Moldova State University

Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures

English Philology Department

Contrastive Analysis of Gerund

in English, Romanian and French

Diploma thesis

Research adviser:

Chişinău 2005

ContentsIntroduction……………………………………...………………………….…………………3

Chapter One. Linguistic Peculiarities of Gerund in Modern English…………...51.1. A Diachronic Approach Concerning English Gerund…………………………………51.2. Some Attempts at Defining the Non-Finite Forms of the Verb in English……………71.2.1.The Double Nature of the Gerund………………………………………………………121.2.2. The Voice Distinction of the Gerund and the Anteriority….……………………..……131.2.3.The Noun Characteristics of English Gerund…………………………………..…….…141.2.4.Verb Characteristics with Gerund………………………………………………………151.3. The Use of the Gerund………………………………………………………………….171.4.The Functions of the Gerund in the Sentence…………………………………….……191.4.1.The -ing form as Subject………………………………………………………….….…191.4.2.The -ing form as Predicate…………………………………………………………...…211.4.3.The -ing Form as Part of a Compound Verbal Predicate……………………………….221.4.4.The -ing Form as a Second Action Accompanying the Action of the Predicate Verb…231.4.5.The -ing form as Predicative……………………………………………………………241.4.6.The -ing Form as Subject Predicative……………………………………………..……261.4.7.The -ing Form as Objective Predicative…………………………………………...……261.4.8.The -ing Form as Object…………………………………………………………….…..271.4.9.The -ing Form as Attribute…………………………………………………………...…311.4.10.The -ing Form as Adverbial Modifier…………………………………………………351.4.11.The -ing Form as Part of an Absolute Construction…………………………………...391.4.12.The -ing form as Parenthesis…………………………………………………………..411.5.Gerund in Romanian and French…………….………………………………..…….…42

Chapter Two. Contrastive Analysis of Correspondences of Gerund in English, Romanian and French Languages…………………………………………..44

2.1. English Gerund Corresponding to Verbals in Romanian and French ……………...442.1.1.Gerund…………………………………………………………………………………..442.1.2.Gerund and Infinitive…………………………………………………………………...482.1.3. Infinitive………………………………………………………………………………..502.1.4.Participle………………………………………………………………………………...562.1.5. Participle and Gerund…………………………………………………………………..572.2. English Gerund Corresponding to Noun in Romanian and French…………………582.3.English Gerund Translated by Past Tenses and Infinitive…………………………....622.3.1. Imperfect and Infinitive.………………………………………………………………..622.3.2.Perfectul Simplu and Infinitive…………………………………………………………642.3.3.Perfectul Compus and Infinitive………………………………………………………...65 2.3.4.Mai Mult ca Perfectul and Infinitive……………………………………………………652.4. Specific Ways of Translating the English Gerund…………………………….………662.4.1.Noun and Infinitive……………………………………………………………………...662.4.2.Conditional and Infinitive……………………………………………………………….682.4.3.Conjunctiv and Infinitive………………………………………………………………..69

Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………………...76

Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………….78

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Introduction

English grammar has been thoroughly studied by grammarians from different

countries and their valuable contribution to the science is manifested through a

treatment of a particular part from the point of view of contrasting it with their

mother tongue counterpart.

There are three verbals in the English language: the Infinitive, the Participle

and the Gerund, which make up a part of the English verb system. In this paper we

will dedicate our attention to the last verbal, i.e. Gerund.

We have chosen namely this topic because there are a lot of unclear moments

in the history of English –ing forms and there appeared many disputable theories

concerning Gerund and we are to determine which of them is closer to its real

status. It is not so easy to study this grammatical form in comparison with its

equivalents in Romanian or other languages. It is of great importance to

understand how to use properly the Gerund in the English context and its

interpretation in the other languages.

The purpose of this diploma thesis is to analyse the syntactical functions of

the English Gerund in parallel with the morphological peculiarities and to present

its translation means into Romanian and French.

This paper consists of two chapters, the first representing the theoretical part

and the second –the practical part. The first part is based, in general, on the works

of Russian linguists as Barchudarov, Bloch, Ghanshina, Ilyish, Smirnitsky and

others. The first chapter represents an approach of the lexical and grammatical

characteristics of the Gerund. It includes the historical background of the –ing

form, the substantival and verbal characteristics, the use of Gerund as well as the

functions it performs in the sentence. Besides that it comprises a short presentation

of the peculiarities of the Romanian and French Gerund.

In the practical part we have selected about 400 examples with Gerund from

Daniel Defoe’s work “Robinson Crusoe” and analysed them from the syntactical

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point of view in order to establish their equivalents in Romanian and French.

While selecting examples we have to distinguish the Gerund from the Participle,

which is not always easy to do.

By means of such methods like synthesis and contrastive analysis we are

going to investigate the problems that will appear by establishing and explaining in

details the means and ways of translating Gerund and showing the similarities and

the discrepancies among the three languages concerning the syntactical functions

of the Gerund.

Thus, this topic raises many important questions in English grammar. It is of

great interest since the majority of English learners face difficulties in

understanding and translating the Gerund. We hope that through this paper we will

be able to understand better and identify the syntactical functions of the Gerund

and its means of translation into Romanian and French.

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Chapter One. Linguistic Peculiarities of Gerund in Modern English

1.1. A Diachronic Approach Concerning English

Gerund

The old language had many endings, most of them with very vague meanings

and applications. In the Modern English the majority of words are inflected

regularly.

The grammatical development and simplification has taken place not

suddenly and from one cause, but gradually and from a variety of causes.

The gerund is a descendant of the Old English verbal noun and the present

participle; hence it's double nature and its noun and verb characteristics.

“In the Old English period the verbal noun had the ending -ing, -ung; in the

Middle English had the ending -ende that in Middle English was replaced by -inge

as the result of confusion of constructions with the verbal noun and the participle.”

[7; 23] Thus the verbal noun and the participle became merged into one form -

ing(e), in modern -ing. As a result of blending of the two forms, the verbal noun in

-ing began to develop verbal characteristics under the influence of the participle. In

constructions where on Middle English and in Early Modern the verbal noun, like

any other noun, was proceeded by the definite article and followed by the

proposition of (He thanked him for the saving of his life. Compare: He thanked

him for the preservation of his life), the article as well as the preposition of were

gradually dropped, the -ing form taking the noun following as its direct object (He

thanked him for saving his life), thus crystallizing into a new form, the gerund.

The following examples show the gradual transition from the verbal noun to

gerund; the -ing form still retains the article, but the preposition has already

disappeared.

Nothing in his life

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Became him like the leaving it (Shakespeare)

With the finding the little infant (Fielding)

Later on, the gerund becoming more and more verbal developed tense

distinctions and the passive voice and preserving still its syntactical characteristics

of noun assumed to a great extent the dynamic force of a verb.

With regard to its syntactical use the old –ing was a substantive and was

restricted to the functions it shared with all other substantives. While keeping all

its substantival qualities, it has since gradually acquired most of the functions

belonging to a verb. It was and is inflected like a substantive; now the Genitive

case is rare and scarcely occurs outside of such phrases as: reading for reading’s

sake. However, the plural is common: his comings and goings. Like any other

substantive, it can have the definite or indefinite article and adjective before it: a

beginning.

The –ing form can be used in a sentence in every position occupied by an

ordinary substantive. It is the subject and the predicative nominative in

complimenting is lying; the objects in I hate lying. It is governed by a preposition

in before answering. When the –ing was a pure substantive, the object of the action

it indicated could be expressed in one of the three ways:

1. It might be put in the Genitive case

2. It might form the first part of a compound

3. It might be added after the preposition “of”

From the 14th century we find a graving tendency to treat –ing like a form of

the verb, and accordingly, to put the object in the accusative case.

A substantive doesn’t admit any indication of time. Similarly the –ing form

had originally, and to a great extent still has, no reference to time: on account of

his coming may be equal to because he comes or because he came or he will come,

according to the connection in which it occurs. I intend seeing the king refers to he

future. I remember seeing the king –to the past, or rather the -ing as such implies

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neither of tenses. But since the end of the 16 th century the –ing has still further

approximated to the character of a verb by developing a composite perfect.

Let us some up by saying that the –ing has clearly become a most valuable

means of expressing tersely and neatly relations that must have indicated by

clumsy dependent clauses.

So, as we can see, the –ing forms have attracted the attention of scholars and

writers for a long time. At present, the –ing forms are undergoing their own

evolution in the Modern English language. And although now they have almost

broken off interrelations, in some functions they can hardly be distinguished from

one another, especially when used in their simple forms. This accounts for the

complication of the problem of the –ing forms and for the fact that the process of

their evolution has not been completed yet.

1.2. Some Attempts at Defining the Non-Finite Forms of the Verb in English

All English grammars distinguish between finite and non-finite forms of the

verbs. These non-finite forms are also called the verbal or the verbids.

“Verbal are the forms of the verb intermediary in many of their lexico-

grammatical features between the verb and the noun-processual parts of speech.

The mixed features of these forms are revealed in the participle spheres of the part-

of-speech characterization; i.e. in their meaning, structural marking, combinability,

and syntactical functions.

They expose the processual meaning in a substantive or adjectival-adverbial

interpretation: they render processes as peculiar kinds of substances and properties.

They are formed by special morphemic elements, which do not express either

grammatical time or mood (the most specific finite verb categories). They can be

combined with verbs like non-processual lexemes (performing non-verbal

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functions in the sentences) and by they, can be combined with non-processual

lexemes like verbs (performing verbal functions in the sentence).”[50; 106]

From these characteristics, one might call in question the verb justification of

including the verbals in the system of verb. As a matter of fact, one can ask oneself

whether it wouldn't stand to reason to consider the verbal as a special lexemic

class, a separate part of speech, rather than an inherent component of the class of

verbs.

On closer consideration, however, we can' t but see that such an approach

would be utterly ungrounded. The verbal do betray intermediary features. Still,

their fundamental grammatical meaning is processual. Their essential syntactic

functions, directed by this relational semantics, unquestionable reveal the property

which may be called, in a manner of explanation, "verbality" and the statement of

which is corroborated by the peculiar combinability character of verbid

collocation, namely, by the ability of verbs to take adjuncts expressing the

immediate recipients, attendants, and addresses of the process inherently conveyed

by each verbid collocation.

One might likewise ask oneself, granted the verbids are part of the system of

the verb, whether they do not constitute within this system a special subsystem of

purely lexemic nature, i.e. form some sort of a specific verbal subclass. This

counter-approach though would evidently be devoid of any substantiality, since a

subclass of a lexemic class, by definition should share the essential categorical

structure, as well as primary syntactic functions with other subclasses, and in case

of verbids the situation is altogether different. In fact, it is every verb stem (except

a few defective verbs) that by means of morphemic change takes both finite and

not-finite forms, the functions of the two sets being strictly differentiated: while

the finite forms serve in the sentence only one syntactic function, namely, that of

the finite predicate, the non-finite forms serve various syntactic functions other

than that of the finite predicate.

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The strict, uninteresting division of functions strictly shows that the

opposition between the finite and non-finite forms of verb creates a special

grammatical category. The differential feature of the opposition is constituted by

the expression of verbal time and mood: while the time-mood grammatical

signification characterizes the finite verb in a way that it underlies its finite

predicative function, the verbid has no immediate means of expressing time-mood

categorical semantics and therefore presents the weak member of the opposition.

The category expressed by the opposition can be called the category of "finitude".

The syntactic content of the category of “finitude” is the expression of predication

(more precisely, the expression of verbal predication).

As it is known, the verbids, unable to express the predicative meanings of

time and mood, still do express the so-called "secondary" or "potential"

predication, forming syntactic complexes directly related to certain types of

subordinate clauses. For example: Have you ever had anything that was caught in

your head? - He said it half under his breath for the others no hear it.

The verb complexes anything caught in your head, or for the others not to

hear it or the like, while expressing secondary predication, are not self depend in a

predicative sense. They normally exist only as part of sentences built up by

genuine, primary predicative constructions that have a finite verb as their core.

And it is through the reference to the finite verb predicative that these complexes

set up the situations denoted by them in corresponding time and mood perspective.

In other way, we may say that the opposition of the finite verbs and the

verbids is based on the expression of the functions of full predication and semi-

predication. While the finite verbs express predication in its genuine and complete

form, the function of the verbids is to express semi-predication, building up semi-

predicative complexes within different sentence constructions.

The English verbids include four forms distinctly differing from one another

within the general verbid system: the infinitive, the gerund, the present participle

and the past participle. I will analyse deeper the gerund (the ing - form) and the

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present participle. There are different approaches to the problem of the -ing form.

Blokh considers that these are two different verbals. “The outer structure of the

two elements of the verbal system is absolutely identical they are outwardly the

same when viewed in isolation”[50; 118]

Barchudarov believes that there is no reason to accept these as two different

morphological forms since they do not differ in paradigms of any verb.

Ilyish considers that the solution of this question “largely depends on the

extent to which we are prepared to allow for shades of meaning in one form.”[16;

135]

Smirnitsky, Ivanova, Burlakova, Pocheptsov consider the forms of Participle

and Gerund to be different verbals.

