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Contribution of parkland trees tofarmers’ livelihoods: a case study fromMaliMbène Dièye Faye , John C. Weber , Bayo Mounkoro & Joseph-Marie DakouoPublished online: 23 Apr 2010.

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Contribution of parkland trees tofarmers’ livelihoods: a case studyfrom Mali

Mbene Dieye Faye, John C. Weber, Bayo Mounkoro,and Joseph-Marie Dakouo

Native species of trees and shrubs contribute significantly to farmers’ livelihoods by supplying

food, medicinal products, fodder, and wood. In the case study reported in this article, this

contribution to farmers’ annual revenue varied from 26 per cent to 73 per cent, and was as

high as US$ 650 a year for households for which agroforestry products were the primary

source of revenue. Household consumption was not quantified in the study, but farmers’ comments

confirmed that native trees also played an important role in assuring food security, especially in the

‘hunger period’ when grain stores are low and farmers are waiting for the next harvest.

Contribution des arbres des parcs aux moyens de subsistance des agriculteurs : etude de cas duMaliLes especes indigenes d’arbres et d’arbustes apportent une contribution considerable aux moyens

de subsistance des agriculteurs, car elles leur fournissent des aliments, des produits medicinaux,

du fourrage et du bois. Dans l’etude de cas presentee dans cet article, cette contribution aux

revenus annuels des agriculteurs a oscille entre 26 et 73 pour cent et a atteint 650 dollars US

par an dans le cas des menages dont la premiere source de revenus etait les produits agrofores-

tiers. La consommation des menages n’a pas ete quantifiee dans l’etude mais, sur la base des com-

mentaires de agriculteurs, les especes arborees indigenes ont egalement joue un role important au

moment de garantir la securite alimentaire, en particulier durant la « periode de disette » pendant

laquelle les stocks cerealiers sont faibles et les agriculteurs attendent la recolte suivante.

Contribuicao de arvores de parques publicos para os meios de subsistencia de produtores rurais:um estudo de caso de MaliEspecies nativas de arvores e arbustos contribuem significativamente para o meio de subsistencia

dos produtores rurais ao fornecer alimentos, medicamentos, forragem e madeira. No estudo de

caso relatado neste artigo, esta contribuicao a renda anual dos produtores rurais variou de 26

por cento a 73 por cento, e chegou ate a US$650 por ano no caso das famılias em que os produtos

agroflorestais eram sua fonte de renda primaria. O consumo familiar nao foi quantificado no

estudo mas, com base nos comentarios dos produtores rurais, as arvores nativas tambem desem-

penharam um papel importante ao proporcionar seguranca alimentar, especialmente no ‘perıodo

da fome’ quando os estoques de graos estao baixos e os produtores rurais estao esperando a

proxima colheita.

428 ISSN 0961-4524 Print/ISSN 1364-9213 Online 030428-7 # 2010 Taylor & Francis

DOI: 10.1080/09614521003710013 Routledge Publishing

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El papel de los parques agroforestales en la generacion de ingresos rurales: un estudio de casode MaliLas especies criollas de arboles y arbustos son un importante medio de vida para los campesinos

ya que proporcionan alimentos, productos medicinales, forraje y madera. El caso analizado en

este ensayo muestra que los beneficios que reportaron los arboles a los campesinos alcanzaron

porcentajes que van del 26 al 73 por ciento, alcanzando los USD$650 por ano en aquellos

hogares donde los productos agroforestales eran la principal fuente de ingresos. La investigacion

no cuantifico el consumo domestico pero, de acuerdo a los mismos campesinos, los arboles criollos

contribuyen a garantizar la seguridad alimentaria, en particular en los ‘meses de hambre’, cuando

las reservas de granos disminuyen y los hogares campesinos aguardan la siguiente cosecha.

