Leisure Education,Forensics Dept.

Utah State Hospital

Overview

This is a summary of some of the key figures who have contributed to

the field of leisure and recreation, and thus upon the discipline of

Recreation Therapy. The intention with this document is to provide a

brief summary of each person, and their importance to the profession.

The technique used was to cut and paste selected information largely

from internet sources and acknowledge the source. This allows

current information to be supplemented, either on existing figures, or

to add new people. Some information contained is also sourced from

various books.

A logical extension in future is to summarise academic figures, due to

their research activities on leisure and recreation. Some of the likely

candidates are already included because of the crossover of their

theories and accepted practice that has already informed the field.

The names gathered, while making their own contributions, are not

regarded as an absolute collection, and therefore others should still

be added.

Leisure From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Definitions*

There are many different definitions of leisure. One popular social psychological theory of leisure was put forward by psychology professor John Neulinger in the early 1970s. Neulinger defined leisure using three criteria:[3]

1. The experience is a state of mind. 2. It must be entered into voluntarily. 3. It must be intrinsically motivating of its own merit.

Other theories abound. Sebastian de Grazia portrayed leisure as a form of contemplation. Seppo Iso-Ahola adapted a form of optimal arousal to explain leisure. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi's flow theory is another popular definition of leisure.

"Free time" redirects here. For other uses, see Free time (disambiguation).This article is about the state of being. For the album by Blur, see Leisure (album). For the poem by W. H. Davies, see Leisure (poem).

Public parks were initially set aside for recreation and leisure.

Leisure or free time, is a period of time spent out of work and essential domestic activity. It is also the period of recreational and discretionary time before or after compulsory activities such as eating and sleeping, going to work or running a business, attending school and doing homework, household chores, and day-to-day stress. The distinction between leisure and compulsory activities is loosely applied, i.e. people sometimes do work-oriented tasks for pleasure as well as for long-term utility.[1] Leisure studies is the academic discipline concerned with the study and analysis of leisure.

History

Detail from Rest (1896).

Charles Sprague Pearce, Library of Congress Thomas Jefferson Building, Washington, D.C.

The word leisure comes from the Latin word licere, meaning “to be permitted” or “to be free,” via Old French leisir, and first appeared in the early fourteenth

century.[2] The notions of leisure and leisure time are thought to have emerged in Victorian Britain in the late nineteenth century, late in the Industrial Revolution. Early factories required workers to perform long shifts, often up to eighteen hours per day, with only Sundays off work. By the 1870s though, more efficient machinery and the emergence of trade unions resulted in decreases in working hours per day, and allowed industrialists to give their workers Saturdays as well as Sundays off work.

Affordable and reliable transport in the form of railways allowed urban workers to travel on their days off, with the first package holidays to seaside resorts appearing in the 1870s, a trend which spread to industrial nations in Europe and North America. As workers channeled their wages into leisure activities, the modern entertainment industry (beginning with the film industry) emerged in industrialized nations, catering to entertain workers on their days off. This Victorian concept—the weekend—heralded the beginning of leisure time as it is known today.

Types of leisure Active leisure activities involve the exertion of physical or mental energy.

Low-impact physical activities include walking and yoga, which expend little energy and have little contact or competition. High-impact activities such as kick-boxing and football consume much energy and are competitive. Some active leisure activities involve almost no physical activity, but do require a substantial mental effort, such as playing chess or painting a picture. Active leisure and recreation overlap significantly.

Passive leisure activities are those in which a person does not exert any significant physical or mental energy, such as going to the cinema, watching television, or gambling on slot machines. Some leisure experts discourage these types of leisure activity, on the grounds that they do not provide the benefits offered by active leisure activities. For example, acting in a community drama (an active leisure activity) could build a person's skills or self-confidence. Nevertheless, passive leisure activities are a good way of relaxing for many people.

Examples of leisure activities

People who work indoors and spend most of their time sitting and doing sedentary office work can add physical activity to their lives by doing sports during their leisure time, such as playing a ball game, going camping, hiking or fishing. On the other hand, people whose jobs involve a lot of physical activity may prefer to spend their free time doing quiet, relaxing activities, such as reading books or magazines or watching TV. Some people find that collecting stamps, postcards, badges, model cars,planes or ships, bottles, or antiques are relaxing hobbies.

Free time is organized in many schools and institutions. Schools may offer many extracurricular activities including hobby groups, sports activities, and choirs. Other institutions such as retirement homes and hospitals also offer activities such as clubs and meetings for playing games or simply organized periods for conversation.

Most people enjoy socializing with friends for dinner or a drink after a hard day at work. For many young people, having a regular night out a week is a normal part of their free time, whether it is joining friends for a drink in a pub, dining out in a restaurant, watching a film, playing video games or dancing at a club.

Some people do leisure activities having a longer-term goal. In some cases, people do a leisure activity that they hope to turn into a full-time activity (e.g., volunteer paramedics who hope to eventually become professional paramedics). Many people also study part-time in evening university or college courses, both for the love of learning, and to help their career prospects.

Cultural differences

Men relaxing in a cafe overlooking the Mediterranean Sea in Tel Aviv, Israel.

Time for leisure varies from one society to the next, although anthropologists have found that hunter-gatherers tend to have significantly more leisure time than people in more complex societies. As a result, band societies such as the Shoshone of the Great Basin came across as extraordinarily lazy to European colonialists.[4]

Capitalist societies often view active leisure activities positively, because active leisure activities require the purchase of equipment and services, which stimulates the economy. Capitalist societies often accord greater status to members who have more wealth. One of the ways that wealthy people can choose to spend their money is by having additional leisure time.

Workaholics are those who work compulsively at the expense of other activities. They prefer to work rather than spend time socializing and engaging in other leisure activities. Many see this as a necessary sacrifice to attain high-ranking corporate positions. Increasing attention, however, is being paid to the effects of such imbalance upon the worker and the family.

Throughout its early history, American society has been described as driven by the Protestant work ethic, a cultural view that is said to be inspired by the Protestant preacher John Calvin.

Addams, Jane(September 6, 1860 – May 21, 1935) Founder of the U.S. Settlement House movement, and one of the first American women to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In 1889 she and her college friend, Ellen Gates Starr, co-founded Hull House in Chicago, Illinois, the first settlement house in the United States.

- At its height, Hull House was visited each week by around 2000 people. Its facilities included a night school for adults, kindergarten classes, clubs for older children, a public kitchen, an art gallery, a coffeehouse, a gymnasium, a girls club, bathhouse, a book bindery, a music school, a drama group, a library, and labor-related divisions.

- Her adult night school was a forerunner of the continuing education classes offered by many universities today. In addition to making available services and cultural opportunities for the largely immigrant population of the neighborhood, Hull House afforded an opportunity for young social workers to acquire training. Eventually, the Hull House became a 13-building settlement and included a playground.www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Addams

Aristotle (image: right side) (384 BC – 322 BC) Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. He wrote on many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology and zoology.Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy.www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle

“The end of labor is to gain leisure. The aim of education is the wise use of

leisure”.

