contextualization and methodology: 30 years of cognitive linguistics (and beyond) contextualization...
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Contextualization and Contextualization and Methodology: 30 Years of Methodology: 30 Years of
Cognitive LinguisticsCognitive Linguistics(and Beyond)(and Beyond)
Dirk GeeraertsDirk Geeraerts
University of LeuvenUniversity of LeuvenRU Quantitative Lexicology and Variational RU Quantitative Lexicology and Variational
LinguisticsLinguistics
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Questions
questions for the end of an anniversary conference:
• is there a unifying factor behind the development of Cognitive Linguistics ?
• if so, in which direction could Cognitive Linguistics develop in the future ?
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Approach
• present a brief overview of the history of Cognitive Linguistics
• situate CL in the context of the history of linguistics, and thus identify major underlying trends in the development of CL
• draw methodological and theoretical conclusions from that analysis
• illustrate those conclusions
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
TOC
Step I. Thirty Years of Cognitive LinguisticsStep I. Thirty Years of Cognitive Linguistics
Step II. The Wider ContextStep II. The Wider Context
Step III. Cognitive Linguistics as a Step III. Cognitive Linguistics as a Recontextualizing ApproachRecontextualizing Approach
Step IV. Methodological ConsequencesStep IV. Methodological Consequences
Step V. An IllustrationStep V. An Illustration
Overall ConclusionOverall Conclusion
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Step IStep IThirty Years of Cognitive LinguisticsThirty Years of Cognitive Linguistics
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Thirty years of CL
three landmarks in the history of CL
• 1975-1977the early beginnings:
Talmy 1975 on figure/groundLangacker 1976 on Cognitive GrammarLakoff 1977 on ‘gestalt’ models
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Thirty years of CL
three landmarks in the history of CL
• 1987-1989entering the international scene:
1987 Langacker: Foundations of Cognitive Grammar1987 Lakoff: Women, Fire & Dangerous Things1988 Rudzka-Ostyn (ed.), Topics in CL1989 1st Intl Cognitive Linguistics Conference1989 launching Cognitive Linguistics, the journal
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Thirty years of CL
three landmarks in the history of CL
• from 1996-1998 oninternational consolidation:
publication of textbooks and reference worksfoundation of national ICLA affiliates
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Thirty years of CL
three landmarks in the history of CL
• from 1996-1998 oninternational consolidation:
publication of textbooks and reference worksfoundation of national ICLA affiliates
Spain 1998, Finland 2001, Poland 2001,
Russia 2004, Germany 2005, France 2005,
Japan 2005, Korea 2005, UK 2006, China 2006
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Thirty years of CL
three landmarks in the history of CL
• from 1996-1998 oninternational consolidation:
publication of textbooks and reference worksfoundation of national ICLA affiliates
Ungerer & Schmid 1996
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Thirty years of CL
three landmarks in the history of CL
• from 1996-1998 oninternational consolidation:
publication of textbooks and reference worksfoundation of national ICLA affiliates
Dirven & Verspoor 1998
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Thirty years of CL
three landmarks in the history of CL
• from 1996-1998 oninternational consolidation:
publication of textbooks and reference worksfoundation of national ICLA affiliates
Violi 2001
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Thirty years of CL
three landmarks in the history of CL
• from 1996-1998 oninternational consolidation:
publication of textbooks and reference worksfoundation of national ICLA affiliates
Croft & Cruse 2004
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Thirty years of CL
three landmarks in the history of CL
• from 1996-1998 oninternational consolidation:
publication of textbooks and reference worksfoundation of national ICLA affiliates
Evans & Green 2006
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Thirty years of CL
three landmarks in the history of CL
• from 1996-1998 oninternational consolidation:
publication of textbooks and reference worksfoundation of national ICLA affiliates
Geeraerts 2006
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Thirty years of CL
three landmarks in the history of CL
• from 1996-1998 oninternational consolidation:
publication of textbooks and reference worksfoundation of national ICLA affiliates
Kristiansen et al. 2006
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Thirty years of CL
three landmarks in the history of CL
• from 1996-1998 oninternational consolidation:
publication of textbooks and reference worksfoundation of national ICLA affiliates
Geeraerts & Cuyckens 2007
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Thirty years of CL
simplifying in three decades:
• 1977-1987: the pioneering stage• 1987-1997: the expansion stage• 1997-2007: the consolidation stage
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Thirty years of CL
simplifying in three decades:
• 1977-1987: the pioneering stage• 1987-1997: the expansion stage• 1997-2007: the consolidation stage
what are the theoretical developments accompanying this sociological expansion ?
