect other species, native and exotic and are seen as inhumane. The perception of a declining impact of myxomatosis along with the environmental and ethical aspects of current control technique provided an impetus to explore a control that would be less labour intensive, more species specific, more inhumane and have a permanent effect on the population. Most control methods except for warren ripping are just temporary measures, as the population may rebound to pre control levels in 1-2 years if there is no follow up treatment.

Relevant Links

Biotechnology Resource List Ethics in Science


http://www.csiro.au/csiro2.html

http://www.bio.com/> Biotechnology on the Internet</a> <a href=

http://www.chem.vt.edu/ethics/ethics.html

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How Does Imunocontraception Work ?

"Immunocontraception is the process of preventing fertilisation by inducing the body's immune system to attack the reproductive cells of its own species. This process prevents the normal recognition between sperm and egg, impeding fertilisation." If enough individuals were infertile, the population would eventually decline (CRC, No.2).

Species specific proteins from the sperm and egg are isolated and the corresponding DNA is inserted into the DNA of the myxoma virus. The myxoma virus is injected back into the rabbits blood via a vector and the immune system then makes antibodies to these proteins. The antibodies attach themselves to proteins on the sperm or egg, preventing fertilisation.

The genetically modified myxoma will differ from other genetically modified micro-organisms in one very important respect. This is that the modified myxoma will and must to be successful, spread from animal to animal. Other genetically modified micro-organisms have been designed to not to spread. This difference makes species specificity of the utmost importance with the modified myxoma virus.

Regulating the numbers of a pest species through controlling it's fertility by using an immunological approach has very significant advantages. The virus species specific and it does not involve toxic chemicals that would non target animals. Infected rabbits that become prey to other species do not infect the predator. It controls numbers by regulating births in the population rather than trying to kill large numbers of animals. Animal Welfare organisations consider it is more acceptable than the traditional control by mortality.


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Will It Work ?

In an ideal situation, the virus would infect 100% of the population and infected individuals will either die or become sterile. This is a somewhat optimistic situation which will be difficult to put into practice in the field for the following reasons;

❍ (a) It is not known yet if 100% of infected animals can be made sterile and it is not known how long the sterility would last.

❍ (b) About 50% of rabbits in field populations have antibodies to myxomatosis and are therefore not highly susceptible to infection. Repeated introductions over many years will need to be made to sterilise a high proportion of the population. If an introduction in one year fails then it is back to square one as there will be many fertile young in the population. Recent results indicate that more than 80% of the population has to be sterilised before the population declines.

❍ (c) When there are sufficient vectors available to spread the modified myxoma virus then it is probable the field myxoma will be competing/ spreading at the same time and rate. Even if the modified myxoma spreads as well as the field myxoma, only half of the susceptible population are likely to become infected by it.

❍ (d) The cost of spreading the modified myxoma over Southern Australia every year has not been estimated but could be in the order of 50-100 million dollars per year. The cost of warren ripping in the same area may be in the order of 400 million dollars with a annual maintenance cost of 50 million.

❍ (e) One of the major vectors of myxoma, the European rabbit flea (Spilopsyllus cunicului) depends on rabbit breeding for its own breeding and its populations may fall to levels at which the myxoma virus may not spread well in some areas.

❍ (f) Each experiment conducted by the research team must apply for approval from the Genetic Manipulation Advisory Committee. GMAC has strict guidelines that must be adhered to in regards to security and ethics and it is possible that GMAC may not approve the release as it is new and high risk.

❍ (g) In the field, the modified strain may be selected against and if sterility and death rate is not 100%, it could lead to selection of genetically resistant animals. Apart from nullifying the sterilising virus this will also remove potentially the most effective present day control on rabbit populations.


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There is another side to the CRC's project that needs to be mentioned here and is discussed in Impact. The rabbit is a major food supply to foxes and when rabbit numbers are low the foxes turn to prey upon native species. If rabbit populations were to decrease, then to stop the fox having from impacting severly on native species, its' population also needs to be controlled. Research into finding a vector and a species specific virus is under way to introduce imunosterilising antigens into the fox, but it will take a long time to find either. If the immunosterilisation of the rabbit is successful, the same success for the fox is predicted to take a lot longer.

Conclusion

The reasons advanced for the rabbit immunocontraception project are that it will;❍ (a) be more effective and cost effective than existing control methods ❍ (b) promote regeneration of rangeland plants and re-establish populations of endangered

animals. ❍ (c) cause less suffering of rabbits and the Australian ecosystem in the long run.

At present there is lot of enthusiasm, yet considerable doubt as to weather the scientific aims will be successful. It is impossible for we as humans to make a ethical decision about the natural environment without that decision being tainted by our own anthropocentricism and limited understanding of the whole and by our vested interest in the continuation of our own species.

There will always be tension concerning the most appropriate actions when dealing with the manipulation of life. All thoughts are valid and should be respected. My own view is that as the rabbit is an exotic species that brings detriment to the Australian environment, its' numbers should be controlled by human interference that has minimal negative effects. Whether the immunocontraception myxoma virus will do this will remain a matter of conjecture for some time. Because of the many uncertainties in the new technology of genetic manipulation, the final decision should be conservative as the manipulated virus can always be used at a later date when some of the uncertainties have been resolved.