“The gerund is a non-finite form of the verb, which combines the properties of

the verb with those of the noun. The gerund serves as the verbal name of process,

and its substantive quality is strong pronounced. The gerund can be modified by a

noun in the possessive case or its pronominal equivalents (expressing the subject

of the verbal process), and it can be used with prepositions. Since the gerund is an

abstract name of the process denoted by the verbal lexeme, a question might arise,

why the infinitive, and not the gerund is taken as the head-form of the verbal

lexeme as a whole, its accepted representative in the lexicon.”[50; 108]

As a matter of fact, the gerund cannot perform the function of the

paradigmatic verbal head-form for a number of reasons. In the first place, it is

more detached from the finite verb than the infinitive semantically, tending to be a

far more substantival unit categorically. Then, as different from the infinitive, it

does not join in the conjugation of the finite verb. Unlike the infinitive, it is a

suffixal form, which makes it less generalized than the infinitive in terms of the

formal properties of the verbal lexeme (although it is more abstract in the purely

semantic sense). Finally, it is less definite than the lexico-grammatical point of

view, being subject to easy neutralization in its opposition with the verbal noun in

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- ing, as well as with the present participle. Hence, there is no rival of the infinitive

in the paradigmatic head-form function.

“The general combinability of the gerund is dual sharing some features with

the verb, and some features with the noun. The verb-type combinability of the

gerund is displayed in its combining, first, with nouns expressing one object of the

action; second, with modifying adverbs; third, with certain semi-functional

predicator verbs, but other than modal. Of the noun-type is the combinability of

the gerund, first, with finite notional verbs as the object of the action; second, with

finite notional verbs as the prepositional adjunct of various functions; third, with

finite notional verbs as the I subject of the action; fourth, with nouns as the

prepositional adjunct of various functions.”[50; 109]

One of the specific gerund patterns is its combination with the noun in the

possessive case or its possessive pronominal equivalent expressing the subject of

the action. This gerundial construction is used in cases when the subject of the

gerundial process differs from the subject of the governing sentence-situation, i.e.

when the gerundial sentence-part has its own separate subject. E.g.:

Powell's being rude like was disgusting. How can she know about the

Morton's being connected with this unaccountable affair? Will he ever

excuse our having interfered?

The possessive with the gerund displays one of the distinctive categorical

properties of the gerund as such, establishing in the English lexemic system as the

form of the verb with nounal characteristics. As a matter of fact, from the point of

view of the inner semantic relations, this combination is of a nounal type. It can be

clearly demonstrated by the appropriate transformations, i.e. verb-related and

noun-related re-constructions.

I can't stand his criticizing artistic works that are beyond his competence/ T -

verbal- He is criticizing artistic work. T - nounal -His criticism of artistic works.

Besides combining with the possessive noun-subject, the verbal ing-form can

also combine with noun-subject in the common case or its objective pronominal

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equivalent. E.g.: I read in yesterday' s paper about the hostages having, been

released. The formal sign of the gerund is wholly homonymous with that of the

present participle: it is the suffix -ing added to its grammatically leading element.

The gerund is a categorically changeable (variable, demutative) form; it

distinguishes the two grammatical categories, sharing them with the finite verb and

the present participle, namely, the aspective category of retrospective coordination

(perfect in opposition), and the category of voice (passive in opposition).

Consequently, the categorical paradigm of the gerund of the objective verb

includes four forms: the simple active, the perfect active, the simple passive, and

the perfect passive. E.g.: taking - having taken - being taken - having been taken.

The gerundial paradigm of the non-objective verb, correspondingly, includes two

forms. E.g.: going - having gone.

The perfect forms of the gerund are used, as a rule, only in semantically

strong positions, laying special emphasis on the meaningful categorical content of

the form.

1.2.1.The Double Nature of the Gerund

As a result of its origin and development the gerund has verbal and nominal

proprieties. The verb characteristics of gerund are as follows: 1. It has tense -

forms - indefinite and perfect. The tenses of the gerund comprise relative time

indication.

a) The Indefinite Gerund Active and Passive denotes and action simultaneous with

the action expressed by the finite verb; depending on the tense form of the finite

verb it may refer to the present, past, or future

He can swim any number of hours without tiring.

She walked on without turning her head.

No one could pass in or out without being seen.

b) The Perfect Gerund denotes and action prior to that of the finite verb.

She denies having spoken with him.

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He was ashamed of having shown even the slightest irritation.

She really had been crying ... out of danger at having been driven so

hard.

However, a Perfect Gerund does not always express a prior action; in some

cases we find an Indefinite Gerund instead it. This occurs of the verbs: to

remember, to excuse, to forgive, to thank and after the prepositions on (upon), after

and without.

I don’t remember hearing the legend before.

You must excuse my not answering you before.

I thank you for restraining me just now.

On leaving the house we directed our steps to the nearest shade.

After walking about ten yards, he found that hat among the leaves.

She passes through and disappears in the pantry without noticing the

young lady.

The Perfect Gerund may also be used after the above-mentioned verbs and

prepositions.

He did, not remember having been in that room.

After having denied herself to everybody, Miss Rachel, to our

astonishment, walked into the midst of us of her own accord. They parted

at Cohen's door without having spoken to each other again.

In order to conclude, we may assert that the English Gerund has two forms:

indefinite and perfect Gerund.

1.2.2.The Voice Distinction of the Gerund and Anteriority

The Gerund of transitive verbs has special forms for the active and passive

voice. He liked neither reading aloud nor being read aloud to. It is to be observed

that after the verbs to want, to need, to deserve, to require and the adjective worth

the gerund is used in active form, tough it is passive in meaning.

"The slums want attending to, no doubt", he said.

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He realized that this room needed painting.

The child deserves praising.

They were not worth saving.

“What is traditionally called tenses in the verbals differ greatly from the

tenses of the finite forms. The tenses of the finite forms indicate the time of the

action. The Gerund has tense forms –indefinite and perfect. The forms that are

called tenses of the Gerund comprise relative time indication; they usually indicate

whether the action expressed by the Gerund coincides with the action of the finite

forms of the verb or is prior to it.”[11; 217]

Active Passive

Indefinite Writing Being written

Perfect Having 'written Having been written

“The indefinite gerund expresses that the action denoted by the gerund is

simultaneous with the action of the finite form of the verb in the sentence”[11;269]

“She enjoyed sitting in the sun…”

“The perfect gerund indicates that the action of the gerund precedes the

action of the verb in the sentence” [11; 269]

1.2.3.The Noun Characteristics of the Gerund

a) As a noun, the gerund is used as the subject or object (direct or prepositional) of

the sentence. When used as an attribute or adverbial modifier, the gerund also

clearly shows its nominal character; it is always preceded by a preposition, which

is a formal mark of the noun:

Crossing the river was a hard task (subject).

... she enjoyed sitting in the sun( direct object).

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"Excuse me for interrupting you, Mr. Winterbourne" ( prepositional

object).

Mark was in the habit of so saving (attribute)

On reaching the bedroom, we heard the voice of Miss Scatcherd

(adverbial modifier).

b) Besides, when the gerund is associated with the doer of its action (forming a

complex), the noun or pronoun expressing that doer is uses grammatically as an

attribute (possessive) to the gerund, and this attributive relation strengthens the

noun character of the gerund.

At first, I was in daily dread of his taking my education in hand again, or

of Miss Murdstone 's devoting herself to it...

We may affirm that the Gerund can act as a noun with the corresponding

functions in the sentence.

1.2.4.Verb Characteristics of the Gerund

Kaushanskaya says in her work “ A Grammar of English Language” that

“like all verbals the gerund can form predicative constructions, i.e. constructions in

which the verbal element expressed by the gerund is in predicate relation to the

nominal element expressed by a noun or pronoun.”[22; 112]

I don't like your going off without any money.

Here the gerund going off is in predicate relation to the pronoun your, which

denotes the doer of the action expresses by the gerund.

The nominal element of the construction can be expressed in different ways.

1. If it denotes a living being it may be expressed:

a) By a noun in the genitive case or, by a possessive pronoun.

His further consideration of the point was prevented by Richard's coming back to

us in an excited state. Do you mind my smoking?

b) By a noun in the common case.

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I have a distinct recollection of Lady Chiltern always getting the good

conduct prize.

Thus in Modern English there are two parallel constructions of the type:

Fancy David’s courting and Fancy David Emily. These two constructions may

be used indifferently, but sometimes there is a slight difference in meaning: in the

first example the action (the verbal element of the constructions) is emphasized,

whereas in the second the doer of the action (the nominal element of the

construction) is emphasized.

Occasionally examples are found where the nominal element of the

construction is expressed by a pronoun in the objective case.

I hope you will forgive me disturbing you.

There are cases when the nominal element of the construction though

denoting a living being, cannot be expresses by a noun in the possessive case, but

only by a noun in the common case, namely when it consists of two or more nouns

or when it is noun modified by an attribute in post-position.

I object to Mary and Jane going out on such a windy day.

Did you ever hear of a man of sense rejecting such an offer?

2. If the nominal element of the construction denotes a lifeless thing it is

expressed by a noun in the common case (such nouns, as a rule, are not used in the

genitive case) or by a possessive pronoun.

I said something about my clock being slow.

... Peggotty spoke of... my rooms, and of its being ready for me.

3. The nominal element of the construction can also be expressed by a

pronoun, which has no case distinctions, such as all this, both, each, something.

I insist on both of them coming in time.

Again Michael... was conscious of something deep and private stirring

within himself.

Some grammarians recognize the existence of two separated constructions:

the gerundial construction (a construction whose nominal element is expresses by

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a noun in the genitive case or by a possessive pronoun) and a construction with a

half gerund (a construction whose nominal element is expressed by a noun in the

common case, a pronoun in the objective case, or a pronoun which has no case

distinctions).

1.3.The Use of the Gerund

In Modern English the gerund is widely used. In the following cases only the

gerund is used:

1. “With the verbs and verbal phrases: to avoid, to burst out, to deny, to

enjoy, to excuse, to fancy (imperative sentences as an exclamation of surprise), to

finish, to forgive, to give up, to go on, to keep (on), to leave off, to mind (in

negative & interrogative sentences) to postpone, to put off, cannot help and some

others.”[2;363]

He avoided looking at Saving.

... she burst out crying.

She denied having been at the station the evening.

...he enjoyed thinking of her as his future life.

Excuse my leaving you in the dark moment.

Fancy finding you here at such an hour.

Forgive my speaking plainly.

When the Committee had finished deciding on its politics he had gone

home.

Willoughby gave up singing and looked at Karen and Yates from

under drooping eyelids.

They went on talking.

I have left off shooting.

Would you mind waiting a week or two?

I don't mind going and seeing her.

She couldn’t help smiling.

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2. With the following verbs and verbal phrases used with a preposition: to

accuse of, to agree to, to approve of, to complain of, to depend on, to feel like, to

insist on, to look like, to object to, to persist in, to prevent from, to rely on, to

speak of, to succeed in, to suspect of, to thank for, to think of, to give up the idea

of, to look forward to, not to like the idea of, to miss an (the) opportunity of and

some others.

They accuse me of having dealt with the Germans.

It was clear now... that Abraham never had agreed to their being

married today.

I insist on being treated with a certain consideration. I object to his

having any acquaintance at all with my sisters. You suspect me of

stealing your diamond.

I resolved not to think of going abroad any more.

I really thank you heartily for taking all this trouble.

So he returned his straitened means to his pocket, and gave up the idea

of trying to buy the boys.

I think everybody looked forward to his coming back.

He did not like the idea of being hunted down by Butler.

Don't miss the opportunity of hearing this pianist.

3. With the following predicative word-groups (with or without a

preposition): to be aware of, to be busy in, to be capable of, to be fond of, to be

guilty of, to be indignant at, to be pleased (displeased) at, to be proud of, to be sure

of, to be surprised (astonished) at, to be worth (while) and some others.

I felt physically incapable of remaining still in any one place, and morally

incapable of speaking to any one human being.

I am very fond of being looked at.

You 're really guilty of having connived with a German officer to help his

escape.

Mr. Osborne was indignant at his son 's having disobeyed him.

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... she was not pleased at my coming.

Miss Crawley was greatly displeased at Rowdon's having married Becky.

...nobody knows better than I do that she is proud of being so pretty.

The bridal party was worth seeing.

Thus, the Gerund may be used together with the above-mentioned words

word-groups or phrases.

1.4.The Functions of the Gerund in the Sentence

1.4.1.The -ing Form as Subject

Volcova states, “The functions of the verbals may be divided into two groups

- the independent use of verbals and the dependant use of verbals. By the

dependant use of the verbals we understand their functions as Subject, predicative

and parenthesis.”[57; 79]

I. The gerund may be used in various syntactic functions. The gerund in the

function of subject usually expresses permanent or recurrent action, simultaneous

with the action expresses by the predicate verb.

Looking after one man is realty enough, but two is rather an

undertaking.

Going to concerts was about the only thing he thoroughly enjoyed.

II. Sentences with the -ing form as subject, have certain structural

peculiarities.

1. We find the -ing form as subject only in declarative sentences. It is never used

in interrogative sentences.

2. The -ing form as subject as always placed at the head of the sentence. Any

secondary parts never precede it.

3. The -ing form as subject is occasionally found in sentences

beginning with there is, but it's use is restricted to negative sentences where it is

usually preceded by no.

19

There was no arguing with her about it when she had made up her mind.

Well, there is no avoiding him now. Of course I am scared to hell.