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Overview
an overview of the development of linguistic theory in the 20th century:
• decontextualization• initial reactions• recontextualization
claim: CL epitomizes the recontextualizing tendency
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Saussurean Grammar
• langue:a social system a collective set of coded conventions
• parole:an individual, psychological activity a set of combinations from the code
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Saussurean Grammar
• a missing link:where is the locus of an individual's knowledge of the social system ?what is the bridge between the social code and the individual activity ?
graphically:
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
?
socialsystem
individualactivity
individualsystem
langue parole
Saussurean Grammar
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Chomskyan Grammar
• competence:filling in the gap an individual's knowledge of the language
• but creating a new hiatus:the social nature of the system remains out of sightagain a binary instead of a ternary division
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
?
socialsystem
individualactivity
individualsystem
langue parole
competence performance
Chomskyan Grammar
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
consequences of the Chomskyan position:
• where does the individual knowledge of the language come from ? if the source of linguistic knowledge is not social, what is it ?⇨ innateness, a genetic conception of language
• hence: a stepping-stone development,leading by an internal logic to an isolation of grammar:
Chomskyan Grammar
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
if it cannot be social, it has to be genetic
if it is genetic, it cannot be semantic or lexical
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
if it cannot be social, it has to be genetic
if it is genetic, it cannot be semantic or lexical
if it cannot be semantic or lexical, it's about formal rule systems
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
if it cannot be social, it has to be genetic
if it is genetic, it cannot be semantic or lexical
if it cannot be semantic or lexical, it's about formal rule systems
if it's about formal rule systems, the application of the rules is trivial
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
in other words: a restrictive strategy that separates the autonomous grammatical module from different forms of context:
• the social context• the discursive context of actual language use• the cognitive context of meaning and
experience
↳ decontextualisation
Chomskyan Grammar
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Initial reactions
• 1960-1980:• the discarded aspects of language are
developed separately, as disciplines more or less independent from theoretical grammar
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
social code performance
GRAMMAR
meaning/lexicon
socio-linguistics
Initial reactions
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
social code performance
GRAMMAR
meaning/lexicon
socio-linguistics
Initial reactions
Labov 1972, Sociolinguistic PatternsHaugen 1966, Language Conflict and Language PlanningWeinreich, Labov & Herzog 1968, "Empirical foundations for a theory of language change"Gumperz & Dell Hymes (eds.) 1972, Directions in Sociolinguistics: the Ethnography of Speaking
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
social code performance
GRAMMAR
meaning/lexicon
socio-linguistics
Initial reactions
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
social code performance
GRAMMAR
meaning/lexicon
socio-linguistics
pragmatics
Initial reactions
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
social code performance
GRAMMAR
meaning/lexicon
socio-linguistics
pragmatics
Initial reactions
Grice 1975, "Logic and conversation"Stalnaker 1974, "Pragmatic presuppositions"Gazdar 1979, Pragmatics: Implicature, Presupposition and Logical FormCoulthard 1977, An Introduction to Discourse AnalysisGumperz 1982, Discourse StrategiesBrown & Yule 1983, Discourse AnalysisTannen 1984, Conversational Style
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
social code performance
GRAMMAR
meaning/lexicon
socio-linguistics
pragmatics
Initial reactions
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
social code performance
GRAMMAR
meaning/lexicon
socio-linguistics
pragmatics
formal semantics
Initial reactions
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
social code performance
GRAMMAR
meaning/lexicon
socio-linguistics
pragmatics
formal semantics
Initial reactions
Montague 1974, Formal Philosophy
Dowty 1979, Word Meaning and Montague GrammarPartee 1979, "Semantics:
mathematics or psychology ?"
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
social code performance
GRAMMAR
meaning/lexicon
socio-linguistics
pragmatics
formal semantics
Initial reactions
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Contemporary trends
general (or at least growing) tendencydissatisfaction with the modular view of linguistics,in favor of an integrated approach:
the peripheral aspects that were being developed largely separately and autonomously, are being linked up more narrowly with the grammar itself (which can then no longer be autonomous)
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Contemporary trends
↳ how does this work in CL ?i.e. how does CL integrate the different facets that were discarded by the decontextualizing approach ?