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BIOETHICS OF GENETIC MANIPULATION

"The potential economic and environmental advantage of the technique needs to be weighed up against social, ethical and ecological considerations"

● The ethics of uncertainty

● International ethics

● Genetic Manipulation Advisory Council

● Rabbits in Research

● Philosophy and Ethics

● Animal Rights

● Ecological Ethics

● References

● Home Page

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The Ethics of Uncertainty

All introductions of biological control agents or genetically modified organisms involve some degree of risk, as there is always uncertainty; In most cases even the degree of uncertainty is uncertain, the immunocontraception myxoma program is no exception. The perceived uncertainties concerning risk must be balanced against benefits, which are also uncertain. In this situation the perceived benefit has to be very, very large and the perceived risk has to be very, very small for it to be ethically sound for an introduction to proceed.

International Ethics

In Australia the rabbit is a pest and the myxoma virus carrying the sterility gene would be encouraged to spread to every corner of the country . There is no way, once the virus is released that it can ever be captured and stopped, and there is no way it can be isolated to Australia. There is a very slim chance that it could spread to other countries where the animals are native or do not pose a threat as a pest. Both China and France have a high population of domestic rabbits bred for human consumption. In France there is currently a research project under way to produce a vaccine to the myxoma virus to protect their meat industry. It could be potentially devastating if the immunosterilising virus found its way into either country.

The Genetic Manipulation Advisory Council (GMAC)

Having a body such as GMAC for approving the release of genetically modified organisms relieves the scientists from much of the burden of having to worry about unexpected consequences of a release. There is, however a more insidious problem with a existence of body such a GMAC. Not unnaturally scientists involved with a program such as the immunocontraception program tend to be somewhat blinkered about the risks because they wish the program to proceed to its "logical" conclusion. These blinkers become even larger because the scientists have to argue a case to GMAC for release (and argue that same case for further scarce funding). This is unfortunate as these scientists are the very ones who could best appreciate the risks if they did not have these blinkers. GMAC however is a nuetral body whose final decision is based on careful consideration of all facts and the precuationary principle.


Laboratory Rabbits In Research

Many laboratory rabbits will be deliberately infected with myxoma and apparently suffer. The rationale for allowing this suffering can be either a greater economic good, for the land or for the greater good for rabbits as a species. The argument for the rabbits benefit is that if the immunocontraception program works, then many rabbits will remain unborn and not suffer from field myxomatosis, from conventional control methods or any other unpleasent death. The greater good for humans and rabbits will only result if the program works but this is uncertain and therefore the ethics of infecting rabbits is presumably on uncertain grounds. Animal welfare in scientific experimentation is another concern but regulatory bodies addressing this:

" At a national level there is an Australian code of practice for the care and use of animals for scientific purpose. The code requires that proposals involving the use of live non-human vertebrate animals in genetic manipulation research work must be submitted to the institutions' Animal Experimentation Officer for approval. The experiments must be set out in accordance to GMAC (Threat or Glory,101 ).

It can be assumed that the laboratory rabbits used in any experiments are being treated in accordance to GMAC guidelines. Spokespersons for the CSIRO have stated that they are committed to developing controls that are humane and consider immnocontraception to be such. Animal welfare groups are concerned about any control that will inflict unnecessary pain in an animal and the CRC have received no resistance from welfare rights groups but in fact have received support.

Relevant Links

Australian and New Zealand Council for Care of Animals in Research and Training -ANZCCART

Philosophy and Ethics

For a long time, our connection with the natural world was one of deep social, personal and spiritual significance, as societies developed and became 'civilised' this relationship changed dramatically. The Greek intellectuals were perhaps one of the first to begin to order nature. "The Great Chain of Being", where God was invariably the highest, followed by the angels, humans then animals then plants were hierarchical ordered with inanimate objects being considered to lowest form of being. Christianity fostered anthroprocentrism and it has since been the dominant way of relating to the natural environment in the western cultures, where human needs are placed first and nature being used for our benefit only.

What is our relationship with nature and wild animals now? Science in the past few centuries has given


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http://www.isnz.gov.nz/ANZCCART_brochure.html

http://hoyato.med.osaka-u.ac.fp/index/guide/inform/regulation.html>Experimental Animal Regulation</a> <a name=

http://hoyato.med.osaka-u.ac.fp/index/guide/inform/regulation.html>Experimental Animal Regulation</a> <a name=


non-human life little value, regarding it as objects to be used, understood and changed for our own purposes and everything became describable in quantitative terms.

As the environmental and ethical minority groups become larger and their message is spread, people are becoming increasingly aware of humans impact on the earth. At the same time our science and technology is developing at a exponential rate which gives us more to be concerned about as biotechnology and genetic manipulation effect in our daily lives.

