CONTENTS

10

Contents

PrefaceForeword

AcknowledgementsList of Abbreviations

vxvxviixxixxiii

Genesisof PorosityMembrane ManufactureReverse Osmosis Membranes

Tangential Flow versus Dead-End FiltrationCertain Reverse Osmosis Applications

NanofiltersUltrafilters

Introduction

Chapter I:The 'Sterilizing' Filter

HistoryThe 0.2/0.22 flm Rated MembraneAdvocacy for the Use of 0.1 flm Rated MembranesConsiderations Regarding the 0.1 flm Rated FiltersFlow Rate Comparisons: 0.1 flm Versus 0.2/0.22 flm

Average Pore SizeFlow Rates versus Pore Size Ratings

Rating AmbiguitiesCartridge Construction Influences

In SummaryThe 0.2/0.22 flm versus the 0.1 flm Rated MembraneThe Authors' Intentions

Chapter 2: Casting-Process Membranes

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VI Contents

Chapter 5: PrefiLters and Flow Decay

Microporous MembranesAsymmetric MembranesInfluencing Filter Properties

Chapter 3: Membrane Pore Structure

Pore FormationPore Architecture

Pore ShapesPorosity and Pore Numbers

Assigning Pore Size RatingsPore Size Ratings

Mean Flow-Pore

The Largest PoresAbsence of Rating Standards

Latex Particles

Latex Particle ApplicationsSurfactant Molecular Action

Pore Size DistributionPore Size Distribution and Retention

Pore Size Distribution During Filtration

Membrane Homogeneity

Chapter 4: Depth-Filter Structure

Membrane and Depth FilterTechnologiesDepth Type FiltersDepth-Filter ConstructionsPolypropyleneand Heat

Other Heating ConcernsAbsolute RatingsNominal Ratings

Prefilter Action

Prefilter Effects on Filter Efficiency

Flow Decay StudiesModeling the Sizing ofThroughputs and Flow Rates

Pleating Effects on Throughput and Flow DecayThe EFAof 47 mm Discs

Inhomogeneity ConsequencesFlow Decay ProcedureArithmetical Calculation

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Contents Vll

Chapter 6: Particles/Organisms 81

Particles

OrganismsBrevundimonas diminutaB. diminuta Size

B. diminuta ShapeStages of Organism Growth

Temperature Effects

81828283838585

Chapter 7: Biofilms 89

Organism Attachments to SurfacesExtracellular Polysaccharide Substances

Protection against BiocidesBiofilm Formation

Stages of AttachmentReasons for Biofilm Formation

Reductions in Free Surface EnergyChemotaxisSurvival Mechanism

Ralsoniapickettii and BurkholderiacepeciaQuorum SensorsDevelopment Time

Surface Smoothness Influences

Velocity InfluencesFluorinated Surface Influences

Investigative ProcedureDealing with BiofilmsPresent Biofilm StatusBiofilm Sanitization

Hot WaterSteam

Test OrganismSteam Conditions

Using SteamHeat Availability from Steam

89909091929393939494949595969698100101101102103103104105106107108109110111

Ozone

Hydrogen PeroxideSodium HypochloritePeracetic Acid

Causation of Pyrogens

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Vlll Contents

Chapter 8: The Fluid Vehicle 113

ViscosityFluidVelocity

Effect upon BiofilmVelocity and SloughingEffectsOn Deep BedsEffect On Ultraviolet EfficiencyEffectsOn Filtrations

Chemical IngredientsCompatibility IssuesCohesiveEnergyDensityIncompatibility Effectson PoreSizeDetection by Integrity Testing

113114115117118118119119120120121121

Chapter 9: The Operational Conditions 123

Differential Pressure Effects

Compressibility of GasesTemperature Effects on AdsorptionsAdsorption Versus Solution

123126127130

Chapter 10: The Polymer Matrix 131

Influence of the Filter PolymerElectrophoresisVaccine Adsorption to Filters

Organism Adsorptions to Reverse Osmosis PolymersNon-Specific Protein AdsorptionStrength Characteristics: T and E

131135136137137138

Chapter 11: The Challenge Density 141

FDA SpecificationsChallenge Density versus Penetration

EMEA SpecificationsDilute Challenges

Dilute Challenge Implications

141142143145149

Chapter 12: Organism Size Alterations 151

Survival Mechanisms

Physicochemically Induced ChangesAnomalous Penetrations

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Contents IX

Organism Shrinkage by LiquidVehicleRetention of Reduced-Size Organisms

153156

Chapter 13: Grow-Through and Penetration 157

Grow-ThroughGrow-ThroughVersusReverseOsmosis MembranesFDAAction on Grow-Through

Grow-Through ConcernsAwarenessof Organism SizeAlterationsPenetration

PoreSizeversusGrow-ThroughAnisotropic Membrane ResponsesChoosingthe PoreSizeRating

Grow-Through and PenetrationParticle Binding ForcesFilter Efficiency

Log ReductionValuesof FiltersMeasurementof Filter EfficiencyConsiderationsin Gas Filtrations