• meaning• the lexicon• the performance level• the social side of language
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Step IIIStep IIICognitive Linguistics as a Cognitive Linguistics as a
Recontextualizing ApproachRecontextualizing Approach
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Recovering meaning
the basic vocabulary of CL involves a set of semantic concepts:prototype, schematic network, conceptual metaphor, metonymy, conceptual integration, idealized cognitive models, framesand all sorts of construal mechanisms
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Recovering the lexicon
the family of construction grammars constitute a lexicalist approach in various respects
• constructions may consist of abstract entities togther with lexically specific elements
• constructions, even if abstract, have to be studied together with their lexical realization
• semantically, constructions exhibit the same structural features as lexical categories
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Recovering performance
from the beginning of CL, there is an interest in pragmatic meaning (cp. grammaticalization research), but the tendency becomes outspoken with
• the definition CL as a usage-based theory of grammar
• the growing interest in applied CL (acquisition, poetics, language learning, critical discourse analysis and framing)
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Recovering the social context
two major tendencies:
• situated embodiment and the sociocultural background of meaning: biocultural linguisticscp. Chris Sinha
• variationist CL: cognitive sociolinguisticsCL from the point of view of lectal variation (dialectal, regiolectal, sociolectal, stylistic variation)Kristiansen & Dirven (eds.) 2007
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
social code performance
GRAMMAR
meaning/lexicon construction grammarsbasic concepts
Summary
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
social code performance
GRAMMAR
meaning/lexicon construction grammarsbasic concepts
Summary
usage-based CLapplied CL
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
social code performance
GRAMMAR
meaning/lexicon construction grammars
cultural CLvariationist CL
basic concepts
Summary
usage-based CLapplied CL
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Recontextualization
in the context of contemporary linguistics,CL epitomizes the gradual recovery of the ‘peripheral’ modules that were discarded by a decontextualizing approach to grammar
in the context of the internal development of CL,this recovery takes the form of a gradual broadening of the notion of context:
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Recontextualization
• from the beginning, in its basic concepts, CL assumes a contextualized notion of meaning:meaning in language is not isolated, but is integrated with other types of cognition
existing categories polysemyencyclopedic knowledge frames and ICM’sgeneral cognitive capacities construal
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Recontextualization
• construction grammar and usage-based approaches add the discursive context of actual language use;some focal points of investigation:
- the dialectic interplay between structure and use
- the discourse function of items and the discursive grounding of constructions (Current Discourse Space)
- the discursive dynamics of meaning
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Recontextualization
• biocultural CL and variationist CL add the social context of cultures and lectal variation
the underlying drift of CL consists of a systematic recontextualization of the grammar
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Chronology
can we map this contextual expansion onto the chronological evolution of CL?
• the pioneering stage and the consolidation stage focused largely on the basic concepts
• the expansion stage was devoted to the broadening of the relevant notion of context;some landmarks:
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Chronology
• construction grammar:Goldberg 1995 ConstructionsCroft 1999 Radical Construction Grammar
• cultural linguistics:Palmer 1996 Towards a Theory of Cultural LinguisticsZlatev 1997 Situated Embodiment
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Chronology
• usage-based approaches:Barlow & Kemmer 2000 Usage-based Models of LanguageTomasello 2003 Constructing a Language
• variationist approaches:Kristiansen & Dirven 2007 Cognitive Sociolinguistics
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Methodological consequences
if we can agree that CL is essentially characterized by a recontextualizing ‘drift’, there are specific consequences with regard to
• the observational basis of linguistic research• the analytical method of linguistic research• the theoretical model of the grammar
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
The observational basis
if you take a usage-based model seriously, you will have to study actual language use
a shift from introspective conceptual analysisto the study ofnon-elicited language use: corpus linguisticson line processes: experimental research
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
The analytical tools
if you take the dialectic relationship between structure and use seriously, you need to take into account patterns of use (frequency and entrenchment)
if you wish to investigate how diverse factors like meaning, structure, discourse and lectal variation interact, the sheer complexity of the phenomena calls for appropriate methods
a shift towards quantitative testing of hypotheses
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
The theoretical model
if we assume that factors like meaning, structure, discourse and lectal variation co-determine grammatical phenomena, then we cannot exclude a radical non-modular conception of grammar
a shift towards a multifactorial descriptive model of the grammar that does not a priori impose a distinction between various levels of analysis
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Three footnotes
i. all of this is in line with fundamental insights of the founding fathers of CL:
in particular, cp. key notions introduced by Ron Langacker that embody various forms of contextualization as defined above:
usage-based grammarconstruction grammarcurrent discourse space
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Three footnotes
ii. quantitative corpus-based or experimental research is not the traditional way of doing CL, but it is an emerging trendcp. theme session ‘Corpus-driven Corpus Linguistics’
theoretical justification: see contributions by Gibbs and Geeraerts in 1st volume of the new series Applications of Cognitive Linguistics
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Three footnotes
iii. quantitative corpus-based or experimental research does not eliminate introspection
in an empirical cycle, introspective interpretation is indispensableto arrive at testable hypothesesto interpret the results of the empirical test
but it is not itself the test
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
What ?