If we were to allow the elimination of a species in a particular environment, the question is now posed, how do we justify radical scientific interventions to be the benign killer, one that interferes in the life cycle of an animal itself? Genetic engineering may be percieved to be one further step to subduing nature, reshaping it and directing it towards our needs.

Does the wild animal or the natural environment have priority in a case where their interests conflict?

Animal Rights

Animal welfare groups argue against genetic manipulation on the moral judgement that it is wrong to cause unnecessary pain and suffering to creatures. Concern for Animal rights is often accused of being a mere extension of anthropocentricism as the animals that they are concerned about are those that have human qualities, ie intelligent, cute and cuddles, as they arouse a positive emotion in us. For the argument it is important to know that animal ethics ascribes rights to animal as individuals. If this is so, and the rabbit in Australia has individual rights, humans violate that right when trying to eradicate or control their population. At this point it is also useful to note, although it is obvious, that the regard for the well being of an animal is not always consistent for the greater whole. This can be clearly illustrated in Australia, If we respected an animals right to live and to be killed without anxiety, it would be extremely detrimental to the land and to native fauna and flora.

Spokespersons for the CSIRO have stated that they are committed to developing controls that are humane and consider immunocontraception to be such. Animal welfare groups are concerned about any control that will inflict unnecessary pain in an animal and the CRC have received no resistance from welfare rights groups but have received support.

For a myxoma strain to be efficiently transmitted, it needs to be highly infectious and relatively slow killing ie 25 days to allow exposure to the vectors. So the perfect strain of myxoma is one that produces a slow death, this does not appear constant with a humane and painless death.

Scientist do not know exactly how the myxoma virus kills rabbits, but like AIDS, the virus is



immunosuppressive and many rabbits die from secondary diseases. A bacteria that grows on the rabbits eyes is the most common indicator that the rabbit is infected with the virus.

Ecological Ethics

Deep Ecology and other eco-ideologies emphasises the intrinsic interconnectedness of reality and nature as a whole. In this philosophy the whole overrides the interests of the individual. The focus is on maintaining a balance and equilibrium in the environment. It takes a holistic approach and an animals value is measured by its contribution and function in the ecosystem. This view implies we have the right to control or eradicate a species that is imbalance with the whole, and clearly the rabbit falls into such a category.

According to deep ecologists, it may be ethical to eradicate a species in one ecosystem and not from a neighbouring one. This ethics falls a bit short where viruses are concerned as they know no moral boundaries.

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Rabbit Calcivirus Disease

READ THIS Latest Development - Escaped Virus !

Rabbit Calcivirus Disease (RCD), also known as viral haemorrhagic disease (VHD) and rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD), is caused by a calicvirus which has potential as a biological control agent. It appears to be a new disease of rabbits which possibly crossed from another mammal host species. It was first observed in China in 1984 and in Europe in 1988. In Italy it is estimated to have killed 30 million domestic rabbits. In Czechoslovakia, retrospective examination of earlier blood samples of rabbits showed that antibodies to the virus were present in blood samples collected 12 years before the virulent strain was detected. The disease in now endemic in populations of wild rabbits in Europe. Studies to date indicate that the disease is species specific, infecting the European wild rabbit and the domestic strains derived from the wild rabbit.

There are no external signs of the disease until 24 hours after infection, when the rabbits become listless with a high temperature. Rabbits at the CSIRO high security laboratory in Geelong died quietly 30-40 hours after infection with no indication of distress. At autopsy the spleen and liver are swollen. Due to extensive death of cells, the liver is pale and crumbly. The effects on the lungs are variable but they may fill up with fluids and the blood vessels blocked by fibrin. The cause of death is probably and acute lack of oxygen and heart failure.

Nestling rabbits, less that 18 days old, do not die, but excrete the virus and develop antibodies. The mortality rate of at Geelong to the virulent strain was 50% for 4-5 weeks old rabbits and more than 95% for rabbits nine weeks or older. It is not known whether rabbits would be susceptible to a second infection. The disease is highly infectious by contact and there are indications that it may also be spread by insects. Despite the short period of infectivity, RCD spread rapidly through the wild populations in Spain, 15 km per month, with infection rates and mortality rates of about 90%. It is not known how the disease persists in the field. Carrier rabbits are a possibility, although there is no evidence for this. The virus can be detected in frozen rabbit meat and may persist in protected environments, such as warrens for six months.

Promising results from preliminary testing at the Australian Animal Health Laboratory mean that it is now appropriate to assess the possibility of releasing the virus into the filed. Should the release occur, it

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would require the approval of the Commonwealth Minister for Primary Industries and Energy, whose Department administers the Quarantine Act. Other Ministers, notably the Minister for the Environment, may well be involved in the ultimate decision. Their decision on the release of RHD will rest on an assessment of the scientific evidence relating to (1) host specificity; (2) economic and conservation impacts; (3) animal welfare considerations; (4) effectiveness; (5) community views on the potential release of a relatively new and unknown virus. It will be a significant decision.