“To enjoy the things we ought and to hate the things we ought has the greatest bearing on excellence of character”. Nicomachean Ethics www.radicalacademy.com/philosophicalquotations27.htm

For Aristotle, contemplation is the fullest and most satisfied activity that has the qualities of leisure. The pleasure derived from such activity is intrinsic in doing it rather than taken from any external reward. However, even though Aristotle’s idea of “realism” as the gaining of knowledge by information processing rather than as an inner apprehension of the eternal Ideas as Plato holds makes the two Greeks quite different in philosophical premises, they both find leisure and philosophy closely related.

…A good life requires justice and valor. A good life requires not only the possibility but the realization of leisure. In this sense, leisure is not just freedom from necessary occupation but freedom to engage in fulfilling activity for its own sake. Leisure calls for opportunity for the exercise of choice using rational principles to seek a relative mean between polar excesses (Nicomachean Ethics, Book 2).

Leisure, for Aristotle, is contrasted not only with work (ascholia) but also with the childhood activity of play (paidia) and with recreation (anapausis). Leisure may take activity forms related to philosophy and to the arts. However, what distinguishes leisure is not the activity, but that it is done for its own sake and for the sake of the development of character. Leisure, pleasureable in itself, also builds virtue in the character of a person. “We think of (leisure) as having in itself intrinsic pleasure, intrinsic happiness, intrinsic felicity” (Politics, Book 8).(JR Kelly, 1982, p. 47, Leisure, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall)

Avedon, ElliottAuthor: The study of games (1974) He has been building his Museum and Archive of Games since 1971. Situated at the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada (celebrated 35th Anniversary in 2006).

Quote (Statement from program director in the early 1900’s):It should be fully appreciated by teachers, parents and superintendents that the playing of these games is not mere play, but definite training of the best kind. In many cases, there is little else to be done…it should not be forgotten that these games not only develop coordination and attention, manners, morals, altruism,

patience, and many more desirable qualities…[They] will help to make him a social rather than an anti-social being (Avedon, 1974, p. 13).

Brightbill, Charles(1910-1966) A leader in the Park and Recreation field from World War II up to the time of his death in 1966, Charles K Brightbill emerged as one of the leading philosophers and statesman of his time. From a background that included experience at the local and federal levels of government as well as with a national non-profit association, Brightbill culminated his career at the University of Illinois where he developed on of the most respected higher education programs in the nation. As Superintendent of Recreation in Decatur, Illinois, Brightbill headed a public recreation and park system that became the model for the film “Playtown USA.”

While serving as Executive Secretary of President Truman’s Committee on Religion and Welfare, Brightbill directed the study “Free Time in the Armed Forces,” which for the first time established priorities for funding for morale, welfare, and recreation services in the military. The principles enunciated in this study have had an enduring impact on the MWR in the armed forces.

Brightbill’s greatest influence upon the recreation movement was through his philosophical writings. His three major books on philosophy were “Man and Leisure: A Philosophy of Recreation,” “Educating for Leisure Centered Living,” and “The Challenge of Leisure.” In addition, he co-authored four books on recreation administration with his long time colleague Harold Meyer.

Charles K. Brightbill was an important advocate of the concept of citizen and professional cooperation in building a stronger recreation and park movement. He was a key contributor in developing the principles that helped bring about the merger of professional and citizen groups to form the National Recreation and Park Association.www.nrpa.org

Quote: “What is the worth in medical science of prolonging life if we do not learn how to live a full life?” Brightbill and Mobley. Educating for Leisure Centered Living, NY: J Wiley & Sons.

Callois, Roger

(3 March 1913 – 21 December 1978) French intellectual whose idiosyncratic work brought together literary criticism, sociology, and philosophy by focusing on subjects as diverse as gems, play and the sacred. He was also instrumental in introducing Latin American authors to the French public www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Caillois

Wrote a classic book in play theory. Caillois borrows much of his definition from Huizinga. Caillois coined several formal sub-categories of play, such as alea (games of chance) and ilinx (vertigo or thrill-seeking play)

Wrote Man, Play and Games (1961) a translation of Les jeux et les hommes (1958). It is an influential book on ludology, (the study of play and games). Caillois builds on the theories of Johan Huizinga and disputes many of them.

He argues there are four basic types of play:Agon, or competition. E.g. Chess is an almost purely agon game. Alea, or chance. E.g. Playing a slot machine is an almost purely alea game. Mimesis, or role playing. Ilinx (Greek for "whirlpool"), or vertigo, in the sense of altering perception. E.g. taking hallucinogens, riding roller coasters, children spinning until they fall down.

Caillois also places forms of play on a continuum from ludus, structured activities with explicit rules, to paidia, unstructured and spontaneous activities.www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_(activity)www . en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man,_Play_and_Games

Coue, Emil(February 26, 1857 – July 2, 1926) was a French psychologist and pharmacist who introduced a method of psychotherapy and self-improvement based on optimistic autosuggestion.

The application of his mantra-like conscious autosuggestion, "Every day, in every way, I'm getting better and better" (French: Tous les jours à tous points de vue je vais de mieux en mieux) is called Couéism or the Coué method. The Coué method centers on a routine repetition of this particular expression according to a specified ritual, in a given physical state, and in

the absence of any sort of allied mental imagery, at the beginning and at the end of each day.

Unlike a common held belief that a strong conscious will constitutes the best path to success, Coué maintained that curing some of our troubles requires a change in our unconscious thought, which can only be achieved by using our imagination. Although stressing that he was not primarily a healer but one who taught others to heal themselves, Coué claimed to have effected organic changes through autosuggestion.www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Cou%C3%A9

Cousins, Norman

(June 24, 1915 – November 30, 1990) was a prominent political journalist, author, professor, and world peace advocate. Cousins also served as Adjunct Professor of Medical Humanities for the School of Medicine at the University of California, Los Angeles, where he did research on the biochemistry of human emotions, which he long believed were the key to human beings’ success in fighting illness.

It was a belief he maintained even as he battled heart disease, which he fought both by taking massive doses of Vitamin C and, according to him, by training himself to laugh. He wrote a collection of best-selling non-fiction books on illness and healing, as well as a 1980 autobiographical memoir, Human Options: An Autobiographical Notebook. Late in life Cousins was diagnosed with a form of arthritis then called Marie-Strumpell's disease (ankylosing spondylitis), although this diagnosis is currently in doubt and it has been suggested that Cousins may actually have had reactive arthritis.

His struggle with this illness is detailed in the book and movie Anatomy of an Illness.