There's no denying that.

Hence the frequent use of the simple -ing form to express statements of a

general character.

Passing a law about equal rights doesn’t necessarily mean that women

get them.

Beatrice and I don’t correspond unless there is a major event I the

family.

Writing letters is a waste of time.

Sometimes, though not often, a passive -ing form is found, its time reference

being the same as that of the active -ing form.

Being liked doesn’t count so much in politics as outsiders think. I said

being accused of something one knows oneself to be ridiculous, and

which everyone else knows to be ridiculous, never hurt me.

Being born in my provincial town wasn’t much different from being born

in Brooklyn.

The use of the perfect -ing form as subject is rare exception. It expresses the

priority of the action of the -ing form to that of the predicate verb.

Having been born in that communion was like being born an

Englishman.

III. The subject of the -ing form may be expressed in different ways. It is

generally indicated in the context and the relation of the action expresses by the -

ing form and its subject is easily established. The indication of the subject is often

found in the same sentence and it's expressed by one of the secondary parts (a).

Occasionally it is expressed in one of the neighbouring sentences (b).

(a) Seeing you there, by the door, made me remember what I had to do.

Listening to her night after night filled Jan with a sense of pitying

irritation.

20

(b) It was me who persuaded David to come here this Christmas to be

reconciled to his father. I realize now that coming here was a mistake.

Susie left him gasping. Being friends with her was going to be very

exciting.

The subject of the -ing form may not be mentioned at all. In such cases the

action is associated with any or every person or an indefinite number of

unidentified persons.

Being too economical with glue and screws can give plenty of trouble

later.

Building a school in Britain today costs only half as much as in the

1940's, said the Minister of Education yesterday.

Lastly, the subject of the -ing form may be expressed specially by using the

so-called complex -ing form.

It was wonderful having Bart. At first she had not been sure that his

coming here with her had been a good thing.

IV. The use of the -ing form as subject is mainly found in literary English but

even here it is not of frequent occurrence.

1.4.2.The -ing Form as Predicate

I. The -ing form as predicate may be used in the following type of sentence.

A rush of disconnected memories flashed rapidly through Luke's brain

(Luke suspects Lord Easterfield of committing certain crimes). Major

Norton saying, "Lord Easterfield was very kind... " Lord Easterfield

holding forth on his visit to the Laboratories, with its serums and germ

cultures, just a short time before Dr. Humblebee 's death. Everything

pointing plainly in one direction and he, fool that he had been never

suspecting. All the spirits store of Turtle's running to waste in the

streets.

The use of this type of sentence is a rare exception.

21

Sentences of this kind resemble absolute constructions turned into dependant

sentences.

II. The gerund may be used as a predicate in one-member sentences,

interrogative (a) and exclamatory (b).

(a) What about going to London?

How about seeing what they did with your house?

(b) But letting him to do it!

This type of sentence is quite common in spoken English.

1.4.3.The -ing Form as Part of a Compound Verbal Predicate

The -ing form is lexically dependent in this function - it is used after a

number of verbs denoting motion or position. They are: to come, to go, to go out

(around, round, about), to sit, to sit around, to stand, to stand around (round), to

disappear.

They came rushing in, laughing.

They had often gone fishing in those days.

Are we going out dancing tonight?

He went about sniffing the air but there was no trace of gas. They all sat

around feeling very proud. "I'm very ready ", he said to Maurice and

stood waiting. Next morning I woke early and lay listening to the clatter

of dishes in the kitchen.

He disappeared walking; there was no noise, nothing.

Mentioned should be the following set phrases:

I burst out laughing, and the others followed.

All at once she burst out crying.

The set phrases only help us since we will already know that we deal with a

Gerund and not with a Participle.

22

1.4.4.The -ing Form as a Second Action Accompanying the

Action of the Predicate Verb

The -ing form may express a second action accompanying the action

expressed by the predicate verb. The subject of the -ing form is the same as the

subject of the sentence. The -ing form in this function refers not to the predicate

verb alone but to the whole predicate group. It can be found with verbal as well as

with nominal predicates. The -ing form is not lexically dependent in this function.

They ran up the stairs brimming with excitement.

You can 't just sit there being talked about.

She was sitting in the doorway of the tent reading.

As a rule the -ing form follows the predicate group. But it may also be placed

at the head of the sentence or between the subject and the predicate.

Coming into my office one evening in the autumn, he said shyly: "Doing

anything tonight?

Watching them with bold, excited eyes, Simon discussed their characters.

I made to go out, but Roger, frowning, shook his head.

When the -ing form is used to denote a second action, it is often separated by a

comma form the rest of the sentence.

The -ing form of certain verbs have come to be used as prepositions or

conjunctions. Care should be taken to distinguish them from real -ing forms.

Several officials, including me, had been invited.

Presuming, the old man gets better and comes back to the job, then

what?

"That will be all right, barring accidents ", I told him above.

Taking all things into consideration, I decided to tear my letter up.

Notice that taking all things into consideration (account) has become a set

phrase.

23

1.4.5.The -ing Form as Predicative

1.The -ing form as a predicative is used with appositive meaning. The usual

link-verbs are to be and to mean.

But the last thing I should ever have dreamt of was finding myself here

for good.

The important part is helping people so they can live normal lives. It was

politics he could not resist; if it meant making speeches, well then, it

meant making speeches.

The -ing form as a predicative is found more often when it is preceded by

“like”. It also has appositive meaning here, but explanation is made by way of

comparison.

It was absurd to suppose that any money under Heaven could buy hi in:

it would be like trying to slip Robespierre a five-pound note. I wondered

how the hell I'd got myself mixed up in a project that couldn’t be carried

out. It was like starting to write a novel. The first thing I noticed was the

lowness of all the doors and ceilings; I had to dip my head to step into

the house. It was like stopping to look into a nest of cave.

Notice that the subject of the sentence in the latter case is often expressed by

the personal pronoun if referring to a situation previously described.

The -ing form as a predicative may also be preceded by some other compound

prepositions.

She was by way of being a household tyrant.

He sat at the desk, nodding a little, looking as though he were on the

verge of waking up from sleep. Apparently the child is in danger of

losing her leg.

2. We find the simple -ing form in this function, which serves to express an

action simultaneous with that of the predicative verb. As a rare exception, the

passive -ing form may be used in this function.

24

Lord H. then chipped in to say that what tired the Foreign Secretary was

being questioned by newspaper correspondents.

3.The subject of the -ing form either becomes clear from the context or is any

or every person or an indefinite number of unidentified persons.

Sometimes, however, an -ing complex is used to indicate the subject of the -ing

form.

But what started sentimental train of thought was my walking out into the

garden this morning and finding that the top of every single rose has

been cut off.

All right, dear. Go back to sleep. It was only I talking. Somehow it didn’t

sound like a wild young boy talking to an eminent man.

4. Instances of the -ing form used as a predicative are scarce.

When the -ing form does not express appositive meaning it becomes

adjectivized.

That must be enormously exciting.

Hugh got more and more subtly insulting.

The journey was slow, rough and tiring and took us eleven days.

We usually find a change of meaning in this case - the idea of action or state

inherent in the verb disappears and the -ing form comes to denote quality. The -ing

form also acquires other adjectival characteristics - the distribution of adjectives.

In this function the -ing form tends to become a set phrase and is generally placed

at the head of the sentence. It is separated from the sentence by a comma.

Talking of sin, wasn’t Miss Drury 's Reverend friend I save you talking

with yesterday?

Speaking of warning, I don't know much Ellis told you, but 1 don't like

anybody getting ideas where Lena is concerned.

Of course, strictly speaking the excuse was not necessary.

-Ing forms as parenthetic expressions are not very frequent are usually

denoting some sort of reservation on the part of the speaker or else they are used as

25

introductory phases having the meaning of "incidentally". The -ing form here is

always speaking or talking.

1.4.6.The -ing Form as Subject Predicative

The -ing form as subject predicative is lexically dependent and it's found after

a limited number of verbs in the Passive. These verbs are: to catch, to find, to

leave, to notice, to report, to see, to set, to show, to watch.

I felt I had been caught boasting.

The baby was found sitting on the floor.

When the door closed, Monty and I-were left looking at each other.

Here also belong a few verbs after which the -ing form is out reduced by as.

They are: to accept, to consider, to explain, to guarantee, to mention, to regard, to

take, to treat, and to understand. Here also belong the verbs to speak of and to

think of which take a prepositional object.

The Browns did not entertain and were spoken of the district as being

"poor as church mice ".

Janet and I became very friendly, and at school we were considered as

going together.

The use of the -ing form as subject predicative is restricted mainly to literary

style and is not frequent even there.

1.4.7.The -ing Form as Objective Predicative

It is used after a number of transitive verbs in Active followed by an object,

which is expressed by a noun or a pronoun. The following are the most frequently

used verbs taking a direct object: to call, to catch, to discover, to feel, to hear, to

get, to imagine, to keep, to leave, to dislike, to like, to notice, to picture, to see, to

stop, to watch, to want.

I felt him looking at me now and again.

Ellen had noticed me talking with landlady.

26

He saw me watching him.

Besides this construction is found after two verbs taking a prepositional object

- to listen to and to look at.

We opened the door for a moment and looked out at the windy night and

listened to the trees groaning.

He looked at Jane wiping her tear-wet face.

Here also belong a few verbs after which the -ing form is introduced by as: to

accept, to consider, to explain, to guarantee, to mention, to regard, to speak of, to

take, to think of, to treat, to understand.

You took his statement as being quite in order. We always thought of him

as being "promising".

With all above-mentioned verbs, the object that precedes the -ing form is

expressed by a noun in the common case or by a personal pronoun in the objective

case, and serves as subject to the action denoted by the -ing form. But there are a

number of other verbs after which the object may be expressed either in above

described way or by a noun in the genitive case or a possessive pronoun. These

verbs are: to appreciate, to dread, to excuse, to fancy, to forget, to hate, to have, to

imagine, to mind, to miss, to pardon, to prevent, to recall, to remember, to resent

and also can't bear, can't help and to catch sight of.

1.4.8.The -ing Form as Object

The -ing form may be used as object to the verb, direct or prepositional. In

both cases it is lexically dependent.

As a direct, it is used with the following verbs: to admit, to avoid, to begin, to

cease, to consider, to continue, to delay, to deny, to endure, to enjoy, to escape, to

finish, to forget, to give up, to go on, to hate, to intend, to keep, to keep on, to

leave off, to like, to love, to mention, to mind (in negative and interrogative

sentences), to neglect, to postpone, to prefer, to propose, to put off, to quit, to

27

recall, to recollect, to regret, to remember, to resent, to ripe, to start, to stop, to

suggest, to try and some others.

English grammar is very difficult and few writers have avoided making

mistakes.

He kept on smiling at her and speaking.

He drank his beer and resumed reading his paper.

I 'was in low spirits and even considered going away.

David Robin did not much like being called Professor.

In addition to the verbs mentioned in the list above the -ing forms are used

after certain model phrases in the negative form: can't bear, can't face, can't fancy,

can't imagine, can't resist, can't stand, and can't help.

I can't bear being humiliated.

He could not face being talked about.

He couldn’t help asking me: "Isn’t there anything else you can do for

Roger?”

Besides, the -ing form is also used after the set phrase to feel like.

He felt like giving up the whole affair.

I didn’t feel like talking to him after what had happened.

The -ing form may serve as object to a verb in a special sentence with a

format it as subject. The use of the -ing form in this sentence pattern is found after

a very limited number of verbs or set phrases but it is typical of spoken English.

He said to his wife: "It doesn’t matter much being liked, for this kind of

life".

As prepositional object to a verb, the -ing form is also lexically dependent. It

is found after verbs that take a prepositional object.

These verbs may be divided into 3 groups:

1. Verbs followed by prepositional object alone;

2. Verbs followed by a non-prepositional object and prepositional object;

3. Verbs followed by two prepositional objects.

28

The verbs of the first group are closely connected with a preposition who's

meaning is often weakened. The following is the list of the most commonly used

verbs: to admit to, to agree to, to aim at, to apologize for, to approve of, to believe

in, to bother about, to care for, to come of, to forget about, to mean by, to return to,

to insist on, to talk of, to tell of, to worry about and some others.

What did she mean by boasting like that?

I didn’t think twice about telling her: we had no secrets.

The readers of the book insist on knowing the reasons of the actions.

Here also belong certain set phrases such as: to look forward to, to make

appoint of, to plead guilty to, to find excuses for, to take pride in, to lose time in, to

have no doubt about and some others.

I took pride in making my lodgings pretty and comfortable.

I expect you are looking forward to seeing your fiancé again?

He was taking risks in speaking in that tone to her.

Special attention should be given to set phrases with the verb to be which are

to be treated as verb equivalents.

Would you be up to paying with us this afternoon?

Verbs requiring a non-prepositional object and prepositional object are in

general less numerous. Besides, not all of them take an -ing form as their

prepositional object (to explain something to somebody, to dedicate something to

somebody).

Of verbs taking a non prepositional object and a prepositional object

expressed by an -ing form the most commonly used are: to accuse somebody of, to

amuse somebody with, to ask somebody about, to charge somebody of, to give

something to (for), to talk somebody into (out, of) and others.

I am prepared for anyone to accuse me of being cowardly.

Did she suspect them of being of trying to cheat her?