The information on this page was imported from the publication "Managing Vertebrate Pests" CSIRO Divsion of Wildlife and Ecology. See References

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October 18th 1995

The CSIRO, farmers, environmentalists and rabbits all recieved a shock on Sunday 14th October 1995 when a disease, currently being researched for potential release on the

mainland and was quarantined on an island off the South Australian Coast, was found on the South Australian mainland.

This has serious ramifications for CSIRO who are researching the potential of RCD (rabbit calciferous disease) and highlights that scientific rigour is falible and questions the safety and ethics of importing

diseases into Australia.

"Farmers cheer rabbit virus research"

Read Below

NSW farmers have hailed the South Australian experiments with the deadly rabbit virus RCD (rabbit calcivirus disease) as potentially the best news rural Australia has had for many years.

Vice-president of the NSW Farmers' Association, Rick Wright, said yesterday media suggestions that the virus could represent some type of an environmental disaster was "laughable".

Mr Wright said there was absolutely no danger to farmed or pet rabbits as an effective vaccine was available and was going through government accreditation.

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However, the "escape" of the virus from the quarantine net around the experimental site on Wardang Island in Spencer Gulf to the mainland has alarmed domestic rabbit breeders, wild rabbit trappers and environmentalists.

Australia's only licensed exporter of rabbit meat, Outback Foods, has been stopped shipping rabbit following the discovery of the virus on the South Australian mainland. Managing director, Graham Hack, said the release of the virus would end rabbit exports.

RSPCA president Hugh Writh has called for an end to the tests saying foreign viruses have a habit of behaving in a different way than scientists expect.

The deputy director of the National Farmers Federation. Robert Hadler, said that whilst there was concern about the escaped virus the CSIRO was confident it could be contained.

The federation endorsed the sentiments of Mr Wright but accepted that caution was needed and the community needed to be confident that only wild rabbits would be the only victims and that native wildlife would not be harmed.

Mr Hadler was concerned that the "knee jerk" reaction of some people could undermine the research program.

He said it should be remembered that rabbits did significant damage to the environment.

It had been estimated that rabbits cost for South Australian graziers about $20 million a year and this could be extrapolated to about $100,000 Australia wide.

Mr Hadler said that the discovery of the virus on the mainland had put the research back a step but the federation was looking forward to the virus being officially released with community backing.

He said the former prime-minister, Bob Hawke, had launched the billion trees program by personally planting a tree in the Riverina area but within a week it had been eaten by rabbits.

This artical was obtained from "The Canberra Times" 18/10/95

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Cultural Perceptions

Famous Bunnies and the Easter Bilby - The Rabbits Rival

Famous Bunnies

The Bilby - The Rabbits Rival

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Famous Bunnies

Western Culture has immortalised several bunnies and this cute little animal has burrowed its way into the hearts of many young children and into the pysche of nations. This cultural phenomon has taken place via fairy tales and folklore to more recently and quite possbily much more effectively through television and supermarket shelves.

Who could have gone through childhood without hearing about dear little Peter Rabbit "little Peter Rabbit had a flie upon his nose..." or the rabbit in Alice in Wonderland " I'm late!, I'm late for a very important date!". Walt Disneys cartoon character Bugs Bunny has had the best marketing manager whilst the Easter Bunny, who has no identifyable face, is best known through the stomach.

The rabbit has had an alias to hide behind as it has created environmental havoc in Australia. For the acceptance of necesscary rabbit control, community views must overcome the anthropomorphised character portrayed in popular culture.

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The Greater Bilby

Australian Endangered Species Profile Sheet Common Names: Greater Bilby, Rabbit-eared Bandicoot, Bilby, Dalgyte, Ninu

Scientific Name: Macrotis lagotis

Conservation Status: Vulnerable

DESCRIPTION

Bilbies are the largest of the bandicoots with a body up to 55cm long and a tail as long as 29cm. Adult females weigh about one kilogram and males almost twice that. Bilbies have soft silky fur, which is ash-grey in colour except for on the belly where it is white or cream. The tail is grey near the body, black further down and white on the last half. The long tail hairs form a crest and the tail ends in a spur which has no known purpose.

The long hairless ears of Bilbies are probably important in keeping them cool as well as for hearing predators. Bilbies have long snouts and long slender tongues. Although they have poor vision, their senses of smell and hearing are very good. This is important for finding food and avoiding danger.

The strong front limbs have three toes with claws and two without claws which Bilbies use to burrow rapidly. The hind limbs are slender and rather like a kangaroo's with a very large middle toe. The hind limbs are used for grooming.

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DISTRIBUTION

In the late 1800s and early 1900s Bilbies were extremely common. They lived in most of the southern half of Australia from the coast of Western Australia to mid-west New South Wales and south-west Queensland. In the 1950s the biologist Finlayson described Bilbies as "one of the most plentiful and universally distributed of central Australian mammals".

Bilbies are now only found in scattered parts of the Tanami Desert in the Northern Territory, in the Great Sandy Desert, Gibson Desert, Pilbara and Kimberley regions of Western Australia and an isolated population lives in south-west Queensland.

HABITAT

Bilbies used to live in many different habitats across Australia wherever the climate was fairly dry. Areas with better soils and rain were changed by farming and grazing, leaving only the very dry regions of inland Australia.