Told that he had little chance of surviving, Cousins developed a recovery program incorporating megadoses of Vitamin C, along with a positive attitude, love, faith, hope, and laughter induced by Marx Brothers films. "I made the joyous discovery that ten minutes of genuine belly laughter had an anesthetic effect and would give me at least two hours of pain-free sleep," he reported. "When the pain-killing effect of the laughter wore off, we would switch on the motion picture projector again and not infrequently, it would lead to another pain-free interval.” www. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Cousins

Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly

(born September 29, 1934, in Fiume, Italy - now Croatia) is a Hungarian psychology professor, who emigrated to the United States at the age of 22. Now at Claremont Graduate University, he is the former head of the department of psychology at the University of Chicago and of the department of sociology and anthropology at Lake Forest College. He is noted for his work in the study of happiness and creativity, but is best known as the architect of the notion of flow and for his years of research and writing on the topic.

He is the author of many books and over 120 articles or book chapters. Martin Seligman, former president of the American Psychological Association, described Csikszentmihalyi as the world's leading researcher on positive psychology. He once said "Repression is not the way to virtue. When people restrain themselves out of fear, their lives are by necessity diminished. Only through freely chosen discipline can life be enjoyed and still kept within the bounds of reason." His works are influential and are widely cited.

In his seminal work, 'Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience', Csíkszentmihályi outlines his theory that people are most happy when they are in a state of flow— a state of concentration or complete absorption with the activity at hand and the situation. The idea of flow is identical to the

feeling of being in the zone or in the groove. The flow state is an optimal state of intrinsic motivation, where the person is fully immersed in what he or she is doing. This is a feeling everyone has at times, characterized by a feeling of great absorption, engagement, fulfillment, and skill—and during which temporal concerns (time, food, ego-self, etc.) are typically ignored.www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mihaly_Csikszentmihalyiimage: www.brainchannels.com/thinker/mihaly.html

Quote: Leisure may contribute significantly to improved physical, social and emotional or psychological aspects of health and well-being…Play, recreation and leisure are important aspects of human existence (Flow: the psychology of optimal experience, 1993, p. 5 and 15)

John de Graaf

Independent documentary producer from Seattle and the author of the documentary Affluenza. He also edited the book, Take Back Your Time. He is a frequent speaker on issues of over consumption and overwork in America.

Take Back Your Time is a U.S./Canadian initiative to challenge the epidemic of the overwork, over-scheduling and time famine that now threatens our health, our families and relationships, our communities and our environment.

Question: After all, what’s an economy for?

De Grazia, Sebastian(1917-2001) Pulitzer prize winning author. De Grazia could be considered the "father of leisure" in the West. In his insightful book, Of Time, Work, and Leisure, (1962) De Grazia expounds on the idea that leisure was not necessarily recreational, but to expand one's awareness and understanding of the world through music and contemplation. The social context of this understanding of leisure has, to a large extent, been lost, and with it the notion of leisure being the pursuit of philosophy. He has revived the philosophy of leisure away from the narrow definition of recreation and free time to its former glory—contemplation. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sebastian_de_Grazia

Quote: Education is the discovery and drawing out of the best that is in a person (p. 343)Dewey, John

(October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) American philosopher, psychologist, and educational reformer whose thoughts and ideas have been highly influential in the United States and around the world. Along with Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, is recognized as one of the founders of the philosophical school of pragmatism. He is also one of the founders of functional psychology and was a leading representative of the progressive movement in U.S. schooling during the first half of the 20th century.

Although Dewey is best known for his works on education, he also wrote on a wide range of subjects, including experience and nature, art and experience, logic and inquiry, democracy, and ethics. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dewey

Quote: “Education has no more serious responsibility than making adequate provision for enjoyment of recreative leisure, not only for the sake of the

immediate health, but still more if possible for the sake of it’s lasting effect upon habits of mind” (1916)

- Along with Elisabeth Peabody (who founded Boston Childrens School, 1860) believed that a dull, lifeless classroom of academic authoritarians could be an impediment to learning.

- Founded a laboratory school in Chicago in 1896.- Quote: Perhaps the most deep-seated antithesis which has

shown itself in education history is that between education in preparation for useful labor and education for a life of leisure (1939). (NB: c/f Jay Nash..)

- Aspects of leisure were introduced into the educational process as a learning medium and a teaching technique.

- Both made extensive use of activities such as music, singing, storytelling, dance, field trips, art, games, and exercise as part of the normal education routine.

It was in 1868 that the first definitive statement was issued regarding the inclusion of recreation as an objective of education:

The science of education includes the science of recreation and elaborate arrangements for the education of the community must be regarded not only as incomplete but radically unsound in which suitable provisions for physical training and recreation are not included

- Harry Barnard, first US Commissioner of Education, 1868.(Mundy, J., Odum, L. 1979, p. 18. Leisure Education: theory and practice. NY: J Wiley& Sons).

Dix, Dorothea Lynde (April 4, 1802 – July 17, 1887) was an American activist on behalf of the indigent insane who, through a vigorous program of lobbying state legislatures and the United States Congress, created the first generation of American mental asylums. During the Civil War, she served as Superintendent of Army Nurses.

She struggled to maintain a career in traditional female occupations: schoolteacher, governess, writer. None of these pursuits satisfied her ambition, and in her mid-thirties she suffered a debilitating breakdown. In hopes of a cure, in 1836 she traveled to England, where she had the good

fortune to meet the Rathbone family, who invited her to spend a year as their guest at Greenbank, their ancestral mansion in Liverpool.

The Rathbones were Quakers and prominent social reformers, and at Greenbank, Dix met men and women who believed that government should play a direct, active role in social welfare. She was also exposed to the British lunacy reform movement, whose methods involved detailed investigations of madhouses and asylums, the results of which were published in reports to the House of Commons.www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothea_Dix

Dumazadier, JoffreFrench sociologist. Wrote Towards a society of leisure (1967). Founder in 1945 of the association Peuple et culture (People and Culture).

Conducted a French study that found among skilled workers 25% found their maximum satisfaction in leisure and 53% in family life.

He listed four types of activity: remunerative work, family obligations, socio-spiritual obligations, and activity oriented toward self-fulfilment or self-expression. He suggested that leisure is only the fourth kind of activity while the obligation element in family and other institutional activities make these “semileisure”. This seems consistent with his earlier sociological definition:

Leisure is activity – apart from the obligations of work, family, and society – to which the individual turns at will, for either relaxation, diversion, or broadening his knowledge and his spontaneous social participation, the free exercise of his creative capacity (Toward a society of leisure).

Leisure is activity in the sense of being purposive. It is doing something by choice. However, it is also activity that is chosen, according to Dumazadier, for ends that enhance the self. Leisure is not purposeless, but its purpose has to do with expression, diversion, or development of the self (JR Kelly, 1982, Leisure, p. 21, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs NJ)

Dunton, William R.(1868-1966) Vigorous and active psychiatrist in our community several generations ago. Nephew of Benjamin Rush (‘Father of American Psychiatry’). After receiving undergraduate and masters level training at Haverford College, Dunton graduated from medical school at the University of Pennsylvania in 1893. As a young physician he then came to Johns Hopkins, were he learned the method of asepsis. During his productive career, he published books, papers, and was a founding member of three professional societies. He spent his professional life in Baltimore, and died in December 1966, at the age of ninety-eight.