Will you be able to keep those fellows from making any more fuss?

29

Of all the prepositions there is one that acquires particular importance in this

construction as it may be associated with a considerable number of verbs and is,

consequently, or frequent occurrence. It is the preposition for. It generally serves to

indicate the cause of the action denoted by the predicate verb.

For may be found after the following verbs: to blame somebody, to excuse

somebody, to forgive somebody, to reprimand somebody, to reproach somebody,

to thank somebody, to like somebody, to love somebody, to hate somebody, to pay

somebody and some others.

I thought you have just been blaming me for being neutral.

I was going to thank you for looking after him till I came.

He scolded me for not having let him know.

The -ing form may also serve as object, direct and prepositional, to an

adjective. In both cases, it is lexically dependent.

As a direct object it is found only after two adjectives - busy and worth.

The children were busy doing all the things they had been told not to do.

He thought my idea was worth trying.

It was not a criticism worth repeating.

The -ing form may be used as direct object to an adjective in a sentence

pattern with a formal it as subject. This kind of object is also lexically dependent -

it regularly occurs after it is worth.

It is worth remembering that he had once been a boxer.

It is worth finding it out.

Sometimes the -ing form is found after a number of other adjectives such as:

amusing, banal, comfortable, difficult, easy, great, hopeless, lovely, nice, odd,

pleasant, strange, useless, wonderful and others.

It was difficult getting him to do it.

It was useless arguing with Jane.

It will be rather nice seeing him again.

30

But the -ing form is not very common after these adjective we generally find

the infinitive here.

The -ing form may be used as object to an adjective in a sentence pattern with

a formal it as object to the verbs to think, to find, to make. The formal it, in its

turn, is followed by an adjective, and it is to this adjective that the -ing form serves

as an object.

She did not find it worth -while pressing further.

He thought it very odd my leaving when I did.

Wik Berit has the opinion that “the -ing form as a prepositional object is

found after various kinds of adjectives - they may be adjectives proper, predicative

adjectives and adjectivized participles. The most commonly occurring of them are:

absorbed in, accustomed to, afraid of, amused at, angry with, annoyed at, ashamed

of, aware of, in/capable of, careful about (in), careless of, certain of, clever at,

content with, delighted at, different from, embarrassed at, excited about, far from,

fond of, irritated at, nice about, set against, right it, upset at, worried about, wrong

in and others.”[45; 91]

1.4.9.The -ing Form as Attribute

The -ing form in the function of attribute is found in different constructions.

The -ing form may immediately precede its head-noun. In this case it expresses an

action, which is performed, by the person or thing denoted by the head-noun. The -

ing from is always a single word in this case, not an extended phrase. This attribute

is not lexically dependant -it may modify any noun.

Singing people, arm in arm, filled the streets 1 reached for a cigarette

with trembling hands, and lot it.

There was nothing to be seen or heard, not even a barking dog.

This kind of attribute is not of frequent occurrence in English and is typical

only of literary style. This accounts for the stylistic application of the -ing forms in

the examples below.

31

Arthur gave a creaking laugh.

He watched it with despairing incredulity.

It is typical of the -ing form in this function to become adjectivized - the -ing

form is devoid of the idea of action in this case its lexical meaning is often

changed as compared to the meaning of the corresponding verb, e.g. a charming

girl means a very nice girl, an amusing story is an interesting, funny story.

They were preoccupied with coming debate.

We had a very good view of all the surroundings scenery.

Such adjectivized -ing forms are in common use in English. Another peculiar

feature of the -ing form in this function is its tendency to form, in combination

with its head-nouns, a set phrase, e.g. the reading public, the presiding mastrate, a

racing man, working people, a leading politician, revolving doors, running water

and some others. Such combinations are in common use in English. The -ing form

as attribute may closely follow its head-noun. In this case it also expresses an

action performed by the person or thing denoted by the head-noun. But unlike the -

ing form in preposition to the noun, it is more or less extended group not a single

word.

This kind of attribute is not lexically dependent - it may modify any noun. Yet its

use is structurally dependent, as it mainly serves to modify a noun after there

is/are.

There are some people coming in here now.

There is a lot of work waiting for me to do.

The -ing form coming on (in, up) is used to modify a noun, which is an object

to the verb to have or to have got.

I saw at once he had an attack of malaria coming on. You 've got too

many things coming up to get involved in such an affair.

This kind of attribute is used in literary as well as in spoken English.

It is noteworthy that running in post-position to a plural noun is used in the

meaning of one after another, in succession.

32

He says he has received three telegrams running from them.

The -ing from may follow its head-noun and be separated from it by a pause.

But in other respects this attribute is similar to the -ing form that closely follows its

head-noun: the head-noun is also the subject of the -ing form and -ing form is

generally a part of a more or less extended group.

This kind of attribute is neither lexically nor structurally dependent - it can

modify any noun and the noun can have different syntactic functions in the

sentence.

I could hear the voices of the kids waiting for the school bell to ring.

They stumbled on the snow turning to icy water.

The loose of character of the -ing form in this function is always marked off

by intonation, and it may also, sometimes, be indicated by the use of comma.

The wardrobe was empty, except for one dress, swinging on a hanger.

The -ing form in the function of attribute may be preceded by a preposition;

in this case it always follows its head-noun and is generally part of an extended

phrase. The -ing form is lexically dependent here.

In most cases the -ing form is preceded by the preposition of. The attribute

acquires appositive meaning here, i.e. it serves to explain the meaning of its head-

noun. That is why it can modify only certain abstract nouns that admit and

sometimes even require an explanation of their meaning. The number of nouns

thus used is quite considerable. The most commonly occurring of them are: action,

advantage, aim, art, business, case, choice, conception, custom, difficulty, danger,

effect, fact, fear, feeling, gesture, guilt, hope, idea, incident, importance, job,

labour, love, luck, means, method, pain, object, pity, process, rule, sense, shock,

sin, sort, state, success, symptoms, task, way, week, wisdom, work, shame, relief,

result, etc.

I had the advantage of looking younger that I was.

I have no hope of discussing it, Mr. Bridling.

He didn’t want to discuss the idea of Katherine leaving with them.

33

The -ing form may also be preceded by the prepositions for, in, at, about, to.

But they are by far less common that of.

These prepositions are found after a limited number of nouns, which regularly

require their use. The meaning of the -ing form is determined here by the lexical

meaning of the head-noun and the preposition. The following is the list of nouns

requiring the above-mentioned prepositions:

For –cause, excuse, genius, gift, grounds, motive, passion, pretext, reason,

reputation;

In –advantage, belief, believer, difficulty, experience, harm, hesitation,

ingenuity, meaning, object, pleasure, paint, purpose, sense, skill;

At –amazement, astonishment, attempt, delight, dismay, irritation, pleasure,

satisfaction, shyness;

About –fantasy, obsession, scruples;

To –objection, preparation.

She had a real passion for reading detective stories.

Certainly I should have no objection to working with the man.

This -ing form is not restricted to any particular style and is widely used in

English. The -ing form may be used as an attribute in a sentence pattern with a

formal it as subject. The -ing form is lexically dependent here - it is regularly used

only after it is no good and it is no use. It has a positive meaning here.

"It's no use going on like this ", he said. It's no good trying to fool

yourself about love.

We also find a synonymous construction there is no use followed by an -ing

form.

There was no use complaining.

It is noteworthy that this construction is less common that the one with the

formal it. Still less common is the pattern in which the gerund is preceded by the

prepositional in.

You can see now there's no use in trying to make him understand.

34

Sometimes the -ing form occurs after a number of other nouns which are, as a

rule, semantically pole, such as thing, business, chance, idea, problem, etc. The

nouns are usually modified by an adjective, which is semantically more important

than the noun.

It's been a great chance my meeting you like this. It 'II be such a surprise

to her seeing you.

It should be mentioned, however, that the -ing form is not common after

these nouns. We normally find an infinite here.

The -ing form may also be used as an attribute in a sentence pattern with a

formal it as an object to the verbs to find, to think, to make. The formal it, in its

turn, followed by a noun. It is to this noun that the -ing form serves as an attribute.

Won't you find it rather bore having me at home for so long?

It should be noted that this construction is of rare occurrence.

1.4.10.The -ing Form as Adverbial Modifier

The -ing form can serve as an adverbial modifier to verb. In this function it

denotes a second action accompanying the action expresses by the predicative

verb. But it is preceded by a conjunction or a preposition, which lend it adverbial

meanings, such as time, concession, condition, attending circumstances, manner,

cause and some others.

The adverbial meaning of the -ing form is determined by the meaning of the

preceding conjunction or the preposition.

The -ing form is not lexically dependent here - it may be used after any verb.

The -ing form may be preceded by the conjunctions while, when, once, if, as

though, that, as well as and the correlative conjunctions as...as and not so...as.

While and when lend the -ing form the adverbial meaning of time

emphasizing the idea of simultaneousness of its action with that of the predicate

verb. While shows that both actions are taking place at a given moment or period

35

of time (a); when usually serves to express recurrent actions simultaneous with the

action of the predicate verb (b).

(a) He continued to speak while walking down the path.

(b)Often, when boasting of his deceits, he sounded childlike and innocent.

The conjunctions as though and as if serve to show that the person denoted

by the subject of the sentence appears to be performing the action indicated by the

-ing form: there is something in the manner, in the behaviour of the person that

gives the impression that the action is being performed by him.

He listened as tough brooding. She stopped speaking as if waiting for

him to speak.

The use of other conjunctions is frequent.

Nothing is so dangerous as being too modern. He always dropped in if

passing by their house on a wet night. But, as well as being a man of

strong feeling, he had made himself a good doctor.

The use of the -ing form in this function is found only in literary style and

even there is not frequent.

The -ing form may acquire adverbial meaning even when it is not preceded

by a conjunction. But this use of the -ing form is still less frequent. For example, in

the sentence below the -ing form has the following meanings:

Cause Seeing their uneasiness Mrs Norris softened and

smiled. Knowing he could not go to Alice he tried to telephone her.

Time I know we shall break our necks one night

walking across the field.

Manner They walked by the lake holding hands.

Concession But why did he marry her, feeling as he did about

everything?

Condition Oh, do not go upstairs, Suzy! You '11 only catch a

cold, hanging around the passage.

36

The -ing form may be preceded by the prepositions without, by, instead of,

before, after, on, in, through, from, besides, for, fear of, for the sake of, on the

verge of, except for and some others. The most frequently used of them is without.

It serves to show that an action, which may be logically expected to accompany

the action of the predicate verb, does not take place.

"It is a funny thing", he said, without smiling at all. The bus passed us

'without stopping. I watched her for a little while without being seen.

Then he let us without saying good-bye.

As is seen from the above examples, the -ing form is places after the

predicate verb. It is possible at the beginning of the sentence or between the

subject and the predicate, though possible, is unusual.

Slowly, without turning his head, he pulled himself to a half-sitting

position. Roger, without turning to me, said in a curt, flat and even tone:

"There may possibly be trouble. "

It is noteworthy that we find a synonymous construction in English that is an

-ing form preceded by “not”. But it differs from the -ing form preceded by without

- it does not imply the idea that the action is logically expected. Like any other -ing

form, it simply denotes a second action. Only in this case it is in the negative form.

I returned to the drawing room and stood preoccupied, not noticing

acquaintances about the room, with my back to the fire. We had both sat

for a long time, not speaking, in the quiet. I knew she was not reading.

The gerund preceded by not is typical only a literary style, whereas the -ing

form preceded by without is in common use in literary as well as in spoken

English.

Another frequently occurring preposition, which may precede the -ing form,

is by. In this case the action denoted by the -ing form expresses a means, a method

of performing the action of the predicate verb. It may also indicate the manner in

which the action of he predicate verb is carried out.

You begin learning a language by listening to her sounds.

37

I don't want to distress her by telling her that you have behaved like a

cad.

This -ing form is generally placed after the predicate verb, though its front

position is occasionally possible.

By keeping quite, she might save herself a lot of trouble.

The -ing form introduced by instead of is also in common use. It is

characterized by a clear-cut meaning, owning to the preposition itself. Its position

with regard to the predicate verb is not fixed.

You positively help them instead of hindering them. He bought pictures

instead of buying me the things I -wanted.

The use of the -ing form with other prepositions is less common. -Ing forms

following the prepositions before, after and on express time relations between the

action of the predicate verb and that of the -ing form.

Before shows that the action expressed by the -ing form follows that of the

predicative verb. It is usually placed in post-position to the predicate verb.

He waited a long while before answering. They were sitting there now

before going out to dinner.

After indicates that the action expressed by the -ing form precedes the action

expressed by the predicate verb.

After glancing at his watch he said, in a businesslike tone: "You 've made

me a bit late. "

After hesitating a moment or two, Jigs knocked on the door.

On expresses the same relations as after. But on emphasized the idea of an

immediate succession of the two actions - the action of the predicate verb begins at

the moment the action of the -ing form is accomplished. It is noteworthy that we

find only the -ing forms of terminative verbs here.

On arriving at the college she found it locked.

On getting up in the morning I found a letter on my doorstep.

38

As is seen from above examples, the -ing form introduced by after and on is

usually placed before the predicate verb.

The meaning of the -ing form introduced by in is not so clear-cut. It may be

defined as limiting the sphere of application of the action denoted by the predicate

verb or as indicating a process during which the action of the predicate verb is

performed.