Bilbies are now mainly found in grasslands and acacia shrublands with spinifex and tussocks. They only live where there are few rabbits and foxes.


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ECOLOGY

Bilbies build burrows that spiral downwards to a depth of about two metres. Each animal may use up to a dozen burrows, each with only one entrance that is usually hidden by a small bush, grass tussock or termite mound.

Bilbies are nocturnal (active at night) and shelter in their burrows from the heat of the day. At night, a Bilby may travel up to five km as it searches for food. Bilbies are omnivorous (feed on animals and plants) and will feed on whatever food is available each season. They eat insects and insect larvae as well as bulbs, fruit, fungi and seeds which they lick from the ground with their long tongues. Bilbies also use their front feet to dig for food.

Generally, Bilbies live alone but they may live in small groups of two to four animals, when the home ranges of an adult male, female and their young overlap. It is possible for young to be born throughout the year, but breeding may depend on rainfall and the amount of food around. Bilbies have from one to three young which stay in the pouch for about two and a half months. They stay with their mother for another two weeks before leaving the home burrow. No one knows how long they live in the wild, but captive Bilbies can live for about five years.

THREATS TO SURVIVAL

Early this century Bilbies were hunted for their skins, and many were caught in rabbit traps and killed by poison baits.

Bilbies are preyed on by foxes and feral cats. They have to compete for food with rabbits and livestock. Their supply of food has also been affected by changes in the number and strength of fires since European settlement in Australia.

Bilbies can move around to find food but in severe drought they depend on areas with a good supply of food. Other animals, including rabbits and cattle, also depend on these patches, which become overused, and may not be able to keep Bilbies and other native species alive during drought. After a long drought, colonies of Bilbies may have a smaller chance of increasing in numbers. In this way the Bilby population could decrease every time there is a long drought.

Bilbies now live in small scattered populations often a long way from other Bilby populations. These populations may not be able to survive a disaster such as disease, fire or severe predation.

RECOVERY ACTION

Some Bilbies are kept in captivity so that they can be studied. Bilbies breed well in captivity and could be put back into areas where they have died out. This could only occur if the causes of their


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disappearance are understood and controlled.

In Western Australia, Bilbies live on protected land in the Gibson Desert Nature Reserve, in the Great Sandy Desert at Rudall River National Park and the proposed Percival Lakes Nature Reserve.

In the Northern Territory studies over the next few years will look at the movement, growth, breeding, habitat use and survival of Bilbies in the wild. This should show if numbers are decreasing or remaining the same, what is stopping the population from increasing and spreading, and how much predation Bilby populations can survive. Since 1980 there have been some attempts to reintroduce Bilbies into Watarrka National Park (350km south of Alice Springs). These did not succeed partly because of cat predation.

In south-west Queensland Bilbies live in the new Diamantina Lakes National Park, but the biggest population is found on private land. In these areas burrows are being located to find out how many Bilbies there are and where they live, and their ecology is also being studied. A study of feral cats in the same area should show how they are affecting the survival of Bilbies.

RELATED SPECIES

Lesser Bilby (Macrotis leucura)

The Lesser Bilby was last reported alive in north-eastern South Australia in 1931 and is now presumed extinct. This bandicoot had white fur along the top of its tail and was smaller and less colourful than the Greater Bilby. The Lesser Bilby closed the entrance to its burrow when inside. It was noted to feed on small rodents and mice, as well as seeds. Females reared up to two young at a time.

DEFINITIONS

Presumed Extinct: An animal or plant species that has not been found in the wild during the past 50 years, despite thorough searching.

Endangered: An animal or plant species that is in danger of extinction and will probably not survive if the threats to it continue.

Vulnerable: An animal or plant species that will probably become endangered if the threats to it continue.

MORE INFORMATION


new culture

Flannery T (1990) Australia's Vanishing Mammals. R D Press, Sydney.

Stoddart, E (1992) Bandicoots and Bilbies of Australia. Bimberi Books, ACT.

Strahan R (1983) The Australian Museum Complete Book of Australian Mammals. Angus and Robertson.

Greater Bilby Recovery Plan. Available soon from the Australian Nature Conservation Agency for $10.

Illustrations copyright Sue Stranger, Kaye Kessing and Patrick Cook (most not in the electronic edition)

Endangered Species UnitAustralian Nature Conservation AgencyGPO Box 636CANBERRA ACT 2601Phone: 06 250 0200

February 1994

This page available from ERIN

ERIN Home Page

Home Page





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"BREEDING LIKE RABBITS"

Control Of The Rabbit In Australia

Submission Project Review Media

Submission

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INTRODUCTION

The Biological Control Of The Rabbit in Australia web site aims to provides scientific, historic and cultural information about the rabbit, its environmental impact and its control. The site focuses on the biological control technique of myxomatosis and on current research into Immunocontraception and the Rabbit Calicivirus Disease. Associated eithics such as Animal rights, genetic manipulation and releasing new viruses into the wild are also discussed.