Throughout Dunton’s life occupational therapy was one of his major interests. He encouraged his patients to pursue quilt-making, and he became an avid quilt maker himself. In his obituary, published in the December 23, 1966, Baltimore Sun, he was said to have taken up quilt-making in 1915. He felt that the bright colors were pleasing to patients, and that the cutting and sewing helped to take their minds off their inner problems. www.dunton.org/archive/biographies/William_Rush_Dunton_Jr.htm

Aelius Galenus or Claudius Galenus (AD 129 – 200/217), better known as Galen of Pergamum. His name, Γαληνός in Greek, meant quiet or peaceable. Prominent Roman physician and philosopher of Greek origin, and probably the most accomplished medical researcher of the Roman period. His theories dominated and influenced Western medical science for well over a millennium. Galen wrote a small work called "That the Best Physician is also a Philosopher", and he saw himself as being both, which meant grounding medical practice in theoretically sound knowledge or "philosophy" as it was called in his time.

In 148, when he was 19, his father died, leaving him independently wealthy. He then followed the advice he found in Hippocrates' teaching and travelled and studied widely including Smyrna (now Izmir), Corinth, Crete, Cilicia (now Çukurova), Cyprus and finally the great medical school of Alexandria, exposing himself to the various schools of thought in medicine. In 157, aged 28, he returned to Pergamon as physician to the gladiators of the High

Priest of Asia, one of the most influential and wealthiest men in Asia. Over the four years there he learnt the importance of diet, fitness, hygiene and preventive measures, as well as living anatomy, and the treatment of fractures and severe trauma, referring to their wounds as "windows into the body". Only five deaths occurred while he held the post, compared to sixty in his predecessor's time, generally ascribed to his attention to their wounds. At the same time he pursued studies in theoretical medicine and philosophywww.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galen

Avedon (1974): Galen was a noted teacher and physician who advocated an activity based treatment that emphasized the use of music, poetry, relaxation, and recreation in his work with Roman gladiators (Carter, Van Andel and Robb, 1995, p. 31).

Galen, in On Exercise with the Small Ball, describes harpastum* as: "better than wrestling or running because it exercises every part of the body, takes up little time, and costs nothing." He also considered it " profitable training in strategy", and said that it could be "played with varying degrees of strenuousness." (www.rugbyfootballhistory.com/origins of rugby.htm) *6th Cent Roman sport, played in teams of 27, using both feet and hands. Goals could be scored by throwing the ball over a designated spot on the perimeter of the field. The playing field is a giant sand pit with a goal running the width of each end. There is a main referee, six linesmen and a field master. Each game is played out for 50 minutes with the winner being the team with the most points or 'cacce'.

Gulick, LutherPhysician, educator and administrator, Luther H. Gulick was a leading force in the playground and physical education movements in the turn of the 20th century. It was Gulick who dreamed of a national playground association to provide leadership to the growing interest in play areas nationwide. He, along with other leaders in the movement, established the Playground Association of America in 1906. Luther Gulick was elected to serve as the first president of the new organization. President Theodore Roosevelt hosted the founding group and agreed to serve as its honorary president. The Playground Association of America soon became the Playground and Recreation Association of America, later the National Recreation Association and in 1965 the National Recreation and Park Association. Dr. Gulick’s role in the founding of the Playground Association of America had its genesis in a suggestion he made in November 1905, to Dr Henry S. Curtis, then general director of the school grounds of New York City. He proposed a national organization be formed to promote playgrounds throughout the country. He addressed a letter, co-signed by Dr. Curtis, to Joseph Lee in Boston, asking him for help in starting such an organization and to serve as its first president. Although Mr. Lee declined the invitation, it was decided to proceed with the project, and Dr. Gulick asked Dr. Curtis, who had moved to Washington D.C. to invite a group to meet in that city to consider the proposal. The meeting, held form April 10-15, 1906 proved historic, for at it the Playground Association of America was born. President Roosevelt welcomed the founding group at the White House, and after Dr. Gulick had clearly explained its purpose, he gave the new association his blessing and agreed to serve as its Honorary President. At the organization meeting Dr. Gulick was the natural choice for president because, as Joseph Lee said later in referring to the Association, “Whatever size the baby may grow, it was Dr. Gulick’s Baby.” Under his leadership the Association made amazing progress, for Dr. Gulick displayed great enthusiasm, energy, and resourcefulness. According to Howard Braucher, “His personal qualities were such, his ability as a speaker, his vividness of

description at private interviews, his unfailing enthusiasm; all were such that the new movement made a very great appeal to the country. Dr. Gulick in public addresses carried the gospel of play to a great many audiences.” He emphasized the value of publicity and having the names and pictures. www.nrpa.org

Haun, Paul (Dr)

- Sheds some light on the why there is a need for play. He says that our Central Nervous System is critically dependant upon sensory input (what comes through our senses), regardless of age. Psychic tensions have environmental as well as internal origin. Psychiatry classified sensory input as ego-syntonic (acceptable to our conscious self) or ego-dystonic (that which repugnant to us).

- Haun divides living into three categories: housekeeping (sleeping, dressing, eating, attending to toileting etc), work and recreation. Recognising the exceptions, Dr Haun believes that work for many is ego-dystonic, if for no other reason than habit, pride, and a variety of other pressures.

- But play and recreation cannot be commanded, or be a duty, they are voluntary, and because they are pleasureable, they are always eg-syntonic. He recognizes our normal functioning as related to the balance between ego-syntonic and ego-dystonic.

Hippocrates of Cos or Hippokrates of Kos (ca. 460 BC – ca. 370 BC); Hippokrátēs was an ancient Greek physician of the Age of Pericles, and was considered one of the most outstanding figures in the history of medicine. He is referred to as the "father of medicine" in recognition of his lasting contributions to the field as the founder of the Hippocratic School of medicine. This intellectual school revolutionized medicine in ancient Greece, establishing it as a discipline distinct from other fields that it had traditionally been associated with (notably theurgy and philosophy), thus making medicine a profession.

However, the achievements of the writers of the Corpus, the practitioners of Hippocratic medicine, and the actions of Hippocrates himself are often commingled; thus very little is known about what Hippocrates actually thought, wrote, and did. Nevertheless, Hippocrates is commonly portrayed as the paragon of the ancient physician. In particular, he is credited with greatly advancing the systematic study of clinical medicine, summing up the medical knowledge of previous schools, and prescribing practices for physicians through the Hippocratic Oath and other works.

Hippocrates is credited with being the first physician to reject superstitions, legends and beliefs that credited supernatural or divine forces with causing illness. Hippocrates was credited by the disciples of Pythagoras of allying philosophy and medicine.