I've done something rather foolish in coming here tonight, I regret it.

In defending myself against this lady, I have a right to use any weapon I

can find

I daresay you have noticed that in speaking to you I have been putting a

very strong constraint on myself.

The place of the -ing form preceded by in is not fixed. The use of-ing forms

introduced by other prepositions is still less frequent. We find various prepositions

here.

It was a lesson he had learned from having seen so many accidents.

I found that besides being a philosopher he was an uncommonly good

writer.

We talked in whisper for fear of disturbing the Smiths.

It should be noted that on the whole the above-described use of the -ing form

is stylistically neutral - it is found in literary as well as in spoken English.

However, care should be taken to remember that -ing forms preceded by after,

before and on are not in common use. Adverbial clauses of time are much more

frequent.

1.4.11.The -ing Form as Part of an Absolute Construction

The subject of the -ing form in above described adverbial functions is the

same person or thing as denoted by the subject of the sentence. But the -ing form

may have a subject of its own with which it forms the so-called absolute

construction.

39

He gave an intimate smile, some of the freshness returning to his face.

His study was a nice room with books lining the walls.

There are two parallel actions in this sentence pattern - one of them is

expressed by the predicate verb, the other by -ing form. Each action has its own

subject.

Absolute constructions may be of two kinds - non-prepositional and

prepositional, introduced by the preposition with. They are both lexically

independent.

The non-prepositional construction and the prepositional construction are

synonymous.

Absolute constructions, while serving to denote a second action parallel to

that of the predicate verb, acquire at the time adverbial meanings and stand in

specific relations to the main part of the sentence.

The most commonly occurring meaning of the absolute construction is to describe

the appearance, the behaviour or inner state characterizing the person denoted by

the subject of the sentence. Non-prepositional (a) as well as prepositional (b)

constructions serve this purpose. This meaning of the absolute construction is

called descriptive circumstances.

(a) Finally she stood back and looked at him, her face radiantly smiling. "But it's

so ridiculous that we don 't know what to do, " William told them, his voice rising

in indignation.

(b) The man was learning forward in his seat, with his head resting in his hands.

He went into the house, with a curious sadness pressing upon him.

Another meaning of the absolute construction is to describe the circumstances

attending the action of the predicate verb serving as its background, as it were.

The function is by far less typical of absolute constructions. It may also be

performed by non-prepositional (a) and prepositional (b) constructions.

(a) Then they were out in the cold night, fresh snow crunching noisily underfoot.

(b) With a hurricane approaching, we prepared to stand a siege.

40

Absolute constructions may acquire the adverbial meaning of course i.e. the

action denoted by the absolute construction indicates the cause of the action

denoted by the predicate verb. This meaning is mainly expressed by non-

prepositional constructions (a), prepositional constructions (b) being uncommon.

(a) Death being contrary to their principles, for Forsytes took precautions against

it.

(b) I can’t write with you standing here.

Finally, absolute constructions can serve as some kind of additional

explanation of the statement made in the main part of the sentence. In this case the

absolute construction acquires more semantic independence - it seems to be on a

par with the predicate verb. This meaning is mainly expresses by the non-

prepositional construction.

There were two serious accidents in the West Country, one involving a

coach and a car.

The three stood in a triangle before the fire, the two men smoking, and

the woman sniffing at an October rose.

Absolute constructions are typical of literary style where their use is quite

extensive. But they are hardly ever used in spoken English.

1.4.12.The -ing Form as Parenthesis

The -ing form as parenthesis tends to become a set phrase. We mainly find

here the verbs to talk and to speak. The -ing form as parenthesis serves to denote

some sort of reservation of the part of the speaker or else it is used as an

introductory phrase, meaning incidentally.

Secrets, generally speaking, are not very well kept nowadays with

reporters and television cameras all around us.

Roughly speaking, it might have been said that youth and hope in women

touched him.

41

Talking about crime, I can lend you rather a good book, as you are

interested in the subject.

Of course, strictly speaking, the excuse was not necessary.

The -ing form as a parenthesis is in most cases placed at the head of the sentence

and, in writing, marked off by a comma.

1.5.Gerund in Romanian and French

In Romanian, gerund shows that the action is performed in parallel with

another action. It has no number, person or tense.

1. When the action performed by a finite verb is in the present, the Gerund has

a present meaning, too. For ex. Lucrând demult împreună, se cunosc bine

(pentru că lucrează împreună demult, se cunosc bine).

2. When the action performed by a finite verb is in the past, the Gerund has a

past meaning. E.g. Revăzând clasa, băncile, catedra, a fost cuprins de

duioşie (pentru că a revăzut... a fost cuprins).

3. When the action performed by a finite verb is in the future, the Gerund has

a future meaning. E.g. Va pleca, poate, bombănind ((în acest timp) va

bombăni). Se vedea luna strălucind (care strălucea).

4. When the Gerund is referred to a noun, it may be the equivalent for an

attributive clause.

5. In general, the Gerund acts like an adverb, that is why it does not agree with

the noun it is referred to (in attributive clauses). It may also refer to a verb

(in non-attributive clauses). Sometimes it is difficult to establish whether the

Gerund refers to a noun or to a verb. E.g. Câinele, simţind primejdia, lătra

cu disperare („simţind” may be the equivalent for an attributive clause

–“care simţea” or for a causal clause –„lătra fiindcă simţea”).

The Gerund in Romanian is formed from the root of a finite verb plus the

ending –ind.-for the verbs with the endings –i, -ia, -chea, -ghea

-ând-for the rest of the verbs

42

The verbs, whose root end in “d”, get instead a “z”. E.g. căzând, şezând,

arzând, ascunzând, văzând, râzând, etc.

In the French language, the Gerund coincides with the form of the present

participle. It can be distinguished due to the particle en. E.g. chantant –en

chantant.

The Gerund comes from the Latin gerundium, but in French it represents a

quite new grammatical category. In Latin, it was a noun, but nowadays it is a

special form of the verb.

In the sentence the Gerund has the function of an adverbial modifier and the

action it performs is, in the most cases, simultaneous with that of the predicate.

However, this simultaneity is not always absolute. It may appear that an

action precedes the other, but the interval between these two actions is generally

very short. E.g.Demain matin, en apprenant que le pape n’est pas mort, ils seront

très contents.

The particle tout underlines the simultaneous character of two actions, one of

which is expressed by Gerund. This particle renders to the sentence a strong shade

of opposition. E.g. Ces pensées l’obsédaient, tout en lui inspirant du dégoût.

Having the function of an adverbial modifier, the Gerund resembles often

with Participle, which can play the same role. Still, it will be a fallacy to consider

as gerund the forms with –ant without the particle en and performing the function

of an adverbial modifier. It cannot be a predicate, an attribute; moreover it is not so

often replaced by participle, fact that proves that the Gerund, being distinct from

participle in form, has its own domain of usage.

43

Chapter 2: Contrastive Analysis of Correspondences

of Gerund in English, Romanian and French

Languages

This chapter is wholly dedicated to the equivalents that English Gerund

acquires while being translated into Romanian and French. We have selected and

analysed about 400 examples with Gerund from the syntactical point of view, from

a literary work because such piece of writing represents a good source of various

situations and where Gerund appears to have almost all the syntactical functions of

the sentence. The aim of the analysis is to observe how the English Gerund is

translated into Romanian and French. For this purpose we have picked up the

examples from the novel “Robinson Crusoe” written by Daniel Defoe in order to

establish a relation between the English Gerund and its equivalents in the

languages mentioned above by means of confrontation among the three languages.

According to the examples got from “Robinson Crusoe”, we may assert that the

English Gerund can be translated into Romanian and French as follows:

2.1. English Gerund Corresponding to Verbals in Romanian and French

2.1.1. Gerund

He started up growling at first, but finding his leg broke, fell down

again.

S-a ridicat urlând, dar simţindu-şi laba ruptă, căzu.

Il tressaillit d’abord en grondant...

We have noticed that to the English Gerund growling corresponds a Gerund

both in Romanian and French and namely urlând and en grondant. The English

example is one of the few English Gerunds used without a preposition.

44

...which by keeping off at sea, to avoid the indraft...

… unde speram, ieşind în larg, să evităm curenţii Golfului Mexic.

...en gardant la haute mer pour éviter l’entrée...

The Gerund has the syntactical function of an adverbial modifier of manner

and this function is preserved in all the compared languages and indicates that the

action expressed by the Gerund is prior to the action of the finite verb.

My business was to hold my breath, and raise myself upon the water,

and so, by swimming, to preserve my breathing...

Tot ce puteam face era să mă ridic deasupra apei şi, înotând, să-mi păstrez

suflul...

Ma seule ressource était de retenir mon haleine, et de m’élever au-dessus de

l’eau et en surnageant ainsi de préserver ma respiration...

In this case the Gerund, having in the three languages the function of

adverbial modifier of manner, denotes simultaneity in relation to the action of the

finite form of the verb in the sentence.

For if I had lost it by crossing and re-crossing the line…

Nu ar fi fost posibil ca, trecând de două ori ecuatorul, să pierd mai mult de o zi...

Si j’avais commis cette erreur en traçant et retraçant la même ligne...

The indefinite Gerund denotes an action that is simultaneous to that of the

predicate verb. The syntactical function of an adverbial modifier of manner

coincides in the three languages.

I could not miss finding my first dwelling by viewing the country.

Puteam să mă orientez spre casă, aruncându-mi privirile...

...je ne pourrais manquer de retrouver ma première demeure en explorant le

pays...

45

The English Gerund is preceded by the preposition “by” and has the function

of an adverbial modifier of manner. It is translated into Romanian and French by

Gerund with the same syntactical function.

...by going a little way about, I saw I might come undiscovered...

Am văzut că, făcând un mic ocol, aş fi putut ajunge acolo fără să fiu

observat...

Je vis qu’en faisant un petit détour, je pourrais y parvenir sans être

découvert...

The action of the Gerund is prior to that of the finite verb in the sentences.

The choice of placing Gerund before the main clause indicates on a certain

emphasis put on the method by which the hero might come undiscovered. The

syntactical function is identical for the three languages –adverbial modifier of

manner.

...to comfort her in her poverty, by telling her she should have a

further supply.

...asigurând-o că nu va duce lipsă de nimic...

...de la consoler de sa pauvreté, en lui donnant l’assurance qu’elle aura de

nouveaux secours.

The action expressed by the Gerund is simultaneous with the action of the

predicate verb. The English Gerund coincides with the Romanian and French

Gerund. The syntactical function coincides as well.

...my mind being entirely composed by resigning to the will of God...

...lăsându-mă cu totul în mâna Lui...

...mon esprit s’était calmé en se résignant à la volonté de Dieu...

…that in laying things open to him, I really informed and instructed

myself in many things …

46

Vorbind şi discutând deschis despre toate, am ajuns să învăţ şi eu multe...

...je pense qu’en lui exposant les choses d’une manière évidente, je

m’instruisis moi-même...

Besides their morphological coincidence, the examples given above have the

same syntactical function in their sentences –adverbial modifier of manner –in all

the three compared languages. The Romanian variant of the last example, still, is

an exception; Gerund there may be analysed as adverbial modifier of time because

it highlights the simultaneity of the action of the Gerund with the action of the

finite verb. We have noticed a strong relation between the English preposition “by”

and the French particle “en”. From the whole number of examples picked up from

the book almost all English gerunds preceded by the preposition “by” are

translated into French as gerund, too.

The next day, in searching the woods, I found a tree...

Colindând prin pădure, găsii un pom...

En cherchant dans les bois, je trouvai un arbre...

The action of the Gerund is labeled as being prior to the action of the finite

form of the verb. It functions as an adverbial modifier of time, being rendered in

Romanian and French by Gerund with the same syntactical function.

I was surprised one morning early, with seeing no less than five

canoes all on shore...

Într-o dimineaţă am fost surprins, văzând nu mai puţin de cinci bărci la ţărm.

...je fus surpris un matin, en ne voyant pas moins de cinq canots...

Upon seeing the boat, Friday stood musing...

Văzând barca, Vineri a rămas îngândurat...

En apercevant cette embarcation, Vendredi demeura...

47

In this case we also have the syntactical function of an adverbial modifier, but

it is already of time. This idea is given by the prepositions that precede the gerunds

and which express the idea of an immediate succession of two actions. The English

Gerund is translated into Romanian and French by a Gerund with the same

syntactical function.

After analysing the above examples with Gerund translated into Romanian

and French as Gerund we may state that in all the cases the syntactical function of

the English Gerund coincides with those of Gerund in Romanian and French. In

these sentences prevails Gerund with the function of adverbial modifier of manner.

2.1.2. Gerund and Infinitive

She was first staved by dashing against the ship’s rudder…

Aceasta se zdrobise lovindu-se de cârma noastră...

Il s’était défoncé à force de heurter contre le gouvernail...

With inexpressible hacking and hewing, I reduced both sides of it …

...după nesfârşită trudă, cioplind şi ciocănind, ajungeam să-l reduc...

...à force de hacher et de tailler, je réduisis les deux cotes...

The English Gerund is translated into Romanian as Gerund and into French –

as Infinitive, having, in the first two languages the function of adverbial modifier

of manner and of indirect object in the last language. In both cases the action

expressed by the Gerund is prior to the action of the finite form of the verb as it

shows the means by which a certain result was achieved.