The site aims to reach a variety of interests groups including scientist such as ecologists, biologists, virologists and students studying in the above fields, as well as those involved in the practical side of land managment eg land managers and farmers.

The initial project was called, "The Rabbit in Australia" and the focus was on six major aspects of the rabbit. To be more specific, the emphasis was changed to rabbit control and the site was renamed " Biological Control of the Rabbit in Australia.

The Internet currently only provides information on rabbits as pets and many of these sites are digitised shrines to a favourite pet. "Biological Control of the Rabbit in Australia" is the first site (that I could find) that has attempted to give a scientific perspective on the control of rabbits and hence fills a vacant niche in the web.

WHY THE WEB?

Information concerning rabbits is available globally in other mediums, but being on the Net allows a paper to be accessed from any computer linked to the web and, as the Net is increasingly being used as a research tool, it is a relevant medium to publish work in. The real benefit is that information is available at the tip of the fingers and is only moments away in cyberspace. The only research required is the time spent cruising the net, in short, it makes a paper quickly and easily available. A paper on the net potentially has a wider audience than other media, as there are now over 350,000,000 users of the Net. An advantage of publishing electronically on the Net is that one can create hot links between documents that lead users on to other relevant information. Additionally the technology allows users to find information in an interactive and interative way, an article on the Net as well as being searched for, may be stumbled across, giving people access to information which they may not have otherwise look at.

FORMAT


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Formatting information so it is accessible and easy to browse is initially a challenge. As it cannot be assumed that the browser has read one section before another or is interested in any other section, each section and subsection need to be written indentant of each other.

ÒBiological Control of the Rabbit in AustraliaÓ site has a Home Page which displays four major sections, these are: History, Traditional Contol Methods, Biological Control and Culture. These four sections will be Hotlinked to each other either at the end of the text or in relevent text. The Web site is hierarchically structured and text within the sections will be available by either scrolling or by hotlinks. Highlighted words or icons will be hot linked to a subsections or a graphics display.

Sixty graphic images will be distributed between the major sections where it is felt they will add relevance to the text. The majority of the graphic images will be hot linked to save time and increase the fluidity of browsing. Images of significance will be displayed in the text.

SECTIONS

The reason for the choice of each major section, its' relevance to the title and the proposed structure is briefly discussed below.

History:

Subsections:

● Introduction and Geographic Spread ● Traditional Control Methods ● Land Degradation ● Impact on Native Flora and Fauna

The geographic spread of the rabbit, societies attitudes and early control methods will be discussed in this site. Hot linked and displayed will be a variety of historical photos taken at the peak of the plauge and maps to show the spread of rabbits over time.

"Since the introduction of rabbits in 1879 to the state of Victoria, the rabbit proliferated into plague proportions and was a significant rural cultural factor before the introduction of Myxomatosis..."

The history of the rabbit in Australia is fascinating reading and it is essential to read to understand the current methods of control and legislation. By understanding and reflecting upon history, it is hoped that we can learn from past mistakes.


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Also discussed in this section is the impact of the rabbit on society and on the land prior to the release of Myxomatosis. There was significant wealth created by the rabbit for those who culled, skinned and sold pelts and meat, however the wealth destroyed by the rabbit was immense. It is extremely difficult to quantify the ecological and economic damage caused by the rabbit, yet estimates begin at $90 million in lost production per year. Many native fauna species were in direct competition with, and many were displaced by the rabbit, others were killed along with rabbitsd as part of the lucritive pelt trade.

Other graphics hot linked and displayed will be examples of land degradation caused by the rabbit and images of extinct or endangered species linked to the rabbit. There will be hot links to other relevant sites or data ie :Biodiversity , Greater Bilby, Endangered Animals and Introduced Rabbits in Australia.

Traditional Rabbit Control:

Subsections

● Shooting ● Fencing ● Ripping ● Poisoning ● Fumigation

The control of the rabbit has become increasingly sophisticated over the decades. In the late 19 century the control techniques were to shoot and Poison the rabbit and destroy rabbit habitat. This early control of the rabbit, and the attitudes of Australians at the time, had a severe impact on the native population of Australian mammals and bird life, and little impact on the rabbit.

Although these techniques initially had little effect, more effective versions were introduced after world war two. In the fifties, a biological control known as myxomatosis was introduced with initial highly successful results. Today, over a century after the introduction of the wild rabbit, the latest control method currently being researched is a genetic manipulation of the myxoma virus which renders the infected rabbit infertile.(as discussed in section 3)

Graphics will be accessible to illustrate various techniques of control in the field and other relevant graphical information will be available.

Biological Control:


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Subsections

● Myxomatosis ● Rabbit Calicivirus disease ● Immunosterilisation ● Bioethics

This Web site will consider the success of myxomatosis and the potential for the release of the Rabbit Calicivirus disease. The potential success and associated ethics of Immunosterilisation are the main focus of this site.

The myxoma virus, a biological control agent, was introduced in the fifties with initial highly successful results. Since the introduction of myxoma virus, the impact on rabbit populations has lessened. This is due to new field strains and genetically developed resistance.