KEY WORDS: Labour and livelihoods; Sub-Saharan Africa

Introduction

Most subsistence farmers in semi-arid West Africa consider trees and shrubs as an integral part

of agriculture, and for centuries they have maintained a traditional land-use system known as

the parkland agroforestry system (Boffa 2000). Due to their multiple uses, parkland tree and

shrub species play an important role in socio-economic development and in preserving ecologi-

cal equilibrium. In addition to food and medicinal products, they supply farmers with wood for

energy and construction, fibres for roofing, and fodder for livestock. These products are also

sources of additional revenue for farmers in West Africa. Although their contribution to

farmers’ livelihood improvement is widely appreciated, it has rarely been quantified (Lebel

et al. 2002). Therefore it is necessary to collect more reliable and current information in

order to better appreciate and illustrate the contribution of agroforestry products to farmers’

livelihoods. This article discusses the main results of an investigation into the role of parkland

trees and shrubs in farmers’ livelihoods.

Materials and methods

The study was conducted in the Segou region of Mali, which is in the Soudano Guinean

ecozone. It has a semi-arid climate (mean annual rainfall ¼ 513 mm: Wikipedia 2007), and

is irrigated by the Niger and Bani rivers. The rainy season starts in June and lasts for about

four months. The region covers a total area of 60,948 km2, with 35,940 hectares of forest

and parkland. The main sources of revenue in the region are agriculture, livestock, fishing,

and forest products (CSA 2008).

Nine villages located in four different Rural Communities (RC) were included in the study:

Ngolobabougou, Kango, and Kolobele in the Doura RC; Samene and Mantana in the Samene

RC; Dona in the Cinzana RC; and Sokoro, Safienso, and Sadian in the Tominian RC.

A participatory approach was used to collect the information required. At a first level, village

meetings were organised to collect general information about important parkland tree and shrub

species, their products and uses. The procedure consisted of first listing all species considered

important by farmers, and then registering the five main criteria that farmers used to decide

whether a species was important. Each species was scored from 0 to 3 (less important to

very important for the given species) for each criterion. Species were ranked according to

the total score received for the five criteria. At a second level, individual interviews were

conducted with key informants identified during the village meetings. In each village, all

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farmers identified as harvesters, processors, or sellers of parklands tree and shrub products were

interviewed. In total, 82 key informants, including 39 women, were interviewed. Only 74 ques-

tionnaires (39 women and 35 men) were analysed, because information was missing in the

remaining eight questionnaires. The targeted information was related to product uses,

revenue gained from parkland trees and shrubs, and the main constraints faced by farmers.

The surveys were conducted from December 2007 to February 2008. The average exchange

rate used to estimate annual revenue was US$ 1 for 450 FCFA. In the article, the terms

‘farmers’ and ‘villagers’ are used interchangeably, and both include men and women.

Results and discussion

Throughout the study, farmers confirmed that parklands contain many tree and shrub species

that play an important role in improving their livelihoods. They identified 42 species as impor-

tant (not tabled), and five criteria for deciding whether a species was important. Production of

medicines was the most important criterion, followed by food for human consumption, products

for income generation, fodder, and wood (i.e. for energy, construction, household and farm

implements). The 15 most important species, based on farmers’ rankings, are listed in

Table 1. These are clearly multipurpose species that provide several products and services,

and most of them are sources of income.

Vitellaria paradoxa, Tamarindus indica, and Adansonia digitata were the most highly

appreciated for human consumption. Women in particular highly valued the V. paradoxa

nuts, because they have high oil content, and A. digitata leaves, which are the main ingredient

in a sauce that is mixed with cooked rice or millet and consumed throughout the year. This study

did not estimate the quantities of parkland products consumed per household, but farmers stated

that they consumed large quantities of these products, particularly V. paradoxa fruits during the

hunger period that corresponds to the rainy season, when grain stores are low and the new crop

has not matured. Boffa (1999) reported that the average annual consumption of V. paradoxa

butter was 7.3 to 10 kg per person (Boffa 1999).

The relation between income level and consumption of fruits and leaves from parkland trees

and shrubs was not investigated. However, Diop et al. (2005) and Quang et al. (2006) concluded

that farmers with low incomes benefit more from parkland trees and shrubs than do higher-

income groups. The contribution of non-timber products to farmers’ revenues was estimated

at 50 per cent for low-income farmers, but only 13 per cent for the high-income group

(Traore 2005).