Hippocrates taught and practiced medicine throughout his life, traveling at least as far as Thessaly, Thrace, and the Sea of Marmara. He probably died in Larissa at the age of

83 or 90, though some accounts say he lived to be well over 100; several different accounts of his death exist.

Huizinga, Johan(December 7, 1872 - February 1, 1945) Dutch historian and one of the founders of modern cultural history. He wrote his doctoral thesis on the role of the jester in Indian drama in 1897.Wrote Erasmus (1924) and Homo Ludens (1938) – a seminal text in play studies. In the latter book he discusses the possibility that play is the primary formative element in human culture. Huizinga also published books on American history and Dutch history in the 17th century. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Huizinga

Iso-Ahola, Seppo. Professor, University of Maryland.

Sports Psychology

He has published four books and over 70 research articles in refereed journals and chapters in edited books. He has received 3 prestigious research awards and has been invited to serve as distinguished visiting professor in Australia, Canada, Finland, Holland, and New Zealand.

Areas of Interest: Psychology of Exercise and Health; Psychology of Athletic Performance; Social

Psychology of Leisure Behavior Source: www.sph.umd.edu/KNES/faculty/sisoahola/index.html

Findings: Intrinsic motivation correlates positively with both psychological and physical health. In addition, those individuals who “seek” intrinsic rewards through their leisure are healthier than those who choose to “escape through passive and unrewarding leisure:

- Escapism through passive leisure is psychologically troublesome because it leads to boredom, which in turn feeds into apathy and depression. It has been found that lack of awareness of leisure and its potential in one’s life is the single most important factor contributing to boredom in leisure (Iso-Ahola & Weissinger, 1987).

- people who believe their actions as self-determined are less likely to experience illness and disease [and leisure very often provides

important avenues for developing a sense of self-determination] (Coleman & Iso-Ahola, 1993).

Source: Stumbo, N.J., & Peterson, C.A. (2004, p. 21) Therapeutic Recreation program design: principles and procedures. San Francisco: Pearson

Lee, Joseph(1862-1937) “Father of the Playground Movement”

Born into wealthy Boston aristocracy, Joseph Lee shunned a promising law career to devote his life to social causes and in the process became one of the most influential early recreation pioneers. His pioneering work in the study of urban children’s play, the development of experimental playgrounds and the advocacy of wholesome play opportunities were instrumental to the playground movement. One of his greatest accomplishments was the transformation of a fledgling playground association into the predominant broad-based national recreation. Joseph Lee served as president of the National Recreation Association from 1910 until the time of his death in 1937. He, along with NRA Executive Director Howard Braucher, provided much of the early inspiration and

ideology that guided the recreation field. In addition to his role of citizen advocate and philanthropist, Joseph Lee was a prolific writer on the importance of play and recreation. Two of his books, Constructive and Preventive Philanthropy and Play through Education are considered classics of their time.Individualism was central to much of Lee’s philosophy. On the importance of play, he wrote, “It is the supreme seriousness of play that gives it its educational importance. Play seen from the inside, as the child sees it, is the most serious thing in life. Play builds the child. It is part of natures law of growth … Play is thus the essential part of education.”

Menninger, Karl(July 22, 1893 - July 18, 1990), born in Topeka, Kansas, was an American psychiatrist and a member of the famous Menninger family of psychiatrists who founded the Menninger Foundation and the Menninger Clinic in Topeka, Kansas.

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Menninger

Quote: “Attitudes are more important than facts”

Dr. Karl Menninger's first book, The Human Mind (1930), became a bestseller and familiarized the American public with human behavior. Many Americans also read his subsequent books, including The Vital Balance, Man Against Himself and Love Against Hate. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menninger_Foundation Image: www.nndb.com/people/759/000117408/Nash, Jay- stressed the need to change the misdirected scheme of education that had obviously not prepared the masses of people for their leisure. He asked the schools to focus as much on education for avocation as they had for vocation, and urged them to consider the fact that the problem was not shall but how shall the schools educate for leisure?In Leisure: threat or promise? The Junior-Senior High Clearinghouse 520-524 (Jan 1933)

Viewpoint: Leisure can be good, bad, or indifferent. In his value system, using leisure creatively rates at the top of the leisure value goals and getting in trouble is at the bottom Brightbill and Mobley. Educating for Leisure Centered Living, p. 29. NY: J Wiley & Sons.

Book: Philosophy of Recreation and Leisure (1953)The following conclusions are drawn: (1) Learning of new hobbies can take place at any age. (2) Adults fail to learn activities because they are not willing to practice. (3) Most adult recreational activities were started early in life.(4) A large proportion of adult interests are started in theenvironment of the home. (5) Parents are most responsible for stimulating interests. (6) Many people have skill ability which has not been realized. (7) Adults can learn new hobbies but they seem to be discouraged by the achievements of experts, and choose, therefore, mechanism of escape.www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=24659229

Quotes: “Life is not a series of isolated incidents; it is a stream”.“Education is democracy’s tool to establish conditions so that all may become as nearly free and equal as their hereditary possibilities permit” (1932) Spectatoritis. NY: Sears

Neulinger, John(April 26, 1924 - June 21, 1991) was a noted German-American psychologist and Professor Emeritus of psychology at City College of New York. Neulinger is best known for contributing a social psychological theory of leisure to the field of leisure studies. Neulinger's theory of leisure is defined by a psychological state of mind that requires two criteria for leisure: perceived freedom and intrinsic motivation. In Neulinger's theory, individuals can be said to be in a state of leisure if they simply perceive that they have the freedom to choose activities and are motivated by an activity for its own sake, not just for its consequences. Neulinger first popularized his ideas in the 1974 book, The Psychology of Leisure:

"Leisure is a state of mind; it is a way of being, of being at peace with oneself and what one is doing...Leisure has one and only one essential criterion, and that is the condition of perceived freedom. Any activity carried out freely without constraint or compulsion, may be considered to be leisure. To leisure implies being engaged in an activity as a free agent, and of one's own choice."

www. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Neulinger

Nightengale, FlorenceOM, RRC (12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910), who came to be known as "The Lady with the Lamp", was a pioneering nurse, writer and noted statistician.

Most famous contribution came during the Crimean War, which became her central focus when reports began to filter back to Britain about the horrific conditions for the wounded. Within 6 months of her arrival, the mortality rate dropped from 42 percent to 2.2 percent“. Florence insisted on adequate lighting, diet, hygiene, and activity. “She understood even then that the mind and body worked together, that cleanliness, the predecessor to our clean and sterile techniques of today, was a major barrier to infection, and that it promoted healing”.