The latest biological control method currently being researched is Immunosterilisation. It is an attempt to genetically modify the myxoma virus to cause infertility in the infected rabbit. This is a new approach to rabbit control in two ways- one is that it uses genetic engineering, and the other is that, contrary to all other methods of rabbit control, it affects the birth rate rather than the death rate.

This CSIRO research project has many ethical considerations as the goal is the release of a genetically manipulated virus into the wild. Animal Rights and ethical considerations are examined, as is the role of genetic manipulation advisory council, GMAC.

Hot links to images will be available throughout the text, as will other links such as: CSIRO, CRC, Animal Rights, GMAC.

CULTURE:

Subsections

● Attitude ● Famous Bunnies ● The Easter Bilby

Society has used images of the rabbit in many ways, from a good luck symbol to marketing items on the supermarket shelf. Indeed, many of us as children had a pet rabbit or a toy rabbit to play with, and undoubtably, we all went through childhood accompanied by Bugs Bunny and friends.


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This site may seem an unlikely addition, yet it was added to explore attitudes that can effect societies attitudes towards rabbit control. Domestic rabbit breeders are also obviously concerned with any research that may effect domestic rabbits as myxomatosis did and are a concern for any proposed biological control for the wild rabbit..

The main focus of the web site is the Easter Bunny's rival, the Easter Bilby. The bilby is featured as an alternate mascot for Australia's' season of hope and new life. The reasons why we are encouraged to reject the rabbit as an Easter symbol are explored.

Hot Linked to this site there will be many colourful images of our famous bunnies. Also hot linked will be the sites: The rabbit gallery, 3D bunny graphics and the Bilby.

CONCLUSION

Rabbits are economically and ecologically destructive and their control is an important issue in Australia. Although the numbers of rabbits destroyed per year may be high, it is the number of rabbits left that count, for as long as there is a breeding pair left alive, there will only be control, not eradication.

There can however be eradication at a local scale and all land holders are bound by law to take active steps to control the rabbit population on their respective properties. How well this is done, depends on several factors: How well the land holder is aware of their options of control, how aware they are of the most appropriate form of control and when is the best time to implement it, how much capital they can afford to spend -or lose and how much they are concerned.

"Biological Rabbit Control in Australia" is a site that looks at the impact that rabbits have, and continue to make on Australia. The site looks at the past and present control methods and questions the ethics of current research. Browsers may go to a specific issue/topic with ease eg: fumigation, or browse through the whole site in a logical progression with ease.

The site "Biological Rabbit Control in Australia" is multi disciplinary in approach, and hence there is the opportunity to create links with a variety of sites. The obvious link is are the existing sites on `Pets', other sites such as Vertebrate Pests, Erin ( environment research information network), Council Net and other environmental networks.

Hot Links

3 D Bunny graphics http:/www-graphics.stanford.edu/~beers/3d-painting/rotbunny.mpg Australia, a


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biological hot spot http://kaos.erin.gov.au/life/general-info/vegclear.html

Australian and New Zealand Council for Care of Animals in Research and Training http:/www.isnz.gov.nz/ANZCCART_brouchure.html

Biotechnology http:/www.inform.umd.eu:8080/EdRes/Topic/AfrEnv/Biotech/bibliographies/qbs

Bugs Bunny http:/tncnet.com/~jmcarthy/characters/bugs.html

Experimental Animal Regulation http:/hayato.med.osaka-u.ac.fp/index/guide/inform/regulation.html

Greater Bilby http:/kaos.erin.gov.au/life/end_vuln/animals/bilby.html

Institute of Lab Animal Science http:/www.unizh.ch/labtier.html

Introduced Rabbits in Australia http:/kaos.erin.gov.au/life/end-vuln/threats/wildanim.html

The Rabbit Gallery http://www.psg.los.mit.edu/~carl/paige/rabbit-pictures.html

BILIOGRAPHY

CSIRO Virtual Library http://www.psg/los.mit.edu/paige/rabbit- picitures.html

Greater Bilby http://kaos.erin.gov.au/life/end-vuln/animals/bilby.html

Coman,B.J. (1994) District Rabbit Control,

Rolls, E.C. (1986) They All Ran Wild Angus and Roberts, Sydney

Williams,K. et al. (1995) Managing Vertebrate Pests, Rabbits Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

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The proposal

The aim of creating a site for "The Control of the Rabbit in Australia" was to give interested Net users an understanding of the enormous impact the rabbit has had on Australia and the ways that it has been controlled.

The proposal for the "Control Of The Rabbit in Australia" web site was to provide scientific, historic and cultural information about the rabbit, its environmental impact and its control. An emphasis was to be placed on the biological control methods eg. Myxomatosis and on current research into Immunosterilisation and the Rabbit Calicivirus Disease. Associated eithics such as Animal rights, genetic manipulation and releasing new viruses into the wild were also to be discussed.

The site was aimed to reach a variety of interests groups including scientist such as ecologists, biologists, virologists and students studying in the above fields as well as those involved in the practical side of land managment eg. land managers and farmers.