Faidherbia albida, Pterocarpus erinaceus, and Balanites eagyptiaca provide fodder for farm

animals (primarily cows, donkeys, sheep, and goats), supply farmers with most of the wood

used for energy, and provide several other services (Table 1). Pterocarpus erinaceus also pro-

vides high-quality leaf fodder for rural and urban livestock. In Bamako, the capital and largest

city in Mali, more than 1400 tons of P. erinaceus fresh leaves are sold annually to feed urban

livestock, especially sheep (Winrock International 1999). Diallo (1999) reported that the sale of

P. erinaceus and P. lucens leaves in the Segou market during the period July–September can

generate revenues as high as 4000 FCFA (approximately US$ 10) per day for rural women.

B. eagyptiaca wood is mainly used to make agricultural tools and domestic utensils such as

mortars and pestles. In addition, all three species are important for health: for example,

P. erinaceus leaves are used to reduce fever, and its bark is used to treat toothache; while

the bark of F. albida is used to treat coughs. The positive effect of species such as F. albida

and Guiera senegalensis on soil fertility was also recognised by interviewees.

The volume and type of products sold were recorded and the revenue calculated, based on the

price information provided by interviewees and the average exchange rate of US$ 1 ¼ 450

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FCFA. The products that generated the greatest revenue were fruits, wood, and A. digitata

leaves, followed by shea butter from V. paradoxa, P. biglobosa fruits, and shea soap from

V. paradoxa (Figure 1). Among the 74 households interviewed, 51 per cent obtained at least

40 per cent of their annual revenue from selling parkland tree and shrub products (Figure 2).

The total annual revenue gained from selling parkland tree and shrub products ranged from

US$ 110 to US$ 4411 among the villages surveyed, and the surveyed households obtained

between US$ 20 and US$ 646 per year (Table 2). This revenue contributed as much as 73

per cent of the annual household income. The income gained from parkland tree and shrub pro-

ducts was mainly used by men to cover wedding expenses, purchase agricultural equipment,

and repair or purchase transportation equipment; whereas women spent their income on

food, clothing, and children’s school fees.

Not all trees and shrubs in parkland agroforests have a market value. There can also be indir-

ect benefits related to the species’ agronomic/environmental functions (such as soil-fertility

Table 1: Priority tree and shrub species selected by villagers in the Segou region of Mali, and theirproducts and uses in order of preference. Species are listed according to villagers’ rankings

SpeciesBotanical

family Products and uses

Vitallaria paradoxa C.F. Gaertn. Sapotaceae Food for human consumption, wood, medicine,

sale

Tamarindus indica L. Caesalpiniaceae Food for human consumption, fodder,

medicine, sale

Adansonia digitata L. Bombacaceae Food for human consumption, soil-fertility

improvement, medicine, sale

Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. Rhamnaceae Food for human consumption, fodder,

medicine, sale

Balanites eagyptiaca (L.) Delile Balanitaceae Food for human consumption, fodder,

medicine, wood, sale

Faidherbia albida (Del.) Chev. Mimosaceae Soil-fertility improvement, fodder, wood,

medicine, sale

Pterocarpus erinaceus (Poir.) Papilionaceae Food for human consumption, fodder,

medicine, sale

Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. Ex

G. Don.

Mimosaceae Food for human consumption, fodder,

medicine, sale

Pterocarpus lucens Lepr. Papilionaceae Fodder, wood, sale

Boscia senegalensis (Pers.) Lam.

ex Poir.

Capparidaceae Food for human consumption, medicine,

fodder, sale, wood

Saba senegalensis (A. DC.) Pichon Apocynaceae Food for human consumption, medicine, sale

Lannea microcarpa Engl. &

K. Krause

Anacardiaceae Food for human consumption, wood, medicine,

sale

Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.)

Hochst.