I worked very hard in carrying all my goods to my new habitation.

Am lucrat din greu, aducându-mi toate lucrurile în noua mea locuinţă.

J’ai travaillé rudement à transporter tous mes bagages...

48

The eating of grapes killed several of our Englishmen by throwing

them into fluxes and fevers.

...văzusem murind de dizinterie şi de febră pe câţiva dintre englezi, care

mâncaseră struguri în exces.

Je me ressouvenais d’avoir vu mourir plusieurs de nos anglais pour avoir

gagné la fièvre et de ténesmes...

The syntactical function of the English Gerund is an adverbial modifier of

manner and it is translated into Romanian also by a Gerund functioning as

adverbial modifier of manner, while in French it is translated as Infinitive with its

function of adverbial modifier of purpose and of cause respectively. Speaking

about the action expressed by Gerund, we may assert that it is, in the first case,

simultaneous and, in the second, it is prior to the action of the finite verb form.

…and after going something farther than I had gone the day before, I

found the brook and savannas began to cease.

...înaintând puţin mai mult ca în ajun, văzui că râul şi pajiştile nu se

întindeau mai departe.

...après m’être avancé un peu plus, je vis que le ruisseau et les savanes ne

s’étendaient pas au- delà...

The function of adverbial modifier of time coincides in the three languages

being expressed, in English and French, by the prepositions “by” and “après”,

stressing the fact that the action of the gerund is prior to the action of the predicate.

In the Romanian sentence the preposition lacks, but the meaning of priority is

present as well.

I began to think of making some provisions...

M-am gândit să le redau puterile pregătind o mâncare bună.

Je songeai de faire quelques provisions...

49

The function of prepositional object of the English Gerund is transformed in

an adverbial modifier of manner into Romanian and in an indirect object into

French.

But I was not perfectly easy at lying so open…

Apoi, un timp am fost neliniştit, văzându-mă expus...

Je n’étais pas très aise de me voir ainsi à découvert.

The English Gerund, functioning as a prepositional object, is translated into

Romanian as a Gerund performing the function of an adverbial modifier of manner

and into French as Infinitive with the function of indirect object. The action of the

Gerund coincides with that of the finite form of the verb.

…making a pretty large fire for cooking my meat, I found a piece…

S-a întâmplat că, prăjind o bucată de carne, să găsesc cioburi de oală...

...ayant fait un assez grand feu pour rôtir la viande...

The English Gerund functions in this sentence as a prepositional object. This

sentence presents the Infinitive performing the function of adverbial modifier of

purpose, while the Romanian Gerund functions as adverbial modifier of manner.

In this subgroup the predominant function is that of adverbial modifier with

its varieties. The degree of coincidence is lower if compared with the previous

subgroup; still there are sentences that have the same syntactical function in the

three languages. The majority of the examples present the action of the Gerund as

being prior to that of the finite form of the verb.

2.1.3. Infinitive

Had a prospect of raising my fortunes...

Aveam posibilitatea de a ajunge la o situaţie materială înfloritoare...

...tu as l’assurance de faire ta fortune...

50

The syntactical function of the English Gerund of raising, that is the attribute,

is conditioned by the presence of the preposition “of” and coincides in Romanian

and French, but it is translated into these languages by means of Infinitive, namely

de a ajunge and de faire.

...the wild and indigested notion of raising my fortune...

...gândul bizar şi periculos de a-mi căuta norocul...

...l’idée extravagante et indéterminée de faire fortune...

The Gerund is translated into the other two languages by Infinitive with the

same syntactical function –attribute.

...my foolish inclination of wandering...

...pasiunii mele de a cutreiera lumea...

...à ma folle inclination de courir le monde...

The syntactical function is identical in the three languages. It accomplishes

the function of an attribute, but the English Gerund is rendered into Romanian and

French by Infinitive.

...but hope of furnishing myself with necessaries encouraged me...

Dorinţa de a-mi procura cele necesare mă învăţă cum să procedez...

Mais l’espérance de me procurer le nécessaire me poussait à faire bien au-

delà...

As in the previous examples, the function of the underlined words remains

the same in the three compared languages –attribute.

My mind was filled with thoughts of revenge and of bloody putting to

sword twenty or thirty of them...

...eram mânat de dorinţa de a ucide vreo 20, 30.

51

...j’étais rempli des sentiments de vengeance, et de l’idée d’en passer vingt

ou trente au fil de l’épée...

The Romanian and French equivalent for the English Gerund is the Infinitive.

It is to be noticed that the Gerund is separated from its preposition by an

intensifier, which tends to characterize our example as a prepositional object.

...the dread and terror of falling into the hands of savages...

Mă urmărea groaza de a cădea în mâinile canibalilor.

...car la crainte et la frayeur de tomber entre les mains de sauvages...

The English Gerund is translated into Romanian and French as Infinitive,

while the syntactical function (the attribute) is identical in the three languages.

I never had the least encouraging prospect of putting it in practice.

...n-aveam nici cea mai mică şansă de a-mi pune planul în aplicare.

...je n’entrevis jamais la moindre chance favorable de le réaliser.

The syntactical function of this example remains unchanged in all its variants,

while the morphological situation is different –the English Gerund is rendered by

Infinitive in the other two languages.

The fear of being swallowed up alive made me that I never slept in

quiet...

Teama de a nu fi îngropat de viu nu-mi dădea linişte ca să pot dormi

înăuntru...

La crainte d’être englouti vivant m’empêchait de dormir...

Speaking about the syntactical function of the underlined words in the above

sentences, we may affirm that there is practically an absolute coincidence in the

three compared languages because all the analysed words have the function of an

attribute, but the English Gerund is translated into Romanian and French by means

52

of Infinitive. In the majority of cases, the Gerund is preceded by the preposition

“of”, which is responsible for attributing namely this syntactical function.

...without asking God’s blessing, or my father’s, I went on board of a

ship bound to London.

...fără a le cere binecuvântarea, mă urcai la bordul corabiei care pleca la

Londra.

...sans demander la bénédiction de Dieu ou de mon père, j’allai...

In this example we notice that the syntactical function of the Gerund

coincides with that of the Infinitive in Romanian and French. The function is

adverbial modifier of manner.

I should have my equal share of the Negroes without providing any

part of the stock.

...îmi făgăduiau o parte egală ca a lor, fără a mai plăti nimic pentru această

întreprindere.

...j’aurais ma portion contingente de nègres sans fournir ma quote-part

d’argent.

The English Gerund expresses an action that is simultaneous to the action of

the finite form of the verb in the future. It is rendered into Romanian and French

by Infinitive, but its function in the sentence –adverbial modifier of manner –is

valid for the other two languages, too.

I pleased myself with the design, without determining...

Lucrai ca un nebun , fără a şti dacă sânt în stare...

Je me complaisais dans ce dessein sans déterminer si j’étais capable...

This sentence has a similar situation as the previous example has, that is the

syntactical function is adverbial modifier of manner and the English Gerund is

translated into the two other languages as Infinitive.

53

...to write down only the most remarkable events of my life, without

continuing a daily memorandum...

...mulţumindu-mă să scriu numai întâmplările cele mai însemnate, fără a

mai nota toate nimicurile zilnice.

...et de noter seulement les évènements les plus remarquables de ma vie, sans

continuer un mémorandum journalier...

In this case we deal with another function that prevails –adverbial modifier of

manner and which is identical in all three languages. The English Gerund is also

translated by Infinitive into French and into Romanian. In these sentences the

preposition “without” suggests us the syntactic function and shows that the action,

which is expected to accompany the action of the predicate verb, does not take

place. It is worth mentioning the relation, namely the absolute equivalence, of a

preposition in the three languages. The English preposition “without” corresponds

to the Romanian “fără” and to the French “sans”.

...for the ship remained there in providing his loading...

...acesta rămase trei luni pentru a-şi încărca vasul...

...son navire demeura environ trois mois à faire son chargement...

According to the type of relation between the action of the Gerund and that of

the finite verb, we have in this example simultaneity, since the action denoted by

Gerund coincides with that of the predicate verb. The syntactical function is unique

for all the variants –adverbial modifier of manner. In the English sentence it is

conditioned by the preposition “in”, which is one of the indicators of this function.

This time I spent in putting all my things n order within doors.

Mi-am petrecut timpul pentru a-mi aranja lucrurile în casă.

Je passai ce temps à mettre mes effets en ordre...

54

Adverbial modifier of manner used for the English Gerund changes into a

modifier of purpose, while the Gerund is replaced by an Infinitive in both

Romanian and French languages.

My thoughts were now wholly employed about securing myself...

Urma să mă hotărăsc asupra modalităţii de a mă pune la adăpost...

Mon esprit ne s’occupa plus qu’à chercher les moyens de me mettre en

sûreté...

The Gerund with the function of the prepositional object is translated as

Infinitive functioning as an attribute.

It was to no purpose to think of reaching to their own ship...

Nu putea fi vorba de a ajunge bastimentul...

Il eut inutile de prétendre atteindre leur bâtiment...

They were such as mere very handy and convenient for my laying

things up in, or fetching things home in.

...se dovedeau folositoare pentru a aşeza în ele multe lucruri şi a le

transporta.

...ne laissaient pas de m’être fort commodes pour entreposer bien des choses

et en transporter d’autres a la maison...

In these two cases the function coincides as the prepositional object is

considered to be an equivalent for the indirect object, while morphologically, the

English Gerund does not have equivalents in Romanian and French, being

translated as Infinitive.

I could not forbear getting up to the top of a little mountain...

Nu mi-am putut înfrânge dorinţa de a mă urca în vârful unui deal...

Je ne pouvais encore m’empêcher de gravir sur le sommet...

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The indefinite Gerund performing the function of the direct object is

rendered by Infinitives which function as attribute, in the Romanian variant, and as

an indirect object in the French example.

While analysing the Gerund in English and its translation into Romanian and

French, we may state that Gerund gets as an equivalent the Infinitive in the

scientific, elevated style. The syntactical function in most cases corresponds, if not

in all three languages, at least in two of them. Exception makes the function of

prepositional object, which is equivalent to the indirect object in Romanian and

French.

2.1.4. Participle

…and that my father, after showing a great concern at it, said to her

with a sigh…

...am aflat mai târziu că i-a vorbit tatei care, pătruns de durere, suspinase...

...elle rapporta tout à mon père, qui, profondément affecté, lui dit...

The English Gerund functions in the sentence as adverbial modifier of time,

this being determined by the preposition “after”, which precedes the Gerund. It is

translated into Romanian and French by Participle, having the function of an

adverbial modifier of manner. Due to the preposition “after”, the Gerund expresses

that its action is prior to the action of the finite form of the verb.

I left my lamp burning in the cave...

Lăsai lampa aprinsă şi plecai să mă culc.

...laissant ma lampe allumée dans ma grotte...

The syntactical function of adverbial modifier of manner is identical for the

three languages, but the gerund is translated by means of Participle.

…or whether, on my going thither, I should meet with no obstruction

to my possessing my just right in the moiety.

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...şi dacă, sosit acolo, voi întâmpina greutăţi pentru a intra în posesia

bunurilor mele.

...si, allant sur les lieux, je ne rencontrerais pas d’obstacles pour rentrer

dans mes droits à la moitié.

This group is characterized by the coincidence of syntactical functions, since

we have here only the adverbial modifier. On the morphological level we have to

say that the English Gerund is translated into the two other languages as Participle.

I had been fed even by miracle, even as great as that of feeding Elijah

by ravens.

...hrănit în chip la fel de minunat ca şi prorocul Ilie.

...par un miracle aussi grand que celui d’Elie nourri par les corbeaux.

Here, the syntactical function is the attribute and it also coincides with the

examples of the other languages, but the Gerund does not have an equivalent,

being translated into other two languages by Participle.

2.1.5. Participle and Gerund

…and there fastened and moored her by sticking my two broken oars

into the ground…

...unde am înţepenit-o cu ajutorul a doi pari înfipţi în pământ...

...ou je l’attachai ou amarrai en fichant dans la terre mes deux rames...

The action denoted by the English Gerund is prior to that of the finite form of

the verb. The syntactical function is the same for English and French variants –

adverbial modifier of manner, while in Romanian it is rendered as an attribute. On

the morphological level we have a similar situation: the English Gerund has an

equivalent in French, while in Romanian it is translated by means of Participle.

Thus I lived mighty comfortably, my mind being entirely composed by

resigning to the will of God…

57

Trăiam destul de confortabil, supus voinţei lui Dumnezeu...

Mon esprit s’était calmé en se résignant à la volonté de Dieu...

The function in the sentence is conditioned by the preposition “by”, which

points to an adverbial modifier of manner. This function is valid for other

languages, too. The English Gerund is translated into Romanian by Participle,

while into French it is also Gerund.

I thickened my wall with continual bringing earth out of my cave…

Astfel obţinusem un perete interior dublu, căptuşit la bază cu pământul scos

din grotă.

Du côté extérieur je l’épaissis de dix pieds, en amoncelant conte toute la

terre...

In this case, the adverbial modifier is imposed in the English sentence by the

preposition “with”. This function is preserved only in French, because in

Romanian the underlined word, which is the semantic equivalent of the English

Gerund, performs the function of an attribute. The relation between the action of

the Gerund and that of the finite form of the predicate verb is that of priority.