The product

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The final product required 5000 written words,10,000 imported words, 40 digitised images and 20 imported images. To be consistant with these guidelines the final product was the result of comprimising between the ideas of the proposal and the availablity of text and images to import from the Net.

Whilst offering a general information of the rabbit in Australia, the site focuses on the rabbits establishment, the impact caused to the Australian environment and the past control and future biological control of the rabbit and the associated ethics. . The focus on scientific ethics was highlighted on Monday 18/10/95 when the quarantined rabbit calcivirus disease was discovered on mainland of South Australia. Although there are some variations from the proposal, which were changed to give focus to the more relevant subjects, the final content is consistant with the preliminary proposal.

The site also changed its focus from being directed towards scientists to an audience interested in the implications of the scientific research and in the role that the rabbit has played in altering the environment. Such as the target audience of land mangers, farmers and students as specified in the proposal. This was done firstly as a result of the limitations of the potential imported text and suitable images required for a "scientific" audience and secondly as the content outlined in the initial proposal is more suitable to the previous stated audience. .

The Problems and The Potential

The potential of the WWW for research purposes is expanding, it is not however intended to be a comprehensive research library as it is up to the descretion, finacial capabilites and initiative of scientific bodies, research institutions, Government and interest groups to publish thier work on the WWW. Unlike a library which is run by a central administration that determines the available material for various subjects, WWW is a conglomeration of interests which may or may not be similar to that of the researcher.

It is encouraging that people, bodies and institutions have shown great enthusiasm to publish on the Web as it becomes the latest 'in' thing to do. It is an effective research tool as many sites are created as 'resourse sites' which give the browser the opportunity to view a selection of sites of a related topic or be directed to books, publications and organisations.

The WWW potential to resarch the topic of rabbits in Australia was unfortunantly limited. It is ironic that the most relevant sites was the Environmental and Resource Information Network (ERIN), whose office is 500 meters from where I write. How useful was the Web? There were other sites linked to genetic engeneering, Bioethics and land degradation, yet none specific to my topic and hence I filled a niche in the Web.


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Due to the nature of the web, it is time consuming and irritating to import documents that link to fifteen seperate documents and their associated anchors. Accessing electronically published material can be tedious with a fast server and infuriating with a slow one. I see this as a limitation to the Web. The search for the required imported 10,000 word were initially determined by to relevance to the topic, yet the "positive feedback" effect occured where the focus of the topic was defined by the available information on the Web.

When a site is planned it is important to ask the question " What is the purpose of this site?", is it to be connected to as many relevant as possible, simply to be available or to show ones fluency in html by creating very up to date images?. To critically review a site it is necessary to view it in the context in which it was written. The structure of the "Control of the Rabbit in Australia" site was aimed to be "user friendly" by keeping documents short and using GIF images to facilitate speed. I attemped to create logically links for fluid "cruising" to minimise to possibility of losing the browse to another site or "lost in cyberspace".

The site is the result of a set parameters and has potential to be expanded if time and memory allowed. I hope that it is academically and visually pleasing.

Return to Contents Table


http://rubens.anu.edu.au/student.projects/rabbits/media.html

MEDIA RELEASE

"CONTROL OF THE RABBIT IN AUSTRALIA"

New Web Site

http://bohm.anu.edu.au:80/~p9105919/submission.html

Rabbit control has been taken to cyberspace with the new Web Site "Control of the rabbit in Australia". It is the first site dedicated to the Eureopean wild rabbit in Australia that explores the history, impact and past and future control of one of Australia's worst environmental pests.

As the U.S.A dominated Internet rapidly becomes established in Australia, more sites relevent to Australians are being published. This site is one of them.

In 1859 twenty four rabbits were released in Victoria, 136 years later the rabbit is the most widely distributed mammals in Australia, and except for the house mouse, is the most abundant. Rabbits currently cause up to $115,000,000 a year in lost production and continue to cause profound direct and indirect damage to soils and to native plants and animals for which no dollar value can be attached.

When myxomatosis was released in 1950, the rabbit population plumeted to 1% of the peak numbers, however resistance to the virus developed quickly. Although myxomatosis is still controls population numbers, CSIRO are currently researching more effective biological control methods. A CSIRO molecular biotechnology project aims to genetically modified myxoma virus that will render the infected rabbit infertile, a process called immunocontraception. Rabbits are renowned for their amazing capacity to reproduce and for their exponential growth in favourable seasons. A female of 6 months can produce

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up to 50 kittens a year and $20 million are spent each year in an attempt to control rabbits populations and this is acheived with varying degrees of success. Farmers support the CSIRO studies and are eagerly awaiting the results and the potential release of a biological killer.

Australia has the worlds highest mammal extinction rate in the world, most of these extictions occurred in the period from 1850 when the rabbit arrived and 1910 when the fox arrived. Native flora and fauna species compete with introduced species which have radically altered the environment. This

The creater of the site, Michele Parer, a student at the ANU believes that this new site will be of special interest to people interested in resource management, animal rights and environmental studies.

Contents

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