• a case study illustrating the type of approach suggested above
• if we agree that CL is a recontextualizing approach par excellence, and if we agree that this will have methodological consequences,
what would it mean in practice ?
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
What ?
• make / let causation in Dutch:is the distribution of laten ‘let’ determined by indirect causation ?
• Kemmer & Verhagen 1994; Stukker 2006:direct causation: doen ‘make’indirect causation: laten ‘let’
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
What ?
• make / let causation in Dutch: is the distribution of laten ‘let’ determined by indirect causation ?
• Kemmer & Verhagen 1994; Stukker 2006:direct causation: doenindirect causation: laten
I make him collect the ticketsversusI let him collect the tickets
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
What ?
• make / let causation in Dutch: is the distribution of laten ‘let’ determined by indirect causation ?
• Kemmer & Verhagen 1994; Stukker 2006:direct causation: doenindirect causation: laten
"The causer produces the effected event directly; there is no intervening energy source 'downstream'"(Stukker 2006: 50)
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
What ?
• make / let causation in Dutch: is the distribution of laten ‘let’ determined by indirect causation ?
• Kemmer & Verhagen 1994; Stukker 2006:direct causation: doenindirect causation: laten
"Besides the causer, the causee is the most immediate source of energy in the effected event. The causee has some degree of 'autonomy' in the causal process"(Stukker 2006: 50)
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
How ?
what we need:• a representative corpus of language data• a set of potentially relevant factors coded in
the corpus• a statistical technique analysing the relevance
of the factors
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
How ?
what we need:• a representative corpus of language data• a set of potentially relevant factors coded in
the corpus• a statistical technique analysing the relevance
of the factorsCGN – Corpus of spoken Dutch, release 1.0900 hrs, tagged2/3 Dutch, 1/3 Flemishregister and text type variation (see below)automatic data selection with manual correction
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
How ?
what we need:• a representative corpus of language data• a set of potentially relevant factors coded in
the corpus• a statistical technique analysing the relevance
of the factors
for closer analysis in a moment:external factorsinternal factors
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
How ?
what we need:• a representative corpus of language data• a set of potentially relevant factors coded in
the corpus• a statistical technique analysing the relevance
of the factors
stepwise logistic regression:what is the impact of a multitude of possibly relevant factors on the variation observed in the (categorical) data?
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
External factors
wired-in variation in the CGN:• speaker characteristics: sex, age, educational
level• regional variation: Belgian Dutch vs.