Adverbial modifier of manner is, in the most of the cases, the only

syntactical function in these three sentences in all the three languages.

2.2.English Gerund Corresponding to Noun in Romanian and French

The sixth day of our being at sea…

În a şasea zi a drumului pe mare...

Le sixième jour de notre traversée

In this sentence the Gerund has the function of an attribute, being preceded

by the preposition “of” and modified by a possessive pronoun. It is translated into

Romanian and French by noun with the function of an attribute.

Sometimes I changed my hours of hunting and working…

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Câteodată, schimbam orele de vânătoare cu cele de muncă...

Je changeais mes heures de travail et de la chasse...

The syntactical function of the Gerund remains the same in the next two

sentences, but the Gerund is translated by means of noun.

…and no more prospect of being delivered…

...şi nu am mai multă nădejde de scăpare...

...je n’entrevoyais pas plus ma délivrance...

The English Gerund is rendered in Romanian and French by nouns; still the

syntactical function –the attribute –is preserved in all the three languages.

...was taken up in the weighty affair of making a cage...

...am fost preocupat de realizarea unei lucrări importante: colivia pentru

papagalul meu Poll

...fut absorbée par une affaire importante, la fabrication d’une cage...

The English Gerund has the function of an attribute and serves to explain its

head –noun “affair”. It is introduced into Romanian and French by nouns with the

same syntactical function.

I began to order my times of work, of going out...

...m-am hotărât să-mi împart timpul în ore de muncă, ore de vânat...

Je commençai à régler mon temps de travail et de sortie...

In these sentences the Gerund has the function of attribute, being preceded by

the preposition “of” and is translated by noun with the same syntactical function.

My father had given me a competent share of learning…

Tata încercase să-mi ofere o creştere aleasă...

Mon père m’avait donné tout la somme de savoir…

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The syntactical function of the English Gerund is prepositional object. Its

position is after the noun it determines. The Romanian and French variants for it

are the nouns functioning as indirect object.

...we heard such dreadful noises of barking, roaring and howling of

wild creatures…

...auzirăm zgomote înspăimântătoare, probabil urlete şi răgete de animale

sălbatice...

...nous entendîmes un si épouvantable bruit d’aboiement, de hurlement et de

rugissement de bêtes farouches...

The English Gerunds have the syntactical function of prepositional object and

are translated as nouns with the function of indirect object. The Romanian nouns is

in the plural form.

Here we have a various but stable section from the syntactical point of view

since the English Gerund, Romanian and French nouns, have a syntactical function

of their own; attribute, direct and indirect object respectively.

I found he was a most dexterous fellow at managing it...

Vineri era destul de îndemânatic la conducerea bărcii...

Je vis que c’était un compagnon fort a droit à la manœuvre...

...for otherwise I knew not how I should lose a day out of my

reckoning in the days of the week…

...căci altfel nu pricep cum m-am încurcat în socoteala calendarului meu...

Je ne sais comment j’aurais pu oublier une journée dans mon calcul...

In this case the situation is opposite to the previous one, since the examples

from each sentence have the function of an indirect object, if it is about Romanian

or French noun, or prepositional object, in the case of the English Gerund.

60

I spent this day in covering and securing the goods, which I have

saved…

Am fost preocupat de punerea la adăpost a avutului...

Je passai ce jour-là à mettre à l’abri les effets...

The preposition “in” suggests us that it is about an adverbial modifier of

manner. The other two variants are adverbial modifiers of place, also being

determined by the preposition that precedes them.

After I got to the shore and had escaped drowning…

Scăpat de înec...

...après avoir échappé à la mort...

In this example we have the following functions: compound verbal predicate

for the English Gerund and indirect object for the other two languages.

And it is scarce credible what inexpressible labour everything was

done with, especially bringing piles out of the woods, and driving them into the

ground…

Este greu de imaginat şi de descris cât efort a necesitat aceasta, în special

transportul parilor din pădure şi fixarea lor în pământ.

Il est aussi difficile de croire que d’exprimer la peine que me coûta chaque

chose, surtout le transport des pieux depuis les bois, et leur enfoncement dans le

sol...

The English Gerund is rendered by a noun into Romanian and French. The

function of direct object is preserved in all the three languages.

...but it was so tame with being hungry...

Foamea îl slăbise mult şi mă urma ca un câine...

...mais il était si maté par l’inanition...

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The syntactical function of the English Gerund coincides only with that of

the French example and it is adverbial modifier of cause. The Romanian noun has

the function of a subject.

As we have seen from the above examples, the English Gerund has not a

perfect equivalent. It is translated by means of the noun with different functions in

the sentence. In this subgroup we cannot speak about a predominant syntactical

function as we have here almost all the functions of a sentence. It is to be

mentioned that the absolute coincidence of the functions is absent, except two or

three examples. However, we may say that there are some relations established

among the functions in the three languages. The direct object is identical in all the

languages; the function of prepositional object in English corresponds to indirect

object in Romanian and French. In some cases the attribute also coincides in the

three languages, in other cases it is equivalent to direct or indirect object in the

other two languages.

2.3.English Gerund Translated by Past Tenses and Infinitive

2.3.1. Imperfect –Infinitive

I improved myself in all mechanic exercises, which my necessities put

me upon applying myself...

Am devenit priceput în meşteşuguri unde cerinţele mă solicitau...

...je me perfectionnai dans touts les travaux mécaniques auxquels mes

besoins me forçaient de m’appliquer.

The prepositional object is the function of the Gerund and has its equivalent

in French the indirect object, which is the function of the Infinitive. The English

Gerund has the meaning of a repeated action and is translated into Romanian as a

verb, indicative mood, Imperfect.

... I had all that I was now capable of enjoying.

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...aveam tot ceea ce mă putea bucura...

...j’avais alors tout ce dont j’étais capable de jouir...

The function of the English Gerund –prepositional object –corresponds only

to the French variant –indirect object. The Romanian example is totally different

since it does not function as a verbal anymore, but as a finite form of the verb and

it will perform the function of a predicate.

I had not the least thought or intention or desire of undertaking it.

Gândurile acestea nu le împărtăşeam şi eu.

Je n’avais pas le moindre désir, la moindre intention ou envie

d’entreprendre.

The syntactical function of the Gerund is the same as that of the French

Infinitive –attribute. The situation of the Romanian variant is the same as in the

previous example.

... but which occurred naturally to my mind upon my searching into

them for the information of this poor savage.

Dar acum, când le căutam, mi-aduceam aminte de ele şi de toate

cercetările.

...quand je me pris à les fouiller pour l’enseignement de ce pauvre sauvage...

As in the previous examples, there is a correspondence between the English

Gerund and French Infinitive concerning the syntactical function –adverbial

modifier of time. The Romanian example goes separately as it is translated by a

verb, indicative mood, imperfect, which functions as a predicate.

I kept my piece in my hand still without firing...

Deşi aveam puşca încărcată, nu trăgeam...

Je tenais mon fusil à la main sans tirer...

The English Gerund performs the action of an adverbial modifier of time and

respectively of manner, this function being valid for the French Infinitive, too. Into

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Romanian it is translated as verb, indicative mood, Imperfect, which functions as

predicate.

While analysing the above sentences, we may observe that the English

Gerund is equivalent with the French Infinitive from the point of view of

syntactical function. Having different functions, it is always translated into

Romanian as verb, Imperfect and it always functions as predicate in the sentence.

2.3.2. Perfectul Simplu –Infinitive

I made forward for about eleven days more, without offering to go

near the shore.

Îmi urmai drumul spre sud aproape unsprezece zile, în care timp nu mă mai

gândii să mă apropii de uscat.

...sans m’approcher du rivage, je continuai ma course...

The English Gerund and the French Infinitive have the function of an

adverbial modifier of manner determined by the preposition “without” and “sans”

respectively. They are translated into Romanian as verb, indicative mood, Perfectul

Simplu.

I continued for near a year after this; and so far I was from desiring

an occasion for falling upon those wretches...

Aproape un an întreg căutai aşa de puţin mijlocul de a ataca pe sălbatici...

J’étais si loin de rechercher l’occasion de tomber sur les sauvages...

The relation prepositional object –indirect object is established between the

functions of the English Gerund and of the French Infinitive. The Romanian

equivalent is a finite form of the verb in the indicative mood, Perfectul Simplu,

which have the syntactical function of a predicate.

I was surprised with seeing a light of some fire upon the shore...

Observai, surprins, lumina ce venea de la un foc şi care se zărea pe coastă...

...je fus surpris de voir la lueur d’un feu sur le rivage...

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The situation is repeated: it is the function of the Gerund and of the Infinitive

that have changed. Here it is prepositional object and indirect object.

After analysing the examples we may state that the English Gerund

corresponds in syntactical function only to the French Infinitive. Into Romanian it

is translated differently, namely as verb, indicative mood, Perfectul Simplu, which

always acts as a predicate. It is also noteworthy that the action expressed by the

underlined words comprises time indication and namely it is prior to the action of

the finite verb.

2.3.3. Perfectul Compus –Infinitive

I spent great part of this day in perplexing myself...

Aceste gânduri triste m-au copleşit întreaga zi.

Je passai une grande partie de la journée à tourmenter mon âme...

The English Gerund is rendered into Romanian by a finite form of the verb

and into French by Infinitive.

... I was going to give thanks to God for bringing me to this place.

Mă pregăteam să-i mulţumesc lui Dumnezeu că m-a adus aici...

...j’allais remercier Dieu de m’avoir relégué en ce lieu.

It is noticed the coincidence between the English Gerund and the French

Infinitive concerning the syntactical function, which is adverbial modifier of

manner and of cause. The Romanian variant is represented by a verb, indicative

mood, Perfectul Compus that functions as predicate in the sentence.

2.3.4. Mai Mult ca Perfectul –Infinitive

...but with much chopping and cutting knotty and hard wood, they

were all full of notches...

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Din cauză că cioplisem buturugi multe şi noduroase, securile erau mai toate

tocite...

... à force d’avoir coupé et taillé des bois durs et noueux, elles étaient

émoussées et ébréchées.

The indefinite Gerund has the syntactical function of an adverbial modifier of

cause and indicates an action, which precedes the action expressed by the predicate

verb. It is translated into French as an Infinitive with the same function, while in

Romanian it stands for a finite verb, indicative mood, Mai Mult ca Perfectul,

which functions as a predicate.

...my soul blessed God for directing my friend... and for assisting me.

...fără să binecuvântez mâna Domnului care făcuse...şi tot mâna Lui

ajutase...

...mon âme ne bénit pas Dieu d’avoir inspiré la pensée à mon ami, et d’avoir

permis...

The function of adverbial modifier of reason of the English Gerund is

determined by the preposition “for”. The action expressed by the Gerund is prior to

that of the finite form of the verb. It is translated into French and Romanian by

Infinitive and verb in indicative mood, Mai Mult ca Perfectul respectively.

...being fatigued with rowing or paddling...and with walking...

...fiind foarte obosit –vâslisem toată dimineaţa şi umblasem...

...fatigué d’avoir ramé ou pagayé... et marché...

The Gerund and the Infinitive have a unique function –adverbial modifier of

cause, while the Romanian Mai Mult ca Perfectul functions as predicate. The

action of the Gerund precedes the action of the finite form of the verb, which

means that it is anterior to the latter.

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2.4. Specific Ways of Translating the English Gerund

2.4.1. Noun and Infinitive

When again I was shipwrecked, ruined, and in danger of drowning on

this island…

Naufragiat din nou şi în primejdie de moarte...

Après mon second naufrage, après que j’eus été ruiné et en danger de périr...

In these sentences the English Gerund has the function of attribute preceded

by the preposition “of” and serves to explain the meaning of its head –noun. It is

translated into Romanian by noun and into French by Infinitive, but the syntactical

function remains unchanged.

I resolved to employ all my study and hours of working to accomplish

this great work of providing myself with corn and bread.

Am decis să-mi întrebuinţez toate orele de lucru pentru pregătirea celor

necesare în vederea obţinerii făinii şi pâinii.

...de consacrer toutes mes heures de travail à accomplir le grand œuvre de

me pourvoir de blé et pain.

The syntactical function of the English Gerund –the attribute –is valid for the

Romanian and French variants as well, even though it is translated by means of

noun and Infinitive respectively. The Gerund serves to explain the meaning of its

head –noun “work”.

This wholly diverted my thoughts from the design of removing my

habitation.

Această întâmplare îmi alungă gândul de la mutat...

Ceci vint de me distraire totalement de mon dessein de changer d’habitation.

The English Gerund preceded by the preposition “of” serves to explain the

meaning of its head –noun “design”.

67

...but I saw the boat draw near the shore as if they looked for the

convenience of landing.

...am zărit o barcă care se apropia de ţărm, căutând un loc potrivit pentru

acostare.

... l’embarcation s’approchait du rivage comme si elle cherchait une crique

pour accoster la terre commodément.

Here we may notice the absence of equivalents both morphological and

syntactical because the English Gerund is rendered into Romanian and French by

noun and Infinitive respectively. The attribute from the English example is

transformed into indirect object in the other two languages.

I employed myself in planting my second rows of stakes…

Toată vara am muncit la întărirea gardului...