Measurement Intervals

157158158159159159160160161161161162164164165166

Chapter 14: The Air Vent Filter 167

Air Vent Filter

The Need for Hydrophobic FiltersHeat Laggingthe Vent Assembly

Presenceof Water

Sanitization by SteamMeasuringWater Intrusion

Critical SurfaceTension

Integrity Test InterpretationsBlowdownTime

Procedurefor Membrane Drying

167168168169170170171171172172

Chapter 15: Multifilter Arrangements 175

ParallelArrangementsSeriesArrangementsDouble LayeredFilters

HeterogeneousFiltersHomogeneousFilters

Repetitive Filter EffectsRedundant Filtrations

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Regulatory RecommendationsEconomics of Repetitive Filtrations

182183

Chapter 16: Cartridge Type Constructions 185

Cartridge ConstructionsStandard CartridgesMini-CartridgesDisposable CapsulesPleated Construction

FilterHousings

185187189189190192

Chapter 17: The Stainless Steels and Rouging 195

The Stainless SteelsAustenitic Stainless SteelsMartensitic Stainless SteelsFerritic Stainless Steels

Crystal FormationAnnealingand Rateof CoolingDifferent Crystal Properties

Series 300 Stainless SteelsRoleof Chromium

Rouge

195196196196197197198198199200202203205206206206207208208209209209210210211212213213214

Significanceof RougeInfluence of Carbon Dioxideand Oxygen

Some Types of CorrosionContact CorrosionGalvanic CorrosionPit Corrosion and Chloride IonsCrevice Corrosion

Critical Crevice Corrosion TemperatureStress Corrosion or CrackingMicrobially Induced Corrosion

StainlessSteel SurfaceFinishes

PicklingMillFinishNo. 2BMillFinishNo.4MillFinishNo.7

Mechanicalor AbrasiveFinishesInclusions

PolishingAfterGrindingSurface Smoothness Ratings

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Contents Xl

Chapter 18: Passivation and Electropolishing 215

ElectropolishingPassivation

Nitric Acid

Phosphoric AcidChelating Agents

Chelation

Cleaning The Metal SurfacesComposition of The Passive FilmThe Role of Nickel and MolybdenumService Lifeof the Passive Film

Welding: Effects of ImpuritiesWelding: Heat Effects

Welding of Stainless Steel TanksTubing or Piping

215217218219219220221221222223224224226227

Chapter 19: Polymeric Constructions 229

Polymeric Materials in Water SystemsExtractables Testing Modes

Temperature and Duration ofTestsComparisons Based on Extractables

Fluorocarbons

Perfluoroallomer (PFA)Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF)

PVDF LeachingResponse to Ozone

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVe)Polypropylene

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Chapter 20: Cartridge Handling 239

Cartridge Insertion into Housingsa-Ring Replacements

Procedure for Cartridge WettingPrefiltration Integrity TestingConsiderations of FlowVelocities

239240241243244

Chapter 21: Mechanism of Particle Retention 247

Definition of 'Mechanism of Retention'Filter Cake Formation

Retentions by Particle Impactions

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xu Contents

Gravitational SettlingInertial ImpactionBrownian Motion

Relative Retention EfficiencyMost Penetrating Particle

The SieveRetention Mechanism

Adsorptive Sequestration MechanismAdsorptive EffectsAdsorption of Organisms

Supportive ExperimentalFindingsElford's FindingsTannyet al.Bowman et al.

Wallhausser'sFindingsLeahyand Sullivan

Surfactants and Water WettingAdsorption of Protein

Isoelectric Point

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Chapter 22: Mathematical Modeling of Filter Blockage 265

Mathematical ModelingFor Sieve Retention

For Adsorptive SequestrationAnalysis of the Blocking Mechanisms

265266266267

Chapter 23: Adsorption Bonding 271

Bonding,ElectronSharingand ElectricalChargesBond TypesPartial Charges

The Ionic BondFuoss Effect

Endotoxin Adsorption by Ionic InteractionCompetition Among Ions

Fajan's RuleHydrophobic ContributionThe Covalent Bond

The Dipole StructureThe Hydrogen Bond

Surfactants and Water-WettingDensityof WaterSolvating Effectsvan der Waals Forces

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Contents X111

Attractive and Repulsive ForcesAttenuation of Repulsive ForcesDebye Length PhenomenaColloidal DestabilizationBacterial Adhesion to Surfaces

286288289289291

Chapter 24: Electrical Double layer 293

The Electrical Double LayerThe Zeta Potential

Zeta Potential SummaryZeta Potential Numbers

Streaming Current Potential

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Chapter 25: Hydrophobic Adsorptions 303

Theories on Hydrophobic AdsorptionsNon-Specific Proteins

Conformational ChangesQualitative Measurement of Protein BindingProtein Fouling of Filters

Comparative Data from Beer FiltrationEndotoxin Removal by Adsorption

Hydrophobic Adsorption: UltrafiltersHydrophobic Adsorption: Microporous Membranes

Practical Implications of Adsorptive SequestrationBowen et al. ImplicationsSummary

303307308309310310312312313315316317

Chapter 26: Literature References 319

Index 345

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