Nightingale continued believing the death rates were due to poor nutrition and supplies and overworking of the soldiers. Wrote Notes on Nursing (published in 1860), a slim 136-page book that served as the cornerstone of the curriculum at the Nightingale School and other nursing schools established. Notes on Nursing also sold well to the general reading public and is considered a classic introduction to nursing. Nightingale would spend the rest of her life promoting the establishment and development of the nursing profession and organizing it into its modern form.www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florence_Nightingale

- while caring for soldiers she organized classrooms, reading rooms, and recreation huts to combat such negative side effects of soldering as drunkenness and inappropriate social behaviors.

- Under her leadership, significant efforts were made to improve the physical interiors of the previously constructed hospitals and custodial care facilities, thus creating a more pleasant living environment.

(Carter, Van Andel & Robb, 1995, Therapeutic Recreation , p. 37 )

Olmstead, Frederick Law (1822-1903) Widely recognized as the founder of American landscape architecture and the nation's foremost parkmaker. At age 35, Frederick Law Olmsted discovered landscape design after trying his hand as a sailor, farmer, writer, and adventurer. Although Central Park in New York City has been forever associated with Olmsted's name, this was just the first of his many important landscape designs. The design and construction of Central Park brought Olmsted the fame and recognition needed to attract clients across the United States. 

After returning to his native New England to plan the Boston Park System, Olmsted worked out of his Brookline office from 1883 until his retirement in 1895. Olmsted's legacy includes city and state parks, school and college campuses, institutional grounds, private estates, suburban communities, zoos, and arboretums. Olmsted was also a passionate advocate for the preservation of America's natural resources and the creation of state and national parks. www.nrpa.org

Pieper, Josef(May 4, 1904-November 6, 1997, ‘Philosopher of Virtue’) German Catholic philosopher, Among his most notable works are The Four Cardinal Virtues, Leisure, the Basis of Culture. The Philosophical Act, and Guide to Thomas Aquinas (published in England as Introduction to Thomas Aquinas). He translated C.S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain, into German.www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Pieper

Quote: Leisure is nothing less than “an attitude of mind and a condition of the soul that fosters a capacity to perceive the reality of the world”.

In November 1951, wrote Leisure: The Basis of Culture, with a preface by T. S. Eliot. This is considered by many to be Pieper’s greatest work

Quote: Pieper emphasizes the close connection between moral and intellectual virtue. Our minds do not (contrary to many views currently popular) create truth. Rather, they must be conformed to the truth of things given in creation. And such conformity is possible only as the moral virtues become deeply embedded in our character, a slow and halting process.www.ignatiusinsight.com

Pinel, Phillipe(April 20, 1745 - October 25, 1826) was a French physician who was instrumental in the development of a more humane psychological approach to the custody and care of psychiatric patients, referred to today as moral treatment. He also made notable contributions to the classification of mental disorders and has been described by some as "the father of modern psychiatry".

The central and ubiquitous theme of Pinel's approach to etiology and treatment was the "moral", in the sense of social and psychological factors.[1]

He observed and documented the subtleties and nuances of human experience and emotion, seeing humans as social animals with imagination. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillipe_Pinel

Plato (image: left side)(428/427 BC[a] – 348/347 BC) Classical Greek philosopher, mathematician, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy in Athens, (first institution of higher learning in Western world). Along with his mentor, Socrates, and his student, Aristotle, Plato helped to lay the foundations of natural philosophy, science, and Western philosophy. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato

The subject of leisure has challenged writers and scholars throughout recorded history. The ancient Greeks regarded it as an ideal human condition, schole, that reflected freedom from obligation and attention to the refinement of character. Cultivation of one's intellect and talents, and social discourse about public affairs were celebrated as its highest forms. Leisure Experience and Human Development: A Dialectical Interpretation. Contributors: Douglas A. Kleiber - author. Publisher: Basic Books. Place of Publication: New York. Publication Year: 1999. Page Number: 1. (www.questia.com)

Plato on leisure:

True happiness is found in becoming more like what we might be, in fulfilling our own character or selfhood. Devotion to the thought and the culture (paideia) available are necessary to move toward that self-perfection. Consequently, time for thought, contemplation, philosophy, and self-development are required for happiness. That time, for Plato, is leisure.

Paideia and paidia both are derived from the root pais referring to the activity of children. Paidia is “play” and is one element in paideia. Play, then, is part of self-development, exploration, learning, and expression that bring happiness. Playful activity is appropriate for children, but may take adult forms.

Freedom in the Greek of Plato’s time means not a slave. Freedom is required for self-development and also for becoming fit to be a ruler. Leisure is, from this perspective, the time and space to engage in paideia. In leisure one learns of the culture, ideas, philosophy, and self in order to approach the Ideas underlying existence.

Leisure is employed toward the end of self-development and preparation for political responsibility. Recreation is just passing time. Activity such as gymnastics and music do more than pass time. They put the participant in touch with form, grace, and beauty. Through such activity, qualities for leadership in the polity are enhanced (Republic, Book 2) (JR Kelly, 1982, p. 47, Leisure, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall).

Rush, Benjamin(December 24, 1745 – April 19, 1813) Founding Father of the United States. Physician, writer, educator, humanitarian and devout Christian. Signatory of the Declaration of Independence and attended the Continental Congress. Later in life, he became a professor of medical theory and clinical practice at the University of Pennsylvania.

Rush pioneered the therapeutic approach to addiction. Prior to his work, drunkenness was viewed as being sinful and a matter of choice. Rush believed that the alcoholic loses control over himself and identified the properties of alcohol, rather than the alcoholic's choice, as the causal agent. He developed the conception of alcoholism as a form of medical disease and proposed that alcoholics should be weaned from their addiction via less potent substances

Considered the "Father of American Psychiatry", publishing the first textbook on the subject in the United States, Medical Inquiries and Observations upon the Diseases of the Mind (1812). He undertook to classify different forms of mental illness and to theorize as to their causes and possible cures. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benjamin_Rush

Riis, Jacob August (May 3, 1849 - May 26, 1914) Danish-American muckraker journalist, photographer, and social reformer, was born in Ribe, Denmark. He is known for his dedication to using his photographic and journalistic talents to help the less fortunate in New York City, which was the subject of most of his prolific writings and photographic essays. He helped with the implementation of "model tenements" in New York with the help of humanitarian Lawrence Veiller. As one of the first photographers to use flash, he is considered a pioneer in photography.

Immigration to the United States

Riis went to the United States by steamer in 1870, when he was 21, seeking employment as a carpenter. Before leaving for America he spent his last $40 on a pistol to defend himself against the Indians and bisons he thought he'd find on Broadway, but he found something very different, and shot it with a camera. He arrived during an era of social turmoil. Large groups of migrants and immigrants flooded urban areas in the years following the Civil War seeking prosperity in a more industrialized environment. Twenty-four million people moved to urban centers, causing a population increase of over 700%. In the 1880s 334,000 people were crammed into a single square mile of the Lower East Side, making it the most densely populated place on earth. They were packed into filthy, disease ridden tenements, 10 or 15 to a room and the well-off knew nothing about them and cared less.