Je me suis occupé tout l’été à planter mes seconds rangs de palis...

Being preceded by a preposition, the Gerund acquires the function of a

prepositional object, having its equivalent in Romanian and French –indirect

object. It stands after the verb predicate “employed”, determining it.

...the things necessary in providing, producing, curing, dressing,

making and finishing this one article of bread.

...fapte mărunte ce servesc la procurarea, pregătirea, facerea şi terminarea

unui singur lucru: pâinea.

...des petits objets nécessaires pour entreprendre, produire, soigner,

préparer, faire et achever ce seul article : le pain.

The English Gerunds have verbal characteristics with the function of

prepositional object. It is translated into Romanian as verbal noun and into French

–as Infinitive with the same syntactical function –indirect object.

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2.4.2. Conditional and Infinitive

...I should now tremble at the very apprehensions of seeing a man...

Acum tremuram numai la gândul că aş putea întâlni o fiinţă omenească!

...je tremblais à la seule idée de voir un homme...

The English Gerund of seeing is rendered in French by the Infinitive de voir

and in Romanian –by the verb in the conditional mood aş putea întâlni. The

Gerund, being preceded by the preposition “of”, performs the function of attribute,

which is preserved into French. The Gerund serves to explain its head –noun

“apprehensions”. The function of the Romanian variant is a predicate.

...being still jealous of my being attacked by somebody...

...întrucât încă mi-era teamă c-aş putea fi atacat.

...j’avais toujours quelque crainte d’être attaqué...

In these sentences the Gerund has no equivalents: neither morphological nor

syntactical, as its function of prepositional object is transformed, in French, into

attribute and, in Romanian, in a verb predicate, conditional mood. It is noteworthy

that the passive voice is preserved in all the three examples.

...and out of danger of being heard or discovered, or finding their way

out of the woods...

...de unde nu puteau fi văzuţi, auziţi şi nici n-ar fi putut găsi drumul prin

pădure...

...ou ils étaient assez éloignés et hors de toute possibilité d’être entendus ou

découverts, ou de trouver leur chemin pour sortir des bois...

The Gerund, used to express a future action, functions as an attribute is

translated into French as Infinitive with the same function and into Romanian as a

Verb, conditional mood with the function of a predicate. It is noteworthy the fact

69

that the future meaning from the English sentence is preserved in the Romanian

translation.

2.4.3. Conjunctiv (Subjunctive) and Infinitive

...and had a great mind to venture out, in hopes of reaching thither...

...fiind ispitit să mă îndrept într-acolo.

...dans l’espoir de l’atteindre...

The Gerund accomplishes the function of attribute, this function remaining

unchanged with the French Infinitive. The Romanian equivalent is a verb,

subjunctive mood.

...in hopes of seeing whereabouts in the world we were...

Ieşisem să văd în ce parte a lumii ne aflam...

...dans l’espoir de reconnaître en quel endroit du monde nous étions...

The Gerund functions as an attribute and serves to explain the meaning of its

head –noun “hopes”. The syntactical function of the French Infinitive coincides

with that of the English Gerund, while the Romanian variant is a verb in

subjunctive mood.

...neither did I see any prospect before me but that of perishing with

hunger...

...nu mă aştepta altceva decât să mor de foame...

je n’avais non plus d’autre perspective que celle de mourir de faim...

The Gerund has the function of attribute being preceded by the preposition

“of”. It is translated into French as Infinitive with the same function, while into

Romanian it is rendered by a verb, subjunctive mood, and active voice.

...I had not heart enough to go over my wall again, for fear of being

buried alive...

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Frica să nu fiu îngropat între dărâmături mă copleşea.

...je n’osais pas encore de repasser par-dessus ma muraille, de peur d’être

enterré tout vif...

The Gerund serves to explain the meaning of its head – noun “fear”. The rest

remains unchanged.

I might run the same risk of being driven down the stream, and carried

by the island, as I had been before and of being carried away from it.

...eram tot atât de ameninţat să fiu târât spre coastă în loc să fiu dus departe

spre larg.

...je pouvais courir le même risque d’être drossé et emporté loin de l’île...

These sentences differ from the above ones just by the fact that the underlined

words are in the passive voice, which is present in all the three languages. The

function in the sentence is the same as in the previous examples.

...lying at home longer than usual without fitting out his ship...

...banii nefiindu-i suficienţi să-şi refacă echipajul...

Mon patron restant alors plus longtemps que de coutume sans armer son

vaisseau...

The English Gerund has the same function as the French Infinitive, that is

adverbial modifier of manner. It is translated into Romanian by means of a verb,

subjunctive mood functioning as predicate.

No wild creature could come at me without waking me.

...pentru ca animalele sălbatice să nu se poată apropia de mine fără să mă

trezească.

...pour que les bêtes farouches ne pussent venir à moi sans m’ éveiller.

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The adverbial modifier of manner is valid for both English and French

languages as the function of the Gerund and Infinitive respectively. The Romanian

equivalent is a verb, subjunctive mood functioning as predicate.

...for I seldom gave anything over without accomplishing it...

...nu mi se întâmplase niciodată să nu duc la bun sfârşit...

...car j’abandonnais rarement une chose avant de l’avoir accomplie...

The English Gerund does not have an equivalent; neither morphological nor

syntactical, since its function is adverbial modifier of manner and is translated into

Romanian as verb, subjunctive mood, with the function of predicate and into

French –by Infinitive functioning as an adverbial modifier of time.

We could not so much as hope to have the ship hold many minutes

without breaking in pieces...

Şi nu speram ca vasul s-o ducă mult fără să se sfărâme...

...le navire demeurerait quelques minutes sans se briser en morceaux...

...as I made it without considering beforehand...

...o făcusem fără să mă gândesc înainte...

...que j’avais entrepris sans considérer d’abord...

In these sentences the Gerund has the syntactical function of adverbial

modifier of manner, it is preceded by the preposition “without” and serves to show

that the action, which is expected to accompany the action of the predicate verb,

does not take place. That is why nothing can be said about the relation between the

action expressed by the Gerund and that of the verb predicate. It is translated into

French as Infinitive, which, being preceded by the preposition “sans”, also

functions as an adverbial modifier of manner. Into Romanian it is translated as a

verb, subjunctive mood.

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I spent eighteen days entirely in widening and deepening my cave.

Ca să-mi lărgesc pivniţa, săpai optsprezece zile.

...je passai dix-huit jours entiers à élargir et à creuser ma grotte...

The Gerunds have the function of an adverbial modifier of manner, which is

preserved for the French Infinitive. In Romanian they have only one translation for

both words, functioning as a predicate.

The piles, which were as heavy as I could lift, were a long time in

cutting and preparing in the woods, and more by far in bringing home.

Parii erau aşa de grei, încât nu-i puteam ridica cu una cu două; îmi lua mult

până să-i tai în pădure şi să le dau forma, şi mai mult timp să-i transport acasă.

Il me fallait longtemps pour les couper et les façonner dans les bois, et bien

plus longtemps encore pour les amener jusqu'à ma demeure

The adverbial modifier of manner is transformed into a predicate represented

by a verb, subjunctive mood into Romanian. The French Infinitive takes the form

of an adverbial modifier of purpose.

These two days I took up in grinding my tools...

Întrebuinţai ambele zile ca să-mi ascut sculele.

J’employai ces deux jours à aiguiser mes outils...

The English Gerund and the French Infinitive accomplish the function of

adverbial modifier of manner and show that their action is simultaneous to that of

the finite form of the verb. Into Romanian the Gerund is rendered by a verb,

subjunctive mood, which functions as predicate. It is interesting to notice the fact

that the Romanian verb predicate does not possess any reference to the function of

the other variants; on the contrary it implies a purpose.

...for carrying away the earth, I made me a thing like a hod...

Ca să scot pământul din pivniţă, m-am servit de un instrument care seamănă

cu o targă...

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...pour emporter la terre que je tirais de la grotte, je me fis une machine...

Even if the adverbial modifier of purpose is valid as a function for the

English Gerund and French Infinitive, it is implied in the verb from the Romanian

variant, which is the equivalent of the Gerund. The purpose is stressed in the three

sentences by the position of the subordinate: namely before the main clause.

...gunpowder and shot for getting my food.

...praf de puşcă să-mi procur carne.

...de poudre et de plomb pour me procurer ma nourriture.

The Gerund functions as an adverbial modifier, this structure being identical

to the French Infinitive. It is translated into Romanian as verb, subjunctive mood,

with the function of predicate. It is worth to be mentioned the relation between the

English and French prepositions preceding the words that interest us; they are

perfect equivalents e.g. without –sans; for –pour; in –à.

I thought of nothing but sailing round the island.

Mă hotărâi să fac cel puţin înconjurul insulei.

Je ne songeai plus qu’à faire cette reconnaissance.

The Gerund sailing has the function of prepositional object, being used after

the preposition “of”. It encounters an equivalent only into French, since into

Romanian it is translated as a verb in the subjunctive mood, which functions as a

predicate.

...being more intent upon getting at the ship...

...aş fi dorit să mă urc la bord...

...j’étais alors bien plus désireux de parvenir au bâtiment...

Prepositional object is the generic term when speaking about the syntactical

function of the English Gerund, which has as equivalent in French an Infinitive

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functioning as indirect object. The Romanian variant is introduced by a verb,

subjunctive mood, with the function of predicate.

...and sticking too fast for us to expect her getting off...

...nu puteam nădăjdui să aducem corabia la linia de plutire...

...étant trop engravé pour espérer de le remettre à flot...

...to prevent their landing upon us, and destroying us.

...să nu le permitem să vină aici şi să ne nimicească pe toţi.

...pour les empêcher de faire une descente sur nous et de nous exterminer...

The morphological structure of this sentence is the following: Gerund, verb in

the subjunctive mood and Infinitive, while the syntactical situation is: direct object,

predicate and indirect object respectively.

As we have seen from the above examples, the gerund with different

functions in the sentence is always translated into Romanian as a verb in

subjunctive mood (Romanian conjunctiv), which functions as a predicate.

In order to bring some statistic data, we are to mention that the situation in

the Romanian variants is rather stable: from the all analysed examples 25% are

Conjunctiv; Gerund, Infinitive and Noun have 20% each while the rest have only

15% altogether.

The statistic for the French language is quite different: Infinitive -65%,

Gerund -20%, and 5% for Participle. The situation is like that because of the fact

that there are fewer parts of speech which are the English Gerund equivalents than

into Romanian.

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Conclusions

After developing and making research on this topic, we have drawn some

conclusions concerning both theoretical and practical parts. Studying various

materials, we still found several similar ideas that tend to become theoretical facts.

The conclusions we have come to in the theoretical part are as follows:

The Gerund is a descendent of the Old English verbal noun and the

present participle, hence its double nature and its noun and verb characteristics.

The verbal noun and present participle had undergone some changes confined to

the ending. In the Modern Period they had emerged into one form –the Gerund.

There are different views concerning the problem of the –ing forms.

The –ing form is divided into two groups: Participle I and Gerund. Some linguists

consider that there is no reason to accept those as two different morphological

forms, since they do not differ in paradigms. Others consider these forms to be

different verbals.

The Gerund is the non-finite form of the verb, which combines the

properties of a verb and those of a noun. It is formed by adding the ending –ing to

the root of the verb. The Gerund is not restricted in number and person by any

subject. It has no mood distinction as well. Thus the Gerund cannot express

predication by itself; it can only be a part of a predicate but for this it must always

be in connection with the finite forms of the verb.

According to its characteristics, the Gerund performs the respective

syntactical functions. Having nominal characteristics it functions as subject, object,

and predicative. When the Gerund has verbal characteristics, it has tense and voice

distinction. The forms called tenses of the Gerund comprise time indication; they

indicate whether the action expressed by the Gerund coincides or is prior to the

action of the finite verb. The Gerund has several functions in the sentence. It may

be a subject, a predicate, a part of the compound verbal predicate, a direct or a

prepositional object and an adverbial modifier.

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We have some conclusions referring to the practical part, too. After analysing

about 400 examples with the Gerund from a literary work and translating them into

Romanian and French, we may state the following:

In the majority of cases the English Gerund is used with prepositions.

The situation is quite different with Romanian and French Gerund, which,

practically is not accompanied by prepositions. The Romanian and French Gerund

corresponds mostly to the English Participle I.

The English Gerund can be translated into Romanian and French as

Gerund with the same syntactical functions in the most cases.

It can be also translated as a noun, but the syntactical functions differ.

The function of the prepositional object is equivalent in Romanian and French to

the indirect object.

If we take the group of examples of Gerund translated as Infinitive, it is

to be noticed that the syntactical functions mostly correspond in the three

languages.

When the English Gerund is translated as Conjunctiv in Romanian, into

French it is rendered by the Infinitive. It is still translated as Infinitive in French

and in Romanian it is translated by Conditional, by Perfectul Simplu, Perfectul

Compus, Imperfect, Mai Mult ca Perfectul and, in some cases, by Participle.

There are cases when the English Gerund is translated into the other

two languages as Participle, but this happens in rare cases. In this category the

syntactical function is only one –adverbial modifier of manner –for all three

languages.

As a result of our research on Gerund in English, Romanian and French, we

may assert that the English Gerund does not always correspond to the Gerund of

the other compared languages. It may be rendered by means of another part of

speech as those presented above.

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77

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