Anacardiaceae Food for human consumption, wood, medicine,

sale

Cordyla pinnata (Lepr. ex

A. Rich.) Milne-Redhead

Ceasalpiniaceae Food for human consumption, medicine, wood

Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel. Combretaceae Medicine, wood, fodder, soil-fertility

improvement

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improvement, erosion control, and shade) and cultural uses (for example, traditional meetings

that are held only under specific trees, and use of a particular part of a tree/shrub to ‘protect’

houses and family members).

Unfortunately, the direct and indirect contributions of parklands to livelihood improvement

are not always recognised by policy makers, for lack of information. As a result, the non-timber

products and services are often neglected when developing policies and management plans for

parkland agroforests and forests. Further research is needed to explore several issues. For

example, what is the contribution of fodder from parkland trees and shrubs to household

revenues? What is the approximate value of intangible health-security, food-security, environ-

mental, and agronomic services provided by these species?

Conclusions

As this case study illustrates, products from parkland trees and shrubs contribute considerably to

villagers’ livelihoods. This contribution, however, may not be sustainable, due to several

factors: demographic pressure; some negative agricultural practices (such as use of machinery

that limits natural regeneration and sometimes requires cutting trees) which compromise the

future of many parkland agroforests; and low rainfall, which farmers recognise is reducing

Figure 1: Total annual revenue from different products in the Segou region of Mali (US$)

Figure 2: Contribution of parkland tree and shrub products to household revenues in the Segou region of

Mali

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the abundance of important species such as V. paradoxa. In addition, land-tenure and forestry

laws prevent farmers from managing many important tree and shrub species in the parklands

and limit their access to parkland tree and shrub products (Yatich et al. 2008). Although

farmers generally consider trees and shrubs as part of the agricultural system, farmers will

not maintain them in the system if they do not perceive their value. Evidence shows that

when farmers perceive the potential market value of such products, they are more likely to

invest actively in the protection and regeneration of parkland trees and shrubs. It is essential

to assess and analyse market opportunities for parkland tree and shrub products, in order to

provide information on their economic value to farming communities. In addition, this

information is essential in order to convince decision makers to develop appropriate agricultural

policies (with farming communities) that promote these production systems.

Acknowledgements

This research was supported by a technical assistance grant (TAG 799) to the World Agroforestry Centre

(ICRAF) from the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). The authors also thank

farmers in the participating villages for their contributions to the research, and the anonymous referee

for useful comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.

References

Boffa, Jean Marc (ed.) (1999) Agroforestry Parklands in Sub-Saharan Africa, FAO Conservation Guides,

Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations.

Boffa, Jean Marc (2000) ‘West African agroforestry parklands: keys to conservation and sustainable

management’, Unasylva 51: 11–17.

CSA (2008) ‘Synthese des plans de securite alimentaire des Communes du Cercle de Segou 2008–2012’,

Commissariat a la Securite Alimentaire, Rapport de la Republique du Mali.

Diallo, Broulaye (1999) ‘Exploitation, utilisation et commercialisation de fourrages ligneux et autres

fourrages dans la zone de Segou, Memoire de fin de cycle’, Institut Polytechnique Rural de Formation

et de Recherche Appliquee (IPR/IFRA).

Table 2: Contribution of parkland tree and shrub products to annual revenues of households in the Segouregion of Mali

Village

Average annualrevenue per

village in US$

No. ofhouseholdssurveyed

Average annualrevenue per

household in US$

Averagecontribution per

village (%)

Safienso 4,411 8 605 41

Mantana 4,118 7 646 40

Samene 3,064 7 480 42

Sadian 2,216 9 270 39

Sokoro 1,953 10 214 73

Dona 1,345 11 134 59

Kango 524 9 64 33

Kolobele 362 7 57 26

Ngolobabougou 110 6 20 48

Development in Practice, Volume 20, Number 3, May 2010 433

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The authors

Mbene Dieye Faye (corresponding author, ,f.mbene@cgiar.org.) and John C. Weber are scientists,

and Bayo Mounkoro is a research assistant at the West and Central Africa regional office of the World

Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF). Joseph-Marie Dakouo is a scientist at the Institut d’Economie Rurale

in Mali.

434 Development in Practice, Volume 20, Number 3, May 2010

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