The demographics of American urban centers grew significantly more heterogeneous as immigrant groups arrived in waves, creating ethnic enclaves often more populous than even the largest cities in the homelands. Riis found himself just another poor immigrant in New York. His only companion was a stray dog he met shortly after his arrival. The dog brought him inspiration and when a police officer mercilessly beat it to death, Riis was devastated. One of his personal victories, he later confessed, was not using his eventual fame to ruin the career of the offending office. Riis spent most of his nights in police-run poorhouses, whose conditions were so ghastly that Riis dedicated himself to having them shut down.

During stints as a police reporter for the New York Evening Sun and New York Tribune, Riis worked the most crime-ridden and impoverished slums of the city. Through his own experiences in the poor houses, and witnessing the conditions of the poor in the city slums, he decided to make a difference for those who had no voice.

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Riis

Schweitzer, Albert(14 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) German-French theologian, musician, philosopher, and physician. He received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize in 1953 for his philosophy of "Reverence for Life", expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Lambaréné, now in Gabon, west central Africa (then French Equatorial Africa). As a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ reform movement (Orgelbewegung).

Schweitzer's passionate quest was to discover a universal ethical philosophy, anchored in a universal reality, and make it directly available to all of humanity. This is reflected in some of his sayings, such as:

"Until he extends his circle of compassion to include all living things, man will not himself find peace."

"I don't know what your destiny will be, but one thing I do know: the only ones among you who will be really happy are those who have sought and found how to serve."www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Schweitzer

Seligman, Martin(born August 12, 1942, in Albany, New York) is an American psychologist who also writes self-help books. A world-renowned authority on depression and abnormal psychology, he is known for his work on the theory of "learned helplessness", and according to The Daily Pennsylvanian is considered the father of positive psychology. He is the director of the Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania.

Seligman worked with Christopher Peterson to create the 'positive' counterpart to the DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders). While the DSM focuses on what can go wrong, Character Strengths and Virtues looks at what can go right. In their research they looked across cultures and across millennia to distill a manageable list of virtues that have been highly valued from ancient China and India, through Greece and Rome, to contemporary Western cultures.

Their list includes six character strengths: wisdom/knowledge, courage, humanity, justice, temperance, and transcendence. Each of these has perhaps a half-dozen sub-entries - for instance, temperance includes forgiveness, humility, prudence, and self-regulation. One of their key points is that they do not believe that there is a hierarchy for the six virtues – no one is more fundamental than or a precursor to the others.www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Seligman

Selye, Hans (January 26, 1907 — October 16, 1982) Canadian endocrinologist of Austro-Hungarian origin and Hungarian ethnicity. Selye did much important factual work on the hypothetical non-specific response of the organism to stressors.

Some commentators considered him the first to demonstrate the existence of biological stress.

He became a Doctor of Medicine and Chemistry in Prague in 1929, went to Johns Hopkins University on a Rockefeller Foundation Scholarship in 1931 and then went to McGill University in Montreal where he started researching the issue of stress in 1936.

Selye has acknowledged the influence of Claude Bernard (who developed the idea of "milieu intérieur") and Walter Cannon's "homeostasis". Selye conceptualized the physiology of stress as having two components: a set of responses which he called the "general adaptation syndrome", and the development of a pathological state from ongoing, unrelieved stress.

Selye discovered and documented that stress differs from other physical responses in that stress is stressful whether one receives good or bad news, whether the impulse is positive or negative. He called negative stress "distress" and positive stress "eustress". The system whereby the body copes with stress, the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA axis) system, was also first described by Selye. He also pointed to an "alarm state", a "resistance state", and an "exhaustion state", largely referring to glandular states. Later he developed the idea of two "reservoirs" of stress resistance, or alternatively stress energy.

Selye wrote The Stress of Life (1956), From Dream to Discovery: On Being a Scientist (1964) and Stress without Distress (1974). He worked as a professor and director of the Institute of Experimental Medicine and Surgery at the Université de Montréal.

In 1968 he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada.

www.stress.org/hans.htm

Tuke, William (March 24, 1732 – 1822) English businessman, philanthropist and Quaker. He was instrumental in the development of more humane methods in the custody and care of people with mental disorders, an approach that came to be known as moral treatment.

Tuke was born in York to a leading Quaker family. He went into the family tea and coffee merchant business that had been started by Mary Tuke in 1725, and she passed it on to him in 1755. It became part of Twinnings tea company after the second world war.During his lifetime, Tuke became more involved with the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers).

Following the death of Hannah Mills in appalling conditions in a local asylum in 1790, Tuke was asked to take the lead in Quaker efforts to develop a more humane alternative. He solicited funds from friends, Quakers, and

physicians. He spent two years discussing plans with the local Quaker group (York Monthly Meeting) describing the fundamental principles of the proposed institution.

It opened in 1796 as the York Retreat. The approach was widely derided at first, and William Tuke noted that "All men seem to desert me." However, it became famous around the world as a model of more humane and psychologically-based approaches. William's son, Henry Tuke co-founded the treat and continued his work. As did his grandson, Samuel Tuke, who also helped publicize the work and the term moral treatment. www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tuke

Veblen, Thorsten.(born Tosten Bunde Veblen July 30, 1857 – August 3, 1929) Norwegian-American sociologist / economist and founder, along with John R. Commons,

of the institutional economics movement. Impassioned critic of the performance of the American economy, and is most famous for his book The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899).

In this, which is probably his best-known work, because of its satiric look at American society, the instincts of emulation and predation play a major role. People, rich and poor alike, attempt to impress others and seek to gain advantage through what Veblen coined "conspicuous consumption" and the ability to engage in “conspicuous leisure.” In this work Veblen argued that consumption is used as a way to gain and signal status. Through "conspicuous consumption" often came "conspicuous waste," which Veblen detested. Much of modern advertising is built upon a Veblenian notion of consumption.www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorsten_Veblen

Lev (Leon) Semyonovich Vygotsky (Vygotskii) November 17 [O.S. November 5] 1896 – June 11, 1934) was a Belarusian Jewish developmental psychologist and the founder of cultural-historical psychology

Born in Orsha, in the Russian Empire (today Belarus). He graduated from Moscow State University in 1917. Later, he attended the Institute of Psychology in Moscow (1924–34), where he worked extensively on ideas about cognitive development, particularly the relationship of work that is still being explored. He died in Moscow of tuberculosis at the age of 38. Most of his work is still being discovered.

A pioneering psychologist, Vygotsky was also a highly prolific author: his major works span 6 volumes, written over roughly 10 years, from his Psychology of Art (1925) to Thought and Language [or Thinking and Speech] (1934). Vygotsky's interests in the fields of developmental psychology, child development, and education were extremely diverse. His innovative work in psychology includes several key concepts such as psychological tools, mediation, internalization, and the zone of proximal development. His work covered such diverse topics as the origin and the psychology of art, development of higher mental functions, philosophy of science and methodology of psychological research, the relation between learning and human development, concept formation, interrelation between language and thought development, play as a psychological phenomenon, the study of learning disabilities, and abnormal human development .