Netherlandic Dutch• register variation: 15 'components', divided
along three dimensions
dialogues and multilogues vs. monologuesprivate speech vs. public speechspontaneous vs. prepared speech
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Internal factors
• syntactic construction type• coreferentiality between matrix subject and
infinitival subject/object• animacy of matrix subject• lexical collocational strength
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Internal factors
• syntactic construction type• coreferentiality between matrix subject and
infinitival subject/object• animacy of matrix subject• lexical collocational strengthif laten expresses indirect
causation, you don't expect laten in constructions with intransitive verbs, where the "causee" is not expressed
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Internal factors
• syntactic construction type• coreferentiality between matrix subject and
infinitival subject/object• animacy of matrix subject• lexical collocational strengthif doen expresses
direct causation, coreferentiality should favour the use of doen (you cannot get more direct)
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Internal factors
• syntactic construction type• coreferentiality between matrix subject and
infinitival subject/object• animacy of matrix subject• lexical collocational strength
if doen expresses direct causation, you expect more doen with animate matrix subjects (animate subjects have more control over the flow of energy)
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Internal factors
• syntactic construction type• coreferentiality between matrix subject and
infinitival subject/object• animacy of matrix subject• lexical collocational strength
if the relevant factors are purely semantic ones (a model of causation), you don't expect any collocational idiomatization (lexical fixation)
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Construction types
- coreferentiality + coreferentiality
x doet/laat ysubj Vintrans ik ... iets vallenik ... iets vallen ik ... mij vallenik ... mij vallen
x doet/laat ysubj Vtrans ik ... hem doenik ... hem doen ik ... mij doenik ... mij doen
x doet/laat zobj Vtrans ik ... iets zienik ... iets zien ik ... mij verrassenik ... mij verrassen
x doet/laat ysubj zobj Vtrans
ik ... iemand iets zienik ... iemand iets zien ik ... iemand mij verrassenik ... iemand mij verrassen
x doet/laat zsubj door ypp Vtrans
ik ... de boom door hem ik ... de boom door hem vellenvellen
ik … mij door iemand ik … mij door iemand verrassen verrassen
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Overview of factors
a typical example of the type of analysis we suggested:
• a usage-based analysis, taking into account• semantics (animacy)• lexical and constructional factors (collocation,
construction pattern)• lectal variation (region, register)
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Results
• stepwise logistic regression:construct a model explaining the variation in the data (in our case: the choice between doen and laten),by stepwise adding the factors (as coded in the database) that contribute most to the reduction of the variation
• 3975 observations, of which less than 10% doen
• relevant factors, in order of importance:
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Results
• construction typein contrast with the intransitive condition, transitives boost the presence of laten
• animacy: inanimate matrix subjects massively support doen, e.g.de wind deed hem huiveren
• country: Flemish has more doen than Dutch
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Results
• register: the majority of non-spontaneous, prepared text types significantly support doen
• collocational measuressignificant lexical collocation enhances doen: some verbs typically associate with doen (more than inanimacy of subject etc. predict); as a marked form, doen tends to be a lexical exception
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Summary
• the default form for causatives is laten, to the extent that the more typically causative a construction is, the more readily it uses laten
• doen is a marked form, triggered by constructional (inanimacy of matrix subject, intransitivity of verb) ànd lexical factors
• doen is more formal, given its distribution over registers, than laten
• the restrictions on the use of doen are less outspoken in Flemish than in Dutch
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Summary
• is it possible to find a unifying interpretation for these results ?
• the direct/indirect causation model is not completely adequate:a majority of the predictions that we started off with is not confirmed
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Summary
- intransitivity halts laten: not correct- coreferentiality boosts doen: not correct- animacy boosts doen: not correct- idiomaticity plays no role: not
correct- lectal effects are not expected: not
correct
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Alternative
an alternative interpretative hypothesis:doen is an archaic form; this ties in with all the relevant observations, i.e.
a) that it is typical for more formal registersb) that it is sensitive to lexical associations
(idiomatic effects as a form of relics)c) that it occurs more in Belgian Dutch (which is
known to be the more archaic variety in a number of respects)
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Alternative
d) that, semantically speaking, it seems to be retracting to one core form of causation, i.e. direct material causation
(the directness explains the intransitivity effect: transitives involve an intermediate entity)(the material aspect relates to the inanimacy of the subjects, as opposed to the volitional causation of human subjects)
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Conclusion
• interpretative hypotheses based on typically CL-based assumptions can be empirically tested,i.e. they can be subjected to the empirical cycle
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Conclusion
• interpretative hypotheses based on typically CL-based assumptions can be empirically tested,i.e. they can be subjected to the empirical cycle
theory
testable hypothesis
interpretation
empiricaltest
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
Conclusion
• such tests need to involve all the types of context that form part of the underlying ‘recontextualizing drift’ of CL (semantic, constructional, lexical, discursive, lectal context)
• the resulting model is a multifactorial grammar in which grammatical phenomena are simultaneously sensitive to various factors
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
The first 30 years
• is there a unifying factor behind the development of Cognitive Linguistics ?
• if contemporary linguistics is indeed going through a phase of recontextualisation after the Chomskyan decontextualisation of the grammar,then CL represents that recontextualizing tendency more than any other approach
ICLC X. Kraków 20.07.2007
And beyond
• if so, in which direction could Cognitive Linguistics develop in the future ?
• if CL continues on the path of corpus-based and experimental usage-based analyses, then a multifactorial model of the grammar is a perfect embodiment of a recontextualized grammar