Lesser known is his research on play, or child's game as a psychological phenomenon and its role in the child's development. Through play the child develops abstract meaning separate from the objects in the world which is a critical feature in the development of higher mental functions:

“Henceforth play is such that the explanation for it must always be that it is the imaginary, illusory realization of unrealizable desires. Imagination is a new formation that is not present in the consciousness of the very raw young child, is totally absent in animals, and represents a specifically human form of conscious activity. Like all functions of consciousness, it originally arises from action." (Vygotsky, 1978)

www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lev_Vygotskyimage: www.webpages.charter.net/schmolze1/vygotsky/vygotsky.html

See alsoWork-leisure dichotomy; Lifestyle; The Theory of the Leisure Class; Labour Economics Conspicuous leisure and conspicuous consumption; Recreation; Entertainment; Leisure Satisfaction; Leisure society; Work-life balance

References1. ̂ Goodin, Robert E.; Rice, James Mahmud; Bittman, Michael; & Saunders, Peter. (2005). "The time-

pressure illusion: Discretionary time vs free time". Social Indicators Research 73 (1), 43–70. (PDF file) 2. ̂ The “u” first appeared in the early sixteenth century, probably by analogy with words such as

pleasure.[1] 3. ̂ Neulinger, John. 1981. The Psychology of Leisure. 2nd Ed. C.C. Thomas. ISBN 0398044929 4. ̂ Farb, Peter (1968). Man's Rise to Civilization As Shown by the Indians of North America from Primeval Times

to the Coming of the Industrial State. New York City: E. P. Dutton. pp. 28. LCC E77.F36. "Most people assume that the members of the Shoshone band worked ceaselessly in an unremitting search for sustenance. Such a dramatic picture might appear confirmed by an erroneous theory almost everyone recalls from schooldays: A high culture emerges only when the people have the leisure to build pyramids or to create art. The fact is that high civilization is hectic, and that primitive hunters and collectors of wild food, like the Shoshone, are among the most leisured people on earth."

Further reading

Peter Borsay, A History of Leisure: The British Experience since 1500, Palgrave Macmillan, 2006, ISBN 0333930827

Cross, Gary S. 2004. Encyclopedia of recreation and leisure in America. The Scribner American civilization series. Farmington Hills, Michigan: Charles Scribner's Sons.

Harris, David. 2005. Key concepts in leisure studies. London: Sage. ISBN 0761970576. Jenkins, John M., and J. J. J. Pigram. 2003. Encyclopedia of leisure and outdoor

recreation. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415252261. Rojek, Chris, Susan M. Shaw, and A.J. Veal (Eds.) (2006) A Handbook of Leisure

Studies. Houndmills, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 139781403902788. Stebbins, Robert A. 2007. Serious leisure: A perspective for our time. New Brunswick,

NJ: Transaction. ISBN 0765803631.

External links Peter Burke , The invention of leisure in early modern Europe, Past & Present, Feb, 1995 The Development of Leisure Amongst the Social Classes During the Industrial

Revolution The Serious Leisure Perspective

Source: www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leisure

LEISURE (Work) - A longer bibliography of the subject

Cindy S. Aron (1999). Working at Play: A History of Vacations in the United States. (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 324 p.). Assoc. Professor, History, University of Virginia. Vacations--United States--History; Vacations--United States--History--19th century; Vacations--United States--History--20th century; United States--Social life and customs.  Gary S. Cross (1990). A Social History of Leisure Since 1600. (State College, PA: Venture Pub., 297 p.). Leisure--Social aspects--History; Leisure--Social aspects--United States--History; Leisure--Social aspects--Great Britain--History.Gary S. Cross, John K. Walton (2005). The Playful Crowd: Pleasure Places in the Twentieth Century. (New York, NY: Columbia University Press, 352 p.). Amusement parks--Social aspects--United States--History--20th century; Amusement parks--Social aspects--England--History--20th century.Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (2000). Beyond Boredom and Anxiety: Experiencing Flow in Work and Play. (San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 231 p. [orig. pub. 1975]). Pleasure; Play--Psychological aspects; Games--Psychological aspects; Work--Psychological aspects.Susan Currell (2005). The March of Spare Time: The Problem and Promise of Leisure in the Great Depression. (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 235 p.). Leisure--United States--History--20th century; Depressions--1929--United States; United States--Social conditions--1933-1945.Sebastian De Grazia (1994). Of Time, Work, and Leisure. (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 559 p. [orig. pub. 1962]). Leisure; Work.Foster R. Dulles (1965). A History of Recreation; America Learns to Play. (New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 446 p.). Recreation--United States; United States--Social life and customs.Richard G. Kraus (2001). Recreation and Leisure in Modern Society. (Boston, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 384 p. [6th ed., orig. pub. 1971]). Founder, Dance Dept. (Columbia University); Former Chairman, Recreation Dept. (Lehman College-CUNY). Recreation--North America; Recreation--North America--History; Leisure--Social aspects--North America; Play--North America--Psychological aspects; Recreation--Vocational guidance--North America.

Avner Offer (2006). The Challenge of Affluence: Self-Control and Well-Being in the United States and Britain since 1950. (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 496 p.). Chichele Professor of Economic History (Oxford University). Wealth--Social aspects--United States; Wealth--Social aspects--Great Britain; Social values--United States; Social values--Great Britain; Quality of life--United States; Quality of life--Great Britain. Critique of modern consumer society, especially the assumption that freedom of choice necessarily maximizes individual and social well-being.Witold Rybczynski (1991). Waiting for the Weekend. (New York, NY: Viking, 260 p.). Leisure; Recreation. History of leisure from the Romans to the present day.John P. Robinson (1977). How Americans Use Time: A Social-Psychological of Everyday Behavior. (New York, NY: Praeger, 209 p.). Time Management. Praeger Special Studies in U.S. Economic, Social and Political Issues.John P. Robinson and Geoffrey Godbey (1997). Time for Life: The Surprising Ways Americans Use Their Time. (University Park, PA: Penn State Press, 367 p.). Leisure, Time-Use Research, Stress Management.  Juliet B. Schor (1991). The Overworked American: The Unexpected Decline of Leisure. (New York, NY: Basic Books, 247 p.). Leisure, Time-Use Research. Interviews reveal that time on the job has risen steadily over previous 20 years. Leisure was dwindling.--- (1998). The Overspent American: Upscaling, Downshifting and the New Consumer (1999 Title: Why Want What We Don't Need). (New York, NY: Basic Books, 253 p.). Consumerism, Consumer Behavior, Personal Finance, Lifestyle.

Source: www.kipnotes.com/Leisure